Research

Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge".[1] It
involves the collection, organization, and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic,
characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities
are characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project may be an expansion
of past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research
may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.

The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation,
discovery, interpretation, and the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the
advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary
considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of
research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner
research, life, technological, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-
research.

A researcher is a person engaged in conducting research, possibly recognized as an occupation by

a formal job title. In order to be a social researcher or a social scientist, one should have enormous
knowledge of subjects related to social science that they are specialized in. Similarly, in order to be
a natural science researcher, the person should have knowledge of fields related to natural science
(physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, zoology and so on). Professional associations provide one
pathway to mature in the research profession.[2]
Etymology

Aristotle, (384–322 BC),

one of the early figures in
the development of the
scientific method[3]

The word research is derived from the Middle French "recherche", which means "to go about
seeking", the term itself being derived from the Old French term "recerchier," a compound word from
"re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'.[4] The earliest recorded use of the term was in
1577.[4]

Definitions

Research has been defined in a number of different ways, and while there are similarities, there does
not appear to be a single, all-encompassing definition that is embraced by all who engage in it.

Research, in its simplest terms, is searching for knowledge and searching for truth. In a formal
sense, it is a systematic study of a problem attacked by a deliberately chosen strategy, which starts
with choosing an approach to preparing a blueprint (design) and acting upon it in terms of designing
research hypotheses, choosing methods and techniques, selecting or developing data collection
tools, processing the data, interpretation, and ending with presenting solution(s) of the problem.[5]

Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell, who states that "research is a process
of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue".
It consists of three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an
answer to the question.[6]

The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research more generally to also include studying
already existing knowledge: "studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or
laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws"[4]

Forms of research

Original research

Original research, also called primary research, is research that is not exclusively based on a
summary, review, or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of a
primary-source character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new knowledge rather
than present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classified).[7][8] Original
research can take various forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it
typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or
in the field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of
experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there are typically
some new (for example) mathematical results produced or a new way of approaching an existing
problem. In some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind,
the originality is in the particular way existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on
the outcome of the work of the researcher.[9]

The degree of originality of the research is among the major criteria for articles to be published in
academic journals and usually established by means of peer review.[10] Graduate students are
commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation.[11]

Scientific research

Primary scientific research being

carried out at the Microscopy
Laboratory of the Idaho National
Laboratory
 Scientific research equipment at MIT

German maritime research vessel

Sonne

Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This research
provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of
the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research may be funded by public
authorities, charitable organizations, and private organizations. Scientific research can be
subdivided by discipline.

Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though the order may vary
depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal
research, both basic and applied:

1. Observations and formation of the topic: Consists of the subject area of one's interest and
following that subject area to conduct subject-related research. The subject area should not be
randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to determine
the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject
area is advisable. The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already
existing knowledge about the topic.

2. Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more
variables.

3. Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other concepts.

 4. Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they will be
measured/assessed in the study.

5. Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering

information from or about these samples by using specific research instruments. The
instruments used for data collection must be valid and reliable.

6. Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data to draw conclusions
about it.

7. Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables, figures, and pictures, and then
described in words.

8. Test, revising of hypothesis

9. Conclusion, reiteration if necessary

A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be proven (see, rather, null hypothesis).
Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of
an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected
(see falsifiability). However, if the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said
to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that
alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis
can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and,
eventually, becoming widely thought of as true.

A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the
prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may
no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the
old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the
new will supplant it. Researchers can also use a null hypothesis, which states no relationship or
difference between the independent or dependent variables.

Research in the humanities

Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and
semiotics. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question,
but instead, explore the issues and details that surround it. Context is always important, and context
can be social, historical, political, cultural, or ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is
historical research, which is embodied in historical method. Historians use primary sources and
other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of
accounts of the past. Other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in
societies and communities, without particularly looking for reasons or motivations to explain these.
These studies may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use a variety of approaches, such as queer
theory or feminist theory.[12]

Artistic research

Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are
considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought
which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and
truth.

