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October 1, 2021

PostgreSQL 14 New Features

With Examples (GA)

Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K.

Noriyoshi Shinoda

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 1

Index
Index........................................................................................................................................ 2
1. About This Document ............................................................................................................ 5
1.1 Purpose ........................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Audience ......................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Scope .............................................................................................................................. 5
1.4 Software Version.............................................................................................................. 5
1.5. The Question, comment, and Responsibility...................................................................... 6
1.6 Notation .......................................................................................................................... 6
2. New Features Summary ......................................................................................................... 7
2.1. Improve analytic query performance................................................................................. 7
2.2. Improve reliability .......................................................................................................... 7
2.3. Improved maintainability................................................................................................. 8
2.4. Preparing for future new features...................................................................................... 8
2.5. Incompatibility ............................................................................................................... 8
2.5.1. Functions ................................................................................................................. 8
2.5.2. Regular Expression................................................................................................... 9
2.5.3. Factorial calculation.................................................................................................. 9
2.5.4. Operators ............................................................................................................... 10
2.5.5. Manuals ................................................................................................................. 10
2.5.6. Transaction wraparound warning ............................................................................. 10
2.5.7. Start-up options .......................................................................................................11
2.5.8. Extended Statistics...................................................................................................11
2.5.9. Protocol ..................................................................................................................11
2.5.10. ALTER OPERATOR..............................................................................................11
2.5.11. ALTER TABLE .....................................................................................................11
2.5.12. CREATE LANGUAGE......................................................................................... 12
2.5.13. LIBPQ connection string ....................................................................................... 12
2.5.14. Findoidjoins ......................................................................................................... 12
2.5.15. Intarray ................................................................................................................ 12
2.5.16. Pg_hba.conf file.................................................................................................... 12
2.5.17. Pg_standby........................................................................................................... 12
2.5.18. Tablefunc ............................................................................................................. 12
3. New Feature Detail.............................................................................................................. 14
3.1. Architecture .................................................................................................................. 14

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 2

3.1.1. Modified catalogs ................................................................................................... 14
3.1.2. Logical Replication................................................................................................. 20
3.1.3. Parallel Query ........................................................................................................ 22
3.1.4. LZ4 compression of TOAST columns ...................................................................... 23
3.1.5. Execution Plan ....................................................................................................... 24
3.1.6. Extended Statistics.................................................................................................. 26
3.1.7. Data types .............................................................................................................. 26
3.1.8. BRIN indexes......................................................................................................... 29
3.1.9. Wait Events ............................................................................................................ 30
3.1.10. Stored Procedure................................................................................................... 30
3.1.11. Pg_hba.conf file.................................................................................................... 31
3.1.12. LIBPQ library....................................................................................................... 32
3.1.13. ECPG .................................................................................................................. 33
3.1.14. Roles ................................................................................................................... 33
3.1.15. Logfile ................................................................................................................. 34
3.1.16. Process name........................................................................................................ 35
3.1.17. Regular Expression ............................................................................................... 35
3.1.18. Text search ........................................................................................................... 36
3.1.19. Test module .......................................................................................................... 36
3.1.20. Maximum password length.................................................................................... 37
3.1.21. LLVM.................................................................................................................. 37
3.2. SQL Statement.............................................................................................................. 38
3.2.1. ALTER CURRENT_ROLE ..................................................................................... 38
3.2.2. ALTER SUBSCRIPTION........................................................................................ 38
3.2.3. ALTER TABLE ...................................................................................................... 38
3.2.4. COPY FREEZE...................................................................................................... 39
3.2.5. CREATE INDEX.................................................................................................... 39
3.2.6. CREATE PROCEDURE/FUNCTION...................................................................... 40
3.2.7. CREATE TABLE ................................................................................................... 42
3.2.8. CREATE TRIGGER ............................................................................................... 42
3.2.9. CREATE TYPE...................................................................................................... 43
3.2.10. GRANT / REVOKE.............................................................................................. 43
3.2.11. INSERT ............................................................................................................... 44
3.2.12. REINDEX............................................................................................................ 45
3.2.13. VACUUM ............................................................................................................ 46
3.2.14. SELECT .............................................................................................................. 47

