1.

Overview

The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) in language acquisition suggests that there is a specific
window of time during which humans are particularly sensitive to language input, and that
language acquisition happens most easily and naturally during this period. This hypothesis
proposes that if language exposure occurs after this window, full native-like proficiency—
especially in pronunciation and grammar—may be difficult or impossible to achieve.

The critical period is typically believed to extend from birth to puberty. After this period, the ability
to acquire language, particularly a first language (L1), significantly diminishes. This week, we will
explore:

• The theoretical foundations of the Critical Period Hypothesis.

• Empirical evidence supporting the hypothesis.

• Cases that challenge or complicate the CPH.

• Implications for second language (L2) learning.

2. What is the Critical Period Hypothesis?

2.1 Definition

The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) was first introduced by Eric Lenneberg in 1967, who
argued that language acquisition is biologically linked to age. According to Lenneberg, language
acquisition occurs effortlessly before puberty, after which the brain loses much of its plasticity
(the ability to form new connections and pathways), making language learning much more
challenging.

2.2 Key Concepts

• Biological Basis: The CPH is rooted in the idea that certain brain functions are best
developed during a specific time window. During the critical period, the brain is thought to
be more plastic, meaning it can easily absorb linguistic input and develop the necessary
structures for language.

• Plasticity: Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new
neural connections. Young children's brains are considered highly plastic, which makes
them more adept at learning languages. After the critical period, the brain's plasticity
decreases, making it harder to learn new languages to a native-like level.

• Gradual Decline: While Lenneberg initially proposed a sharp cutoff at puberty, more
recent research suggests that language learning abilities decline gradually rather than
abruptly, with different language skills (e.g., pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary)
declining at different rates.

3. Evidence Supporting the Critical Period Hypothesis

3.1 First Language (L1) Acquisition

One of the strongest arguments for the CPH comes from cases where children were deprived of
language input during the critical period. These cases demonstrate that acquiring a first language
after the critical period is extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Case of Genie

• Genie was a child who was isolated and deprived of any linguistic input until she was
discovered at age 13. After being rescued, Genie received extensive language instruction,
but she never fully acquired normal grammar and syntax. Although she learned some
vocabulary and could communicate basic needs, her language abilities remained
severely limited, supporting the idea that there is a biologically determined window for
acquiring a first language.

o Implication: Genie’s case provides strong evidence that after the critical period,
full language acquisition, particularly in grammar and syntax, becomes extremely
difficult. This aligns with Lenneberg’s original hypothesis that the brain’s capacity
for language acquisition diminishes after puberty.

Case of Victor (The Wild Boy of Aveyron)

• Another famous case is that of Victor, a boy found living in the wild in France in the early
19th century. Like Genie, Victor was exposed to language after the critical period (in his
teens) and never developed full linguistic abilities, further supporting the hypothesis that
there is a critical window for language acquisition.

3.2 Second Language (L2) Acquisition

• While the CPH was originally proposed for first language acquisition, researchers have
extended the idea to second language learning, particularly focusing on accent and
grammar.

• Johnson and Newport (1989) conducted a landmark study that showed evidence of a
critical period for L2 acquisition. They studied native Chinese and Korean speakers who
had learned English as a second language. Their results showed a clear decline in
grammatical proficiency the older the participants were when they began learning English.
Those who were exposed to English before puberty were more likely to achieve native-like
grammar, whereas those who began learning the language after puberty performed less
accurately.

• Accent: Research consistently shows that children who learn a second language before
puberty are more likely to achieve a native-like accent, while adults who learn a second
language after puberty tend to have a noticeable foreign accent. For example, many
immigrants who arrive in a new country as adults often struggle to acquire a native accent,
despite being immersed in the language for years.

4. Criticisms and Challenges to the CPH

4.1 Continuous Learning Abilities

• Some researchers argue that language learning ability does not stop completely after the
critical period, but rather declines gradually. While older learners may struggle more with
 pronunciation and grammar, they can still become fluent in a second language with
enough motivation, exposure, and effort.

• Hakuta et al. (2003) studied the English proficiency of Spanish and Chinese speakers and
found that although younger learners achieved higher levels of proficiency, there was no
clear-cut point at which language learning ability dramatically declined. Their results
suggest that language learning ability diminishes over time but does not disappear after
puberty.

4.2 Adult Language Learners

• Many adults have been able to learn a second language to a very high degree of
proficiency, including near-native levels in some cases. For instance, polyglots (people
who speak multiple languages) often achieve advanced fluency in several languages even
if they start learning them after adolescence.

• Motivation and Social Environment: Adult learners may have different cognitive
resources, such as better metalinguistic awareness (the ability to reflect on language as
a system) and learning strategies that help them compensate for the reduced plasticity
of the brain. Additionally, social factors like motivation, cultural immersion, and the
necessity to use the language for daily communication play a role in successful adult
language acquisition.