The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-oriented is leading to artistic
research being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other disciplines.[13]
One of the characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept subjectivity as opposed to the
classical scientific methods. As such, it is similar to the social sciences in using qualitative research
and intersubjectivity as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis.[14]

Artistic research has been defined by the School of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan,
DOCH), Stockholm in the following manner – "Artistic research is to investigate and test with the
purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on artistic practices,
methods, and criticality. Through presented documentation, the insights gained shall be placed in a
context."[15] Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of
the arts.[16] A simpler understanding by Julian Klein defines artistic research as any kind of research
employing the artistic mode of perception.[17] For a survey of the central problematics of today's
artistic research, see Giaco Schiesser.[18]

According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research, "perhaps more so than other disciplines,
intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive
modalities".[19] Most writers, whether of fiction or non-fiction books, also have to do research to
support their creative work. This may be factual, historical, or background research. Background
research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research.[20]

The Society for Artistic Research (SAR) publishes the triannual Journal for Artistic Research
(JAR),[21][22] an international, online, open access, and peer-reviewed journal for the identification,
publication, and dissemination of artistic research and its methodologies, from all arts disciplines
and it runs the Research Catalogue (RC),[23][24][25] a searchable, documentary database of artistic
research, to which anyone can contribute.

Patricia Leavy addresses eight arts-based research (ABR) genres: narrative inquiry, fiction-based
research, poetry, music, dance, theatre, film, and visual art.[26]

In 2016, the European League of Institutes of the Arts launched The Florence Principles' on the
Doctorate in the Arts.[27] The Florence Principles relating to the Salzburg Principles and the Salzburg
Recommendations of the European University Association name seven points of attention to
specify the Doctorate / PhD in the Arts compared to a scientific doctorate / PhD. The Florence
Principles have been endorsed and are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS and SAR.

Historical research

German historian Leopold von

Ranke (1795–1886),
considered to be one of the
founders of modern source-
based history

The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical
sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history
guidelines that are commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external
criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes lower criticism and sensual criticism.
Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are
part of most formal historical research:[28]

Identification of origin date

Evidence of localization
 Recognition of authorship

Analysis of data

Identification of integrity

Attribution of credibility

Documentary research

Steps in conducting research

Research design and evidence

Research cycle

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research.[29] The hourglass
model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through
the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of
discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:[30]

Identification of research problem

Literature review

Specifying the purpose of research

Determining specific research questions

 Specification of a conceptual framework, sometimes including a set of hypotheses[31]

Choice of a methodology (for data collection)

Data collection

Verifying data

Analyzing and interpreting the data

Reporting and evaluating research

Communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations

The steps generally represent the overall process; however, they should be viewed as an ever-
changing iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps.[32] Most research begins with a general
statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.[33] The literature review
identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. Often, a
literature review is conducted in a given subject area before a research question is identified. A gap
in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question. The
research question may be parallel to the hypothesis. The hypothesis is the supposition to be tested.
The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then analyzes and
interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as empirical
research. The results of the data analysis in rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis are then
reported and evaluated. At the end, the researcher may discuss avenues for further research.
However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings
and discussion of them, moving "up" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the
findings and literature review. The reverse approach is justified by the transactional nature of the
research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research
literature, and so on are not fully known until the findings have fully emerged and been interpreted.

Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is only
when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one
have confidence in the results."[34]

Plato in Meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be
paraphrased in the following way, "If you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?!
[i.e., you have already found it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are you searching
for?!"[35]
Research methods

The research room at the New York

Public Library, an example of
secondary research in progress

Maurice Hilleman,
the preeminent
vaccinologist of the
20th century, is
credited with saving
more lives than any
other scientist in
that time.[36]

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic
or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries
between them may be obscure):

Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a problem or question.

Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question.

Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence.