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 3

3.2.15. TRUNCATE......................................................................................................... 52
3.2.16. Functions ............................................................................................................. 52
3.3. Configuration parameters............................................................................................... 61
3.3.1. Added parameters ................................................................................................... 61
3.3.2. Changed parameters................................................................................................ 64
3.3.3. Removed parameters............................................................................................... 64
3.3.4. Parameters with default values changed.................................................................... 65
3.4. Utilities ........................................................................................................................ 66
3.4.1. Configure............................................................................................................... 66
3.4.2. Initdb..................................................................................................................... 66
3.4.3. Pg_amcheck ........................................................................................................... 68
3.4.4. Pg_dump................................................................................................................ 69
3.4.5. Pg_dumpall ............................................................................................................ 70
3.4.6. Pg_rewind.............................................................................................................. 70
3.4.7. Psql ....................................................................................................................... 70
3.4.8. Reindexdb.............................................................................................................. 73
3.4.9. Vacuumdb .............................................................................................................. 74
3.5. Contrib modules............................................................................................................ 76
3.5.1. Amcheck................................................................................................................ 76
3.5.2. Btree_gist............................................................................................................... 76
3.5.3. Cube...................................................................................................................... 76
3.5.4. Hstore.................................................................................................................... 77
3.5.5. Old_snapshot.......................................................................................................... 77
3.5.6. Pageinspect ............................................................................................................ 78
3.5.7. Passwordcheck ....................................................................................................... 80
3.5.8. Pgstattuple ............................................................................................................. 80
3.5.9. Pg_stat_statements.................................................................................................. 80
3.5.10. Pg_trgm ............................................................................................................... 82
3.5.11. Pg_surgery ........................................................................................................... 82
3.5.12. Postgres_fdw........................................................................................................ 83
URL list ................................................................................................................................. 86
Change history........................................................................................................................ 87

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 4

1. About This Document

1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this document is to provide information about the major new features of open-source
RDBMS PostgreSQL 14 (14.0) GA.

1.2 Audience
This document is written for engineers who already know PostgreSQL, such as installation, basic
management, etc.

1.3 Scope
This document describes the major difference between PostgreSQL 13 (13.4) and PostgreSQL 14
(14.0). As a general rule, this document examines the features of behavior change. This document does
not describe and verify all new features. In particular, the following new features are not included.
• Bugfix
• Performance improvement by changing internal behavior
• Improvement of regression test
• Operability improvement by psql command tab input
• Improvement of pgbench command
• Improvement of documentation, modify typo in the source code
• Refactoring without a change in behavior

1.4 Software Version

The contents of this document have been verified for the following versions and platforms.

Table 1 Version
Software Version
PostgreSQL PostgreSQL 13.4 (for comparison)
PostgreSQL 14 (14.0) (Sep 27, 2021 21:02:15)

Operating System Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7 Update 8 (x86-64)

Configure option --with-llvm --with-ssl=openssl --with-perl --with-lz4

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 5

1.5. The Question, comment, and Responsibility
The contents of this document are not an official opinion of Hewlett Packard Enterprise Japan Co,
Ltd. The author and affiliation company do not take any responsibility for the problem caused by the
mistake of contents. If you have any comments for this document, please contact Noriyoshi Shinoda
([email protected]) Hewlett Packard Enterprise Japan Co, Ltd.

1.6 Notation
This document contains examples of the execution of the command or SQL statement. Execution
examples are described according to the following rules:

Table 2 Examples notation

Notation Description
# Shell prompt for Linux root user.
$ Shell prompt for Linux general user.
Bold The user input string.
postgres=# psql command prompt for PostgreSQL administrator.
postgres=> psql command prompt for PostgreSQL general user.
Underline Important output items.
<<PASSWORD>> Replaced by password string.

The syntax is described in the following rules:

Table 3 Syntax rules

Notation Description
Italic Replaced by the name of the object which users use, or the other syntax.
[] Indicate that it can be omitted.
{A|B } Indicate that it is possible to select A or B.
… General syntax. It is the same as the previous version.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 6

2. New Features Summary
More than 200 new features have been added to PostgreSQL 14. Here are some major new features
and benefits.

