Cell

Cell
The smallest basic functional unit of
life…
• The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is
the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all
known living organisms. Cells are the smallest unit of
life that can replicate independently, and are often
called the "building blocks of life".

⚫ Microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, and

amoebae exist as single cells.

⚫ By contrast, the adult human is made up of about 30

trillion cells which are mostly organized into
collectives called tissues.
 Cell Biology

• The branch of biology dealing with the study

of cells; specially their formation, structure,
and function.
 Cellular Compartment

• Cellular compartments in cell biology comprise all

of the closed parts within the cytosol of a
eukaryotic cell, usually surrounded by a single or
double lipid layer membrane in which specific
metabolic activities take place. Most organelles
are compartments.
 Types of cells

• Prokaryotic

&

• Eukaryotic
 Cells of Human body
Two general classes of cells:
• Sex cells / Germ cells/ Reproductive cells
- either sperm of males or oocytes of females.
- fusion of a sperm and an oocyte at fertilization is
the first step in the creation of a new individual.
• Somatic cells
- soma: body
- include all the other cells in the human body.
Typical Animal Cell
 Cell Organelles
• Organelle means
“little organ”
• Found only inside
eukaryotic cells
• All the stuff in
between the
organelles is cytosol
• Everything in a cell
except the nucleus is
cytoplasm
Organelles of
cell
 Cell Membrane
• A thin semi-permeable
membrane that
surrounds the cytoplasm
of a cell.
• Flexible, responsive and
dynamic structure.
• Primarily composed of a
proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates.
• Lipids can make up
20~80% of membrane
depending on its location
and role in the body.
Cell Membrane Structure
 Functions of Cell membrane
• Physical isolation
- ECF
- maintain difference to preserve homeostsis
• Regulation of exchange with the environment
- ions, nutrients, waste, secretions
• Sensitivity to the environment
- Affected by changes in composition, conc., pH of ECF
- Recognize and response
• Structural support
- connections for tissue stability
 Cell Membrane Lipids
• The phospholipids are arranged in a bilayer, with their
polar, hydrophilic phosphate heads facing outwards,
and their non-polar, hydrophobic fatty acid tails facing
each other in the middle of the bilayer. The lipid bilayer
is semi-permeable, allowing only certain molecules to
diffuse across the membrane.
• Cholesterol is another lipid component of cell
membranes. It helps to stiffen cell membranes and is
not found in the membranes of plant cells.
• Glycolipids are located on cell membrane surfaces and
have a carbohydrate sugar chain attached to them.
They help the cell to recognize other cells of the body.
 Cell Membrane Proteins
• There are two general structural classes of membrane
proteins:
• Integral proteins or transmembrane proteins are part
of the membrane structure and cannot be removed
without damaging or destroying the membrane. Most
of these proteins span the width of the membrane.
• Peripheral proteins are bound to the inner or outer
surface of the membrane and are easily separated
from it.
 Cell Membrane Proteins
• Structural proteins help to give the cell support and
shape.
• Receptor proteins help cells communicate with their
external environment through the use of hormones,
neurotransmitters and other signalling molecules.
• Transport proteins, such as globular proteins,
transport molecules across cell membranes through
facilitated diffusion.
• Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to
them. They are embedded in the cell membrane and
help in cell to cell communications and molecule
transport across the membrane.
• The plasma membrane structure is called the
Fluid Mosaic Model, because the membrane
is fluid (phospholipids and proteins are not
fixed in one place; they float) and because of
the mosaic (patterns) arrangement of the
protein molecules created on the membrane’s
surface.
 Cytoplasm
All materials inside the cell and outside the
nucleus.
1. cytosol (fluid): The liquid component of the
cytoplasm surrounding the organelles and
other insoluble cytoplasmic structures in an
intact cell.
2. organelles: structures with specific functions
 Types of Organelles

a) Nonmembranous organelles:

b) Membranous organelles:
 Nonmembranous Organelles

•no membrane
•direct contact with cytosol

6 types of nonmembranous organelles:

1.cytoskeleton
2.microvilli
3.centrioles
4.cilia
5.ribosomes
6.proteasomes
 1. The Cytoskeleton

It functions as the cells skeleton.

The cytoskeleton is a series of intercellular

proteins that help a cell with shape, strength,
support, flexibility and movement.