There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative
research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the
research topic they want to investigate and the research questions they aim to answer:

Qualitative research

Qualitative research refers to much more subjective non- quantitative, use different methods of
collecting data, analyzing data, interpreting data for meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols
metaphors of things. Qualitative research further classified into following types: Ethnography: This
research mainly focus on culture of group of people which includes share attributes, language,
practices, structure, value, norms and material things, evaluate human lifestyle. Ethno: people,
Grapho: to write, this disciple may include ethnic groups, ethno genesis, composition, resettlement
and social welfare characteristics. Phenomenology: It is very powerful strategy for demonstrating
methodology to health professions education as well as best suited for exploring challenging
problems in health professions educations.[37] In addition, PMP researcher Mandy Sha argued that a
project management approach is necessary to control the scope, schedule, and cost related to
qualitative research design, participant recruitment, data collection, reporting, as well as stakeholder
engagement.[38][39]

Quantitative research
This involves systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and
their relationships, by asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze it
utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational,
and survey (or descriptive).[40] Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to
establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. Quantitative
research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.

The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. These methods
produce results that can be summarized, compared, and generalized to larger populations if the
data are collected using proper sampling and data collection strategies.[41] Quantitative research is
concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a
phenomenon of interest.[41]

If the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to different
treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment). If
this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics to
statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to
generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ
probability sampling to select participants.[42]

In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary
data.[41] Primary data is data collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews or
questionnaires. Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-
used for the research. It is good ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever
possible.[43]
Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both
primary and secondary data, is becoming more common.[44] This method has benefits that using
one method alone cannot offer. For example, a researcher may choose to conduct a qualitative
study and follow it up with a quantitative study to gain additional insights.[45]

Big data has brought big impacts on research methods so that now many researchers do not put
much effort into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze easily available huge amounts of
data have also been developed. Types of Research Method 1. Observatory Research Method 2.
Correlation Research Method [46]

Non-empirical research

Non-empirical (theoretical) research is an approach that involves the development of theory as

opposed to using observation and experimentation. As such, non-empirical research seeks
solutions to problems using existing knowledge as its source. This, however, does not mean that
new ideas and innovations cannot be found within the pool of existing and established knowledge.
Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be
used together to strengthen a research approach. Neither one is less effective than the other since
they have their particular purpose in science. Typically empirical research produces observations
that need to be explained; then theoretical research tries to explain them, and in so doing generates
empirically testable hypotheses; these hypotheses are then tested empirically, giving more
observations that may need further explanation; and so on. See Scientific method.

A simple example of a non-empirical task is the prototyping of a new drug using a differentiated
application of existing knowledge; another is the development of a business process in the form of
a flow chart and texts where all the ingredients are from established knowledge. Much of
cosmological research is theoretical in nature. Mathematics research does not rely on externally
available data; rather, it seeks to prove theorems about mathematical objects.

Research ethics

Research ethics is a discipline within the study of applied ethics. Its scope ranges from general
scientific integrity and misconduct to the treatment of human and animal subjects. The societal
responsibilities that science and research have are not traditionally included and are less well
defined.

The discipline is most developed in medical research. Beyond the issues of falsification, fabrication
and plagiarism that arise in every scientific field, research design in human subject research and
animal testing are the areas that raise ethical questions most often.

The list of historic cases includes many large scale violations and crimes against humanity such as
Nazi human experimentation and the Tuskegee syphilis experiment which led to international codes
of research ethics. No approach has been universally accepted, but typically-cited codes are the
1947 Nuremberg Code, the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki, and the 1978 Belmont Report.

Today, research ethics committees, such as those of the US, UK and EU, govern and oversee the
responsible conduct of research.

Research in other fields such as social sciences, information technology, biotechnology, or

engineering may generate ethical concerns.

Problems in research

Meta-research

Meta-research is the study of research through the use of research methods. Also known as
"research on research", it aims to reduce waste and increase the quality of research in all fields.
Meta-research concerns itself with the detection of bias, methodological flaws, and other errors and
inefficiencies. Among the finding of meta-research is a low rates of reproducibility across a large
number of fields. This widespread difficulty in reproducing research has been termed the
"replication crisis."[47]

Methods of research

In many disciplines, Western methods of conducting research are predominant.[48] Researchers are
overwhelmingly taught Western methods of data collection and study. The increasing participation
of indigenous peoples as researchers has brought increased attention to the scientific lacuna in
culturally sensitive methods of data collection.[49] Western methods of data collection may not be
the most accurate or relevant for research on non-Western societies. For example, "Hua Oranga"
was created as a criterion for psychological evaluation in Māori populations, and is based on
dimensions of mental health important to the Māori people – "taha wairua (the spiritual dimension),
taha hinengaro (the mental dimension), taha tinana (the physical dimension), and taha whanau (the
family dimension)".[50]
Bias