2.1. Improve analytic query performance

The following features have been added that can be applied to large scale environments:

□ Logical Streaming Replication enhancements

Logical replication can now transfer decoded updates to a standby instance without waiting for the
transaction to complete. In addition, it is now possible to send transfer data that was previously
converted to text in binary.

□ Parallel query enhancement

Parallel queries now work for REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW statements.

□ LZ4 compression
LZ4 compression is now available for TOAST columns.

□ BRIN index
Bloom filters are now available.

2.2. Improve reliability

PostgreSQL 14 implements the following enhancements to improve reliability.

□ Enhanced data structure checking

Contrib module amcheck now includes a function to check object structure. Also, add pg_amcheck
command to run checks by the amcheck module from the command line

□ Elimination of password length restrictions

The restriction on password length has been removed, and very long passwords can now be used.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 7

2.3. Improved maintainability
The following features that can improve operability have been added.

□ Enhancements to the REINDEX statement

It is now possible to execute a REINDEX statement on a partitioned table. This eliminates the need
to run REINDEX on each partition. In addition, it will be able to move the index to be re-created with
the TABLESPACE clause.

□ Enhancement of monitoring feature

A real-time view of COPY command execution status has been added. A view has also been added
to check WAL usage and memory status of backend processes. In the Contrib module
pg_stat_statements, it is possible to acquire information on utility statements such as REFRESH
MATERIALIZED VIEW statement, and the statistical information that can be acquired has increased
significantly.

2.4. Preparing for future new features

PostgreSQL 14 is now ready for features that will be provided in future versions.

□ Data Access by Subscripts

The infrastructure for subscript data access to new data types has been implemented, and the hstore
module can take advantage of this feature.

2.5. Incompatibility
In PostgreSQL 14, the following specifications have been changed from PostgreSQL 13.

2.5.1. Functions
The following functions have been changed.

□ LEAD / LAG
The data type of some function return values has been changed from anyelement type to
anycompatible type.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 8

□ EXTRACT
The return data type of the EXTRACT function has been changed from double precision to numeric.
In previous versions, the EXTRACT function internally called the DATE_PART function, but now it's
independent. The data type of the return value of the DATE_PART function remains double precision.

□ VAR_SAMP, STDDEV_SAMP
The return value specified as a NaN value of type numeric has changed from NaN to NULL.

2.5.2. Regular Expression

In newline-sensitive mode, the escape \W and \D now match the linefeed code.

Example 1 Match newline (PostgreSQL 13)

postgres=> SELECT regexp_match(E'A\nC', '\D\D\D', 'n') ;
regexp_match
--------------
null
(1 row)

Example 2 Match newline (PostgreSQL 14)

postgres=> SELECT regexp_match(E'A\nC', '\D\D\D', 'n') ;
regexp_match
--------------
{"A +
C"}
(1 row)

2.5.3. Factorial calculation

The factorial calculation result and operator have been changed.

□ Factorial of negative value

Factorial calculation of negative values will result in an error.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 9

Example 3 Factorial calculation (PostgreSQL 13)
postgres=> SELECT factorial(-4) ;
factorial
-----------
1
(1 row)

Example 4 Factorial calculation (PostgreSQL 14)

postgres=> SELECT factorial(-4) ;
ERROR: factorial of a negative number is undefined

□ Removed operator
The factorial operator (! and !!) has been removed.

Example 5 Factorial calculation (PostgreSQL 14)

postgres=> SELECT 4! ;
RROR: syntax error at or near ";"
LINE 1: SELECT 4! ;
^

□ Removed function
The numeric_fac function has been removed.

2.5.4. Operators
The deprecated operators @ and ~ have been removed from the Contrib modules cube, hstore,
intarray and seg.