Cytoskeleton includes
I. Microfilaments
II. Intermediate Filaments
III. Microtubules
 i. Microfilaments

• Smallest of the cytoskeletal elements

• 5 nm in diameter
• Composed of the protein called actin.

Functions:
1. Anchor the cytoskeleton to integral protein of plasma
membrane (provide additional mechanical strength)
2. interact with other proteins for consistency of the
cytoplasm
3. Pairs with thick filaments of myosin for movement of a
portion or to change the shape of entire cell.
 ii. Intermediate Filaments
• Composition varies from cell to cell.
• Intermediate in size between microfilaments and
thick filaments (9- 11 nm in diameter).
• Insoluble and most durable of the cytoskeleton

Functions:
1. strengthen cell and helps in maintaining its shape
2. stabilize the position of the organelles
3. stabilize the position of the cell with respect to
surrounding cells
 iii. Microtubules
• Hollow tubes built from globular protein tubulin.
• Largest component of cytoskeleton
• About 25nm in diameter

Functions:
a)give strength and rigidity to the cell and anchor the position of
major organelles.
b)provide a mechanism for changing cell shape and help in cell
movement
c)move vesicles or other organelles within the cell (proteins called
molecular motors; e.g, kinesin , dynein)
d)form spindle apparatus during cell division
e)form structural component of organelles (e.g. centrioles and
cillia)
 Thick filaments

• Appear only in muscle cells

• Composed of the protein myosin
• 15nm in diameter and 1.5µm long

Functions:
• Produce powerful contractions by interacting with actin
filaments of muscle cells
 2. Microvilli
⚫ Small, finger-shaped projections of cell membrane
⚫ Increase surface area (as in digestive tract) for absorption
⚫ Anchored to cytoskeleton through a core of microfilaments
 3. Centrioles in the Centrosome
Located next to nucleus
⚫ Centrioles
- hollow, cylindrical structure
- composed of microtubules
organized as “9 + 0” pattern of
triplets
⚫ form spindle apparatus during cell
division and basal bodies found in
cilia and flagella
⚫ Centrosome: cytoplasm
surrounding centriole

Not present in RBC, skeletal muscle cells, cardiac muscle

cells, nerve cells. So, cell division????
 4. Cilia & Flagella
Cilia: Relatively long, slender extension of plasma membrane.

Motile cilia
• Found in respiratory (??) &
reproductive tracts (??).
• Nine pairs of microtubules
surround a central pair: “9 +2”
pattern
• Anchored to basal body (9+0)
• Motile Cilia ‘beat’ rhythmically to
move fluids or secretions across
the cell surface
Single non-motile primary cilium
- found in variety of tissues
- ‘9+0’ organization

• Primary Cilium ‘acts as signal

sensor
- environmental stimuli
- embryonic development
- homeostasis

Flagella
• Extension of plasma membrane (much longer).
• Only found in tail of sperm cell.
• “9 +2” pattern as motile cilia
• Anchored to basal body (9+0)
• ‘beat’ in a wavelike/whip-like fashion
5. Ribosomes
60% rRNA + 40% protein, approx. 25 nm in diameter

• Number of ribosomes varies with type of cell (Liver>>>Fat cell)

• A functional ribosomes
consists of two subunits:
- a large subunit and
- a small subunit.
• These two subunits join
together with a strand of
mRNA before protein
synthesis.
Two major types of functional ribosomes:
• Free ribosomes:
- scattered throughout the cytoplasm.
- synthesized proteins directly enter cytosol and function
there
• Fixed ribosomes:
- bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
- synthesized proteins enter ER, become modified and
packaged for use within cell or are secreted (exported) from
the cell
Proteasomes
• Contain proteolytic enzymes or proteases

• Remove and recycle damaged or denatured or

abnormal proteins
Attachment of target proteins with chains of ubiquitin by
cytoplasmic enzymes

Transportation of tagged proteins into proteasome

Disassembling proteins into amino acid and small peptides

for recycling

Ubiquitin ( a molecular tag)

Membranous Organelles
5 types of membranous organelles:

1. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

2. Golgi apparatus
3. Lysosomes
4. Peroxisomes
5. Mitochondria
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
endo = within
plasm = cytoplasm
reticulum = network
A network of intracellular membranes continuous with the
nuclear envelop

ER forms hollow tubes, flattened sheets and chambers

(called cisternae).
Two types of ER:
a) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
b) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

Four major functions of ER:

1. Synthesis
2. Storage (materials absorbed from cytosol)
3. Transport (within ER)
4. Detoxification (drugs or toxins)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
a) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
- No attached ribosomes.