Research is often biased in the languages that are preferred (linguicism) and the geographic
locations where research occurs. Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and
linguicism in research and academic publication. As the great majority of mainstream academic
journals are written in English, multilingual periphery scholars often must translate their work to be
accepted to elite Western-dominated journals.[51] Multilingual scholars' influences from their native
communicative styles can be assumed to be incompetence instead of difference.[52]

For comparative politics, Western countries are over-represented in single-country studies, with
heavy emphasis on Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Since 2000, Latin
American countries have become more popular in single-country studies. In contrast, countries in
Oceania and the Caribbean are the focus of very few studies. Patterns of geographic bias also show
a relationship with linguicism: countries whose official languages are French or Arabic are far less
likely to be the focus of single-country studies than countries with different official languages.
Within Africa, English-speaking countries are more represented than other countries.[53]

Generalizability

Generalization is the process of more broadly applying the valid results of one study.[54] Studies with
a narrow scope can result in a lack of generalizability, meaning that the results may not be
applicable to other populations or regions. In comparative politics, this can result from using a
single-country study, rather than a study design that uses data from multiple countries. Despite the
issue of generalizability, single-country studies have risen in prevalence since the late 2000s.[53]

Publication peer review

Peer review is a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant
field. Peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance,
and provide credibility. In academia, scholarly peer review is often used to determine an academic
paper's suitability for publication. Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field
who are consulted by editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of
theirs from an unbiased and impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge. The
tradition of peer reviews being done for free has however brought many pitfalls which are also
indicative of why most peer reviewers decline many invitations to review.[55] It was observed that
publications from periphery countries rarely rise to the same elite status as those of North America
and Europe, because limitations on the availability of resources including high-quality paper and
sophisticated image-rendering software and printing tools render these publications less able to
satisfy standards currently carrying formal or informal authority in the publishing industry.[52] These
limitations in turn result in the under-representation of scholars from periphery nations among the
set of publications holding prestige status relative to the quantity and quality of those scholars'
research efforts, and this under-representation in turn results in disproportionately reduced
acceptance of the results of their efforts as contributions to the body of knowledge available
worldwide.

Influence of the open-access movement

The open access movement assumes that all information generally deemed useful should be free
and belongs to a "public domain", that of "humanity".[56] This idea gained prevalence as a result of
Western colonial history and ignores alternative conceptions of knowledge circulation. For instance,
most indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group
should be determined by relationships.[56]

There is alleged to be a double standard in the Western knowledge system. On the one hand, "digital
right management" used to restrict access to personal information on social networking platforms
is celebrated as a protection of privacy, while simultaneously when similar functions are used by
cultural groups (i.e. indigenous communities) this is denounced as "access control" and
reprehended as censorship.[56]

Future perspectives

Even though Western dominance seems to be prominent in research, some scholars, such as Simon
Marginson, argue for "the need [for] a plural university world".[57] Marginson argues that the East
Asian Confucian model could take over the Western model.

This could be due to changes in funding for research both in the East and the West. Focused on
emphasizing educational achievement, East Asian cultures, mainly in China and South Korea, have
encouraged the increase of funding for research expansion.[57] In contrast, in the Western academic
world, notably in the United Kingdom as well as in some state governments in the United States,
funding cuts for university research have occurred, which some say may lead to the future decline of
Western dominance in research.
Neo-colonial approaches

Neo-colonial research or neo-colonial science,[58][59] frequently described as helicopter research,[58]

parachute science[60][61] or research,[62] parasitic research,[63][64] or safari study,[65] is when
researchers from wealthier countries go to a developing country, collect information, travel back to
their country, analyze the data and samples, and publish the results with no or little involvement of
local researchers. A 2003 study by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences found that 70% of articles in
a random sample of publications about least-developed countries did not include a local research
co-author.[59]