2.5.5. Manuals
The Default Roles in the manual and the program source have been changed to Predefined Roles.

2.5.6. Transaction wraparound warning

The threshold points of the remaining transactions for the wraparound of the transaction ID have
been changed as follows.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 10

Table 4 Warning of transaction ID wraparound
Comparison PostgreSQL 13 PostgreSQL 14 Note
Warning 11 million 40 million
Shutdown One million 3 million

2.5.7. Start-up options

The -o option, which specifies additional options when starting postmaster, has been removed.

2.5.8. Extended Statistics

CREATE STATISTICS statement for system catalogs can no longer be executed. This limit is
backported to older versions.

Example 6 CREATE STATISTICS statement for system catalog

postgres=# CREATE STATISTICS stat1_collation ON collname,
collowner FROM pg_collation ;
ERROR: permission denied: "pg_collation" is a system catalog

2.5.9. Protocol
The version 2 client-backend communication protocol has been removed. This protocol has been
used since PostgreSQL 7.4.

2.5.10. ALTER OPERATOR

Removed support for postfix (right-unary) operators on ALTER OPERATOR statement and DROP
OPERATOR statement.

2.5.11. ALTER TABLE

The DROP EXPRESSION clause can no longer be specified in the ALTER TABLE ONLY statement.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 11

2.5.12. CREATE LANGUAGE
Specifying a name in single quotes will result in an error in the CREATE LANGUAGE statement
or DROP LANGUAGE statement.

Example 7 CREATE LANGUAGE statement (PostgreSQL 14)

postgres=# CREATE LANGUAGE 'plperl' ;
ERROR: syntax error at or near "'plperl'"
LINE 1: CREATE LANGUAGE 'plperl';

2.5.13. LIBPQ connection string

The connection strings authtype and tty have been removed. The client connection setting
sslcompression for SSL compression is ignored by the backend.

2.5.14. Findoidjoins
The findoidjoins command has been removed.

2.5.15. Intarray
Prevent the containment operators (<@ and @>) for intarray module from using GiST
indexes.

2.5.16. Pg_hba.conf file

Values "0", "1", and "no-verify" are no longer supported of the clientcert option in the pg_hba.conf
file.

2.5.17. Pg_standby
The pg_standby command has been removed.

2.5.18. Tablefunc
Negative values can no longer be specified for the first parameter of the normal_rand function.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 12

Example 8 Normal_rand function
postgres=# CREATE EXTENSION tablefunc ;
CREATE EXTENSION
postgres=# SELECT normal_rand(-1, 1.2, 1.3) ;
ERROR: number of rows cannot be negative

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 13

3. New Feature Detail

3.1. Architecture

3.1.1. Modified catalogs

The following catalogs have been changed.

Table 5 Added system catalogs and views

Catalog/View name Description
pg_backend_memory_contexts Displays all the memory contexts of the server process attached
to the current session.
pg_stat_progress_copy Outputs the execution status of the COPY statement.
pg_stat_replication_slots Outputs the usage status of the replication slot.
pg_stat_wal Outputs the WAL data output status.
pg_stats_ext_exprs Provides information about all expressions included in extended
statistics objects

Table 6 Added views in the information schema (information_schema)

View name Description
routine_column_usage Identifies the column used by the function or procedure. Currently not
tracked.
routine_routine_usage Identifies the function used by the function or procedure. Currently,
some are not tracked.
routine_sequence_usage Identifies the sequence used by a function or procedure. Currently,
some are not tracked.
routine_table_usage Identifies the table used by the function or procedure. Currently not
tracked.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 14

Table 7 System catalogs/views with additional columns
Catalog/View name Added column Data type Description
pg_attribute attcompression char Current compression method of the
column.
pg_inherits inhdetachpendin boolean True for a partition that is in the
g process of being detached
pg_locks waitstart timestamp Time when the server process
with time started waiting for this lock.
zone
pg_prepared_statements generic_plans bigint Number of times generic plan was
chosen.
custom_plans bigint Number of times custom plan was
chosen
pg_proc prosqlbody pg_node_tre Pre-parsed SQL function body.
e
pg_range rngmultitypid oid OID of the multirange type.