Functions
✔ Synthesis of lipids, fatty acids and carbohydrates
- synthesize: phospholipid, cholesterol (cellular structures), steroid
hormones (reproductive organ)
- synthesis and storage: glycerides (liver adn fat cells) and glycogen
(skeletal muscle and liver cell)

✔ Adjusts composition of cytosol by absorption and storage of

ions (e.g., Ca2+) or large molecules

✔ Detoxify or inactivate drugs in liver and kidney

a) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
- ribosomes are attached.

Functions
✔ Synthesis of proteins
- some are enzymes that function inside ER
- some other modified to glycoprotein

✔ Same as SER

Proteins are synthesized, modified and packed into small

membranous sacs (transport vesicles) for exporting them
to golgi apparatus.
Golgi Apparatus/Complex
• Consists of stacks of flattened membranes (cisternae)
• Several in number, often near the nucleus

• Cell's "Shipping and Receiving Center”

- one end (cis face) acts as
"receiving" department
- the other (trans face) acts as
"shipping" department
Golgi Apparatus/Complex

Functions:

✔ Modifies and packages secretions,(e.g., hormones,

enzymes) for releasefrom the cell through exocytosis
✔ Renews or modifies the plasma membrane
✔Packages special enzymes within vesicles (lysosomes)
for use in the cytoplasm.
Transport Vesicles
• Transport vesicles carry the molecules synthesized in the ER to Golgi
complex.
• Vesicles fuse with Golgi cisternae releasing their contents into the
internal portion of membrane.
• Once the molecules reach the trans face of the Golgi, vesicles are
formed to "ship" materials to other sites.
Exocytosis: Ejection of secretory products and wastes
 Lysosomes ⚫ lyso = loosening/dissolve
⚫ soma = body

• Special vesicles providing an isolated environment for potentially

dangerous reactions
• Contains powerful digestive enzymes
• Small, often spherical
• Produced by golgi apparatus

Functions
1. Remove damaged organelles
2. Destroys bacteria (as well as liquids and organic
debris)
3. Conducts essential cellular cleanup and recycling
4. Destructs damaged cells (Autolysis)
5. Ejects wastes by exocytosis
Primary lysosomes contain inactive enzymes
 Peroxisomes

• Smaller than lysosomes.

• Carry different enzymes (produced by free ribosomes &
transported from cytosol by carrier proteins).
• Produced by growth and subdivision of existing peroxisomes.
• Present in highest number in metabolically active cells.

Function:
Absorb and breakdown fatty acids and other organic
compounds.

**Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a dangerous free radical, is

produced and broken down into O2 and H2O by catalase
 Mitochondrion Structure

• Energy producing organelle

• Vary in shape
• Number varies with energy demand (30% volume of heart
muscle cell; absent in RBC)
• Have a double membrane:
- outer one surround organelle
- inner one contains numerous folds (cristae) and
surrounds matrix
• Contains own DNA (mtDNA) and ribosomes
 Mitochondrial Function
• Produce energy, in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

• They are the sites of cellular respiration which ultimately

generates fuel for the cell's activities.

• Mitochondria are also involved in other cell processes such as

cell division and growth, as well as cell death.
 The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane bound structure that