4.3 Variability in Second Language Success

• There is significant individual variation in L2 learning success, even among adults. Some
adults may achieve native-like proficiency in a second language, while others may
struggle, suggesting that factors like individual differences, learning strategies, and
amount of exposure might also play a significant role in language acquisition.

• Late Bilinguals: Research shows that some late bilinguals (those who acquire a second
language after puberty) can still achieve high levels of proficiency, especially in
environments where they are highly motivated and receive extensive input.

5. Implications for Language Teaching

5.1 Early Language Learning Programs

• The CPH has significant implications for language education policy. Many educational
systems worldwide now emphasize the importance of starting foreign language
instruction at a young age. Programs like early immersion in a second language are based
on the idea that younger learners are more likely to develop native-like fluency if exposed
to the language during the critical period.

• Immersion Programs: Early bilingual education and immersion programs, where

children are exposed to a second language in a natural setting, are thought to take
advantage of the critical period, leading to higher levels of fluency.

5.2 Teaching Older Learners

• For adult learners, understanding the CPH means recognizing the challenges they may
face in achieving native-like pronunciation or grammar. Language instructors working with
 older learners can focus on compensatory strategies such as teaching explicit
grammar rules and helping learners develop strong metacognitive strategies for
language learning.

• Focus on Communication: Since adult learners may struggle with certain aspects of
language acquisition, especially pronunciation, teaching strategies should emphasize
effective communication over native-like proficiency. Fluency, comprehension, and
functional use of the language may be prioritized over achieving a perfect accent or
flawless grammar.

6. Discussion Points

1. Does the Critical Period Hypothesis apply equally to both first and second language
acquisition, or are there important differences?

o Consider the cases of L1 deprivation versus L2 learning at a later age. What are the
main distinctions between acquiring a first language and a second language after
the critical period?

2. What factors might help adult language learners overcome the limitations imposed
by the Critical Period Hypothesis?

o Think about motivation, learning strategies, and the role of social interaction in
adult language learning.

3. To what extent does the Critical Period Hypothesis influence current language
education policies?

o How do immersion programs and early foreign language instruction take

advantage of the critical period?

7. Conclusion

The Critical Period Hypothesis plays a pivotal role in our understanding of how and when
language is best acquired. While evidence from cases like Genie supports the notion of a
biologically determined window for L1 acquisition, research on second language learning
suggests a more nuanced view for L2 acquisition, with age-related declines but no strict cut-off
point. The implications for language teaching, particularly for young learners, are profound,
influencing language education policies and strategies worldwide.

In next week’s lecture, we will shift focus to the role of input and interaction in language
acquisition, examining how language learners benefit from the linguistic input they receive and
how meaningful interaction contributes to language development.

3. Evidence Supporting the Critical Period Hypothesis

The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) is supported by various studies and real-life cases,
particularly concerning first language (L1) acquisition and second language (L2) acquisition.
The following are key pieces of evidence:
3.1 First Language (L1) Acquisition

The strongest evidence supporting the CPH comes from cases where children have been
deprived of language input during their early years. These cases provide unique insights into how
crucial early exposure to language is for successful L1 acquisition.

Case of Genie

• Genie is one of the most well-known cases in language development. Discovered in 1970,
Genie was a child who had been kept in isolation by her abusive father and deprived of
normal linguistic interaction until the age of 13. After she was rescued, extensive efforts
were made to teach her language, but Genie never fully acquired normal grammatical and
syntactic skills.

o Significance: Genie’s limited progress in language acquisition after the critical

period supports the CPH, suggesting that there is a biologically determined
window during which normal language development must occur. After this
window closes, even with substantial input and teaching, full linguistic
competence becomes difficult or impossible to achieve. Although she learned
some vocabulary, her use of syntax and grammar remained fragmented and
abnormal.

o Key Implication: Genie’s case shows that while some aspects of language (like
vocabulary) can be learned after the critical period, the ability to acquire complex
grammar and syntax may be significantly impaired if language input is delayed.

Case of Victor (The Wild Boy of Aveyron)

• Victor was found in the early 19th century living in the wild in France, apparently having
no exposure to human language during his early years. After being discovered, attempts
were made to teach him language, but like Genie, Victor never developed the ability to
speak fully and grammatically. His case further supports the idea that language must be
acquired during a specific developmental window.

o Significance: Victor’s case aligns with the idea that, after a certain age, acquiring
the full complexity of language becomes nearly impossible. While Victor learned
some words, he never mastered complex grammatical structures or developed
full linguistic competence.

3.2 Second Language (L2) Acquisition

The CPH has been extended to second language acquisition, particularly concerning accent,
grammar, and overall proficiency. Studies show that individuals who begin learning a second
language (L2) after puberty often struggle to achieve native-like proficiency, particularly in areas
like pronunciation and grammar.