Frequently, during this kind of research, the local colleagues might be used to provide logistics
support as fixers but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the
research. Scientific publications resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the
career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity
(such as funded research centers) and the careers of local scientists.[58] This form of "colonial"
science has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants
as "others" in order to advance colonialism—and critics call for the end of these extractivist
practices in order to decolonize knowledge.[66][67]

This kind of research approach reduces the quality of research because international researchers
may not ask the right questions or draw connections to local issues.[68] The result of this approach
is that local communities are unable to leverage the research to their own advantage.[61] Ultimately,
especially for fields dealing with global issues like conservation biology which rely on local
communities to implement solutions, neo-colonial science prevents institutionalization of the
findings in local communities in order to address issues being studied by scientists.[61][66]

Professionalisation

In several national and private academic systems, the professionalisation of research has resulted
in formal job titles.

In Russia

In present-day Russia, and some other countries of the former Soviet Union, the term researcher
(Russian: Научный сотрудник, nauchny sotrudnik) has been used both as a generic term for a
person who has been carrying out scientific research, and as a job position within the frameworks of
the Academy of Sciences, universities, and in other research-oriented establishments.
The following ranks are known:

Junior Researcher (Junior Research Associate)

Researcher (Research Associate)

Senior Researcher (Senior Research Associate)

Leading Researcher (Leading Research Associate)[69]

Chief Researcher (Chief Research Associate)

Publishing

Cover of the first issue of Nature, 4

November 1869

Academic publishing is a system that is necessary for academic scholars to peer review the work
and make it available for a wider audience. The system varies widely by field and is also always
changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. There is
also a large body of research that exists in either a thesis or dissertation form. These forms of
research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and dissertations. In publishing, STM
publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine. Most
established academic fields have their own scientific journals and other outlets for publication,
though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several
distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of
knowledge or research vary greatly between fields, from the print to the electronic format. A study
suggests that researchers should not give great consideration to findings that are not replicated
frequently.[70] It has also been suggested that all published studies should be subjected to some
measure for assessing the validity or reliability of its procedures to prevent the publication of
unproven findings.[71] Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since about the
early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common.
Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access.[72] There are
two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is
freely available from the time of publication, and self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of
their own work freely available on the web.

Research statistics and funding

Most funding for scientific research comes from three major sources: corporate research and
development departments; private foundations; and government research councils such as the
National Institutes of Health in the US[73] and the Medical Research Council in the UK. These are
managed primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors. Many
senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for
grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their
research but also as a source of merit. The Social Psychology Network provides a comprehensive
list of U.S. Government and private foundation funding sources.

The total number of researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants for individual
countries is shown in the following table.

Country researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants 2018[74][show]

Research expenditure by type of research as a share of GDP for individual countries is shown in the
following table.

Research expenditure as a share of GDP by type of research (%), 2018[75][show]

Country
Basic Applied Development

See also

Advertising research

European Charter for Researchers

Funding bias

Internet research
 Laboratory

List of countries by research and development spending

List of words ending in ology

Market research

Marketing research

Open research

Operations research

Participatory action research

Psychological research methods

Research integrity

Research-intensive cluster

Research organization

Research proposal

Research university

Scholarly research

Secondary research

Social research

Society for Artistic Research

Timeline of the history of the scientific method

Undergraduate research

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hdl:20.500.12749/13290 (https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12749%2F13290) . ISBN 978-
9264238800. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200605123738/https://eduq.info/xmlu
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Further reading

Groh, Arnold (2018). Research Methods in Indigenous Contexts. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-3-
319-72774-5.

Cohen, N.; Arieli, T. (2011). "Field research in conflict environments: Methodological challenges
and snowball sampling". Journal of Peace Research. 48 (4): 423–436.
doi:10.1177/0022343311405698 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022343311405698) .
S2CID 145328311 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145328311) .

Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. 2014. Handbook of Research
Methods in Military Studies (https://books.google.com/books?id=ENDpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT23)
 New York: Routledge.

Talja, Sanna and Pamela J. Mckenzie (2007). Editor's Introduction: Special Issue on Discursive
Approaches to Information Seeking in Context, The University of Chicago Press.

External links

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