contains the cell's hereditary information and controls
the cell's growth and reproduction.
Structure and content of the Nucleus
• a) Chromatin and Chromosomes: Packed inside the nucleus
of every human cell is nearly 6 feet of DNA, which is divided
into 46 individual molecules, one for each chromosome and
each about 1.5 inches long. DNA is combined with proteins
and organized into a precise, compact structure, a dense
string-like fiber called chromatin. When the cell is going to
divide, the chromatin becomes very compact and we can see
the chromosomes.
 Structure and content of the Nucleus
• b) The Nucleolus: is a non-membrane bound structure
composed of proteins and nucleic acids found within the
nucleus. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is transcribed and
assembled within the nucleolus.
• c) The Nuclear Envelope: The nuclear envelope is a
double-layered membrane that encloses the contents of
the nucleus.
• d) Perinuclear space: The space between the layers is
called the perinuclear space and appears to connect with
the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
• e) Nuclear pores: The envelope is perforated with tiny
holes called nuclear pores. These pores regulate the
passage of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
 Chromosome
• A threadlike linear strand of DNA and associated proteins in the
nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
• Structure of Chromosomes
• Nuclear DNA in chromosomes is highly compacted and associated
with a variety of proteins. This association of DNA and protein is
referred to as chromatin. The first level of DNA packaging is the
nucleosome, the DNA helix wrapped around a core particle of
histone proteins. Histones are proteins molecules and are rich in
lysine and arginine residues, they are positively charged. Hence
they bind tightly to the negatively-charged phosphates in the DNA
sequence. The nucleosomes are separated by a region of DNA
(termed the linker DNA). This arrangement is further compressed
through the action of an additional histone (H1). It is further
condensed into loops and then finally, into the dense, visible mitotic
chromosome.
 Structure of Chromosomes
• At the beginning of mitosis the chromosomes are
duplicated. The duplicated chromosomes are held
together at the region of centromeres.
• The attached, duplicated chromosomes are commonly
called sister chromatids.
• Kinetochores are the attachment point for spindle
fibers which helps to pull apart the sister chromatids as
the mitosis process proceeds to anaphase stage.
• The shorter arm of the two arms of the chromosome
extending from the centromere is called the p arm and
the longer arm is known the q arm.
 Some definitions
• Somatic Cells: any biological cell other than a gamete, germ cell,
gametocyte or undifferentiated stem cell. These cells contain two
complete set of chromosomes (one from each parent) and are
called diploid (2n). Such cells are formed by mitosis.
• A human somatic cell will normally contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes (total=46 chromosomes). Twenty-two (22) of these
pairs will be autosomes, and only one of them will be a pair of sex
chromosomes (the X and Y chromosomes).
• Germ Cells: also known as gametes. These cells contain one set of
chromosomes as body cells and are called haploid (n). Such cells are
produced by meiosis.
• Genome: is the full set of all chromosomes in an organism. A
genome includes all the coding regions (regions that are translated
into molecules of protein) of DNA as well as all the noncoding
stretches of DNA.
• DNA: Our genome is made of a chemical called DNA. It
is a chain of nucleotides that provide information for
the production of proteins.
• Noncoding DNA: Noncoding DNA sequences are
components of an organism's DNA that do not encode
protein sequences. Over 98% of the human genome is
noncoding DNA.
• Gene: DNA instructions for 1 single protein.
• DNA is the smallest unit say a letter, then Gene it's like
word, after that Chromosome it's like a sentence,
finally the biggest unit is Genome it's like a paragraph.
• Codon: a triplet of adjacent nucleotides in the
messenger RNA chain that codes for a specific amino
acid.
• Genotype: the genetic constitution of an organism
• Phenotype: the physical and biochemical
characteristics of an organism as determined by the
interaction of its genetic constitution and the
environment.
• Genetic Code: relationship between the sequence of
bases in nucleic acid and the order of amino acids in
the polypeptide synthesised from it.
• Transcription: The process by which messenger
RNA is synthesized from a DNA template resulting
in the transfer of genetic information from the
DNA molecule to the messenger RNA.
• A gene is transcribed to mRNA in 3 steps:
– gene activation
– DNA to mRNA
– RNA processing
• Translation: The process by which protein is
synthesized from a messenger RNA.
Codons
 Cell Cycle

Cell cycle is the series of events that take place in a

cell leading to its division and replication that
produces two daughter cells.

The cell cycle consists of-

Interphase: normal cell activity and preparation for

cell division
Mitosis, M: cell division
Cytokinesis, C: complete separation
The Cell Life Cycle
The Cell Life Cycle
 Interphase

Most somatic cells spend the majority of their lives in

this phase (about 90% of the cell cycle).

a) G1 phase
•1st growth stage after cell division (G stands for "gap")
•Cells mature by making more cytoplasm & organelles
•If conditions are not favourable, the cell may enter a
resting state known as G0 (where the cell has left the
cycle and has stopped dividing). Some cells (neurons
and skeletal muscle cells) remain in G0 for the entire
lifetime.
 Interphase

b) S phase
• Synthesis stage
• DNA is copied or replicated
c) G2 phase
• 2nd Growth Stage
• All cell structures needed for division are made (e.g.
centrioles)
• Both organelles & proteins are synthesized
 Mitosis

The process where a single cell divides

resulting in generally two identical cells, each
containing the same number of chromosomes
and genetic content as that of the original cell.