Johnson and Newport (1989) Study

• One of the most influential studies supporting the CPH in second language acquisition
was conducted by Johnson and Newport. They studied Korean and Chinese immigrants
who had moved to the United States and learned English as a second language at different
ages. The study measured their proficiency in English grammar.
 o Findings: Their results showed that participants who began learning English
before the age of 7 performed at a native-like level. However, the older the
participants were when they started learning English, the lower their grammatical
proficiency. Participants who started learning English after puberty had
significantly more difficulty achieving native-like grammar.

o Implication: This study supports the idea that there is a sensitive period for
second language learning, particularly for grammar. Although older learners can
still learn a second language, they are less likely to reach native-like proficiency,
especially in grammatical accuracy.

Pronunciation and Accent Studies

• Numerous studies have shown that accent is one of the most age-sensitive aspects of
language acquisition. Children who learn a second language before the age of 7 are much
more likely to acquire a native-like accent. In contrast, those who learn the language after
puberty typically retain a foreign accent, even if they achieve fluency in other areas.

o Example: Immigrants who arrive in a new country as adults, even with intensive
language exposure, often struggle to eliminate their foreign accent. On the other
hand, young children exposed to a new language in an immersive environment can
often acquire a native-like accent with ease.

4. Criticisms and Challenges to the CPH

Although the CPH is supported by substantial evidence, it is not without its critics. Some
researchers have challenged the idea of a strict critical period, arguing that the ability to learn
languages does not disappear after puberty but instead declines gradually. Additionally, many
adults have been able to learn second languages to a high degree of proficiency, raising questions
about the absolute nature of the critical period.

4.1 Continuous Learning Abilities

Some scholars argue that while there is a sensitive period during which language learning is most
efficient, the ability to learn language does not end after puberty. Rather, it declines gradually.
Research on L2 learners shows that older individuals can still acquire new languages, though they
may face greater challenges, particularly in areas like pronunciation and syntax.

• Hakuta et al. (2003): This study found that while younger learners tend to achieve higher
proficiency in a second language, there is no sharp cutoff point at puberty. Instead,
language learning ability declines slowly over time, suggesting that older learners can still
achieve high proficiency, especially in vocabulary and comprehension.

o Implication: The gradual decline in language learning ability suggests that the
CPH may be too rigid. Instead of a strict biological window, the ability to learn
languages may be influenced by factors such as motivation, social context, and
learning strategies.

4.2 Adult Language Learners

Many adults have demonstrated the ability to achieve high proficiency in a second language,
challenging the strict interpretation of the CPH. Adult learners often bring unique advantages to
language learning, such as better metalinguistic awareness (the ability to think about and
analyze language) and explicit learning strategies.

• Polyglots: There are numerous examples of polyglots—people who speak multiple

languages—who learned several languages well after puberty. These individuals
demonstrate that with motivation, exposure, and effective learning strategies, it is
possible to achieve near-native proficiency in a second language even as an adult.

o Motivation: One of the key factors in successful adult language learning is

motivation. Adults who are highly motivated to learn a new language (for
professional, social, or personal reasons) often outperform less motivated
learners, even if they start learning later in life.

4.3 Variability in Second Language Success

Research has shown that there is considerable individual variability in second language learning
outcomes, even among older learners. Some adults achieve near-native fluency, while others
struggle, suggesting that factors such as individual cognitive differences, learning strategies,
and the quality and quantity of input play a significant role in determining success.

• Late Bilinguals: Many studies show that late bilinguals (those who learn a second
language after puberty) can still achieve a high level of proficiency, especially if they are
immersed in the language environment and highly motivated. These cases challenge the
idea that the critical period is a strict cutoff point and suggest that language learning is a
more flexible and complex process than the CPH suggests.

5. Implications for Language Teaching

The Critical Period Hypothesis has profound implications for language education, particularly
concerning when and how languages should be taught to maximize learners' chances of
achieving native-like proficiency. These implications apply to both early language education for
children and language instruction for adult learners.

5.1 Early Language Learning Programs

The CPH suggests that the earlier children are exposed to a language, the better their chances of
acquiring it to a native-like level. As a result, many educational systems have adopted policies
that encourage early foreign language instruction and immersion programs to take advantage
of children's heightened ability to learn languages during the critical period.

• Bilingual Education and Immersion Programs: Many schools now offer bilingual
education or early immersion programs where children are taught in both their native
language and a second language from a young age. The goal of these programs is to
develop fluency in both languages, taking advantage of the brain’s plasticity during early
childhood.
 o Example: In Canada, for instance, French immersion programs are offered to
English-speaking students from kindergarten or elementary school, allowing them
to become fluent in French through natural exposure in an academic setting.

• Starting Language Instruction Early: Many countries are introducing foreign language
instruction in elementary schools or even preschool. For example, many European
countries start teaching English or other foreign languages from the age of 6 or earlier,
based on the belief that younger children are better able to acquire new languages.