Mitosis or nuclear division has four phases-

•Prophase
•Metaphase
•Anaphase
•Telophase
 Interphase

•The chromosomes are

in an extended form
and seen as chromatin
in the electron
microscope.
G2 OF INTERPHASE
Centrosomes
•The nucleus is visible (with centriole pairs) Chromatin
(duplicated)

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma

envelope membrane
 Prophase
•The chromosomes are
seen to consist of two
chromatids joined by a
centromere.
•The centrioles move
apart toward opposite
PROPHASE
poles of the cell. Aster
Early mitotic
spindle Centromere
•Spindle fibers are
produced and extend
from each centrosome.
•The nuclear membrane
starts to disappear.
•The nucleolus is no
Chromosome, consisting
longer visible. of two sister chromatids
 Prometaphase

•The nuclear membrane

dissolves
•Microtubules attach at the
kinetochores
•The chromosomes begin
moving
 Metaphase

•The chromosomes are

lined up at the equator of
the cell.
•The spindle fibers from
METAPHAS
each centriole are E Metaphas
attached to the e
plate
centromeres of the
chromosomes.

Centrosome
Spindl at
e one spindle
pole
 Anaphase

The chromosomes
decondense
New nuclear membranes
form.
The nucleolus reappears. ANAPHAS
E

Daughter
chromosome
s
 Telophase

•The chromosomes
decondense
•New nuclear membranes
form.
•The nucleolus reappears. TELOPHASE AND
CYTOKINESIS
Cleavag Nucleolu
e s
furrow forming

Nuclear
envelop
e
forming
 Cytokinesis

•A fiber ring
composed of a
protein called actin
around the center
of the cell contracts
pinching the cell
into two daughter
cells, each with one
nucleus.
 Meiosis
• A form of cell division happening in sexually
reproducing organisms by which two
consecutive nuclear divisions (meiosis I and
meiosis II) occur without the chromosomal
replication in between, leading to the
production of four haploid gametes, each
containing one of every pair of homologous
chromosomes.
 Stages of Meiosis
• a) Meiosis I
• Meiosis I has two main purposes:
• It is the reduction division, so it reduces the
number of chromosomes in half, making the
daughter cells haploid (when the parent cell
was diploid).
• It is during meiosis I that most of the genetic
recombination occurs.
• Prophase I
• The chromosomes condense
and become visible
• The centrioles form and move
toward the poles
• The nuclear membrane begins
to dissolve
• The homologs pair up, forming
a tetrad. Each tetrad is
comprised of four chromotids,
the two homologs, each with
their sister chromatid.
• Portions of each chromatid
may break off and reattach to
an adjacent chromatid on the
homologous chromosome. The
places where this happens are
called chiasma. The whole
process is called crossing-over.
• Metaphase I
• Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the
centromeres
• The tetrads line up along the cell equator
• Anaphase I
• The centromeres break and homologous chromosomes
separate (note that the sister chromatids are still attached)
• Cytokinesis begins
• Telophase I
• Chromosomes with two chromatids decondense and a
nuclear envelope reforms around them. Each nucleus is
now haploid.
 b) Meiosis II
• At the end of meiosis I, each chromosome still
had two chromatids. That is double the
amount of DNA that a cell should have. So,
the entire reason to go through meiosis II is to
reduce the amount of DNA back to normal.
• Prophase II
• Centrioles form and move toward the poles
• The nuclear membrane dissolves
• Metaphase II
• Microtubules grow from the centrioles and
attach to the centromeres
• The sister chromatids line up along the cell
equator
• Anaphase II
• Chromosomes split, so that a chromosome with
only one chromatid heads toward each pole.
• Telophase II
• Chromosomes with only one chromatid
decondense and get surrounded by new nuclear
envelopes. The four daughter cells are now all
haploid and have the right amount of DNA.