pg_replication_slots two_phase boolean Enabled for decoding prepared

transactions.
pg_stat_activity query_id bigint Identifier of this backend's most
recent query.
pg_stat_database session_time double Time spent by database sessions in
precision this database.
active_time double Time spent executing SQL
precision statements in this database.
idle_in_transacti double Time spent idling while in a
on_time precision transaction in this database.
sessions bigint Total number of sessions.

sessions_abando bigint Number of lost sessions.

ned
sessions_fatal bigint Number of sessions caused by fatal
error.
sessions_killed bigint Number of sessions terminated by
the operator.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 15

Catalog/View name Added column Data type Description
pg_stats_ext exprs text[] Expression to get extended statistics

pg_statistic_ext stxexprs pg_node_tre Expression trees for statistics object

e attributes.
pg_statistic_ext_data stxdexpr pg_statistic A list of any expressions covered by
[] this statistics object.
pg_subscription subbinary boolean Publisher send data in binary format.
substream boolean Streaming of in-progress
transactions.
pg_type typsubscript regproc Subscripting handler function's
OID.

Table 8 System catalogs/views with columns removed

Catalog name Column name Description
pg_stat_ssl compression It was deleted because compression was disabled.

Table 9 System catalogs/views with modified output

Catalog/View name Description
pg_attribute The column definition order has changed.
pg_class The initial value of the reltuples column has been changed to -1.
pg_settings pending_restart column shows as true when a pertinent entry
in postgresql.conf is removed.
pg_statistic_ext Extended statistics with the 'e'= expression may be output in the stxkind
column.
pg_stat_activity Information of the archiver process and the walsender process will be
output.
walsender now show their latest replication command. This feature is
backported to older versions.
pg_subscription_rel 'f' = finished table copy may be output in the srsubstate column.
pg_type The typtype column may output 'm' to indicate a multi-range type.

Among the modified system catalogs, the details of the major catalogs are described below.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 16

□ Pg_backend_memory_contexts
The pg_backend_memory_contexts view provides a view of the memory context usage of the server
process corresponding to the current session. This view can only be viewed by users with the
SUPERUSER attribute.

Table 10 Pg_backend_memory_contexts view

Column name Data type Description
name text Name of the memory context.
ident text Identification information of the memory context.
parent text Name of the parent of this memory context.
level integer Distance from TopMemoryContext.
total_bytes bigint Total bytes allocated for this memory context.
total_nblocks bigint Total number of blocks allocated for this memory context.
free_bytes bigint Free space in bytes.
free_chunks bigint Total number of free chunks.
used_bytes bigint Used space in bytes.

Example 9 Query pg_backend_memory_contexts view

postgres=# SELECT name, parent, level, total_bytes FROM

□ Pg_stat_progress_copy
This view will output the execution status of the COPY statement.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 17

Table 11 Pg_stat_progress_copy view
Column name Data type Description
pid integer Process ID of backend.
datid oid OID of the database
datname name Name of the database
relid oid OID of the table on which the COPY command is executed.
command text Command name, COPY FROM or COPY TO.
type text The IO types.
bytes_processed bigint Number of bytes already processed.
bytes_total bigint Size of source file for COPY FROM command.
tuples_processed bigint Number of tuples already processed.
tuples_excluded bigint Number of tuples not processed because they were excluded.

Example 10 Query pg_stat_progress_copy view

postgres=> SELECT * FROM pg_stat_progress_copy ;

□ Pg_stat_replication_slots
This view outputs the state of the logical replication slot. To reset the contents of the view, run the
pg_stat_reset_replication_slot function.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 18

Table 12 Pg_stat_replication_slots view
Column name Data type Description
slot_name text Identifier for the replication slot.
spill_txns bigint Number of transactions spilled to disk.
spill_count bigint Number of times transactions were spilled to disk.
spill_bytes bigint Amount of decoded transaction data spilled to disk.
stream_txns bigint Number of in-progress transactions streamed.
stream_count bigint Number of times in-progress transactions.
stream_bytes bigint Amount of decoded in-progress transaction data streamed.
total_txns bigint Number of decoded transactions.
total_bytes bigint Amount of decoded transactions data.
stats_reset timestamp with Time at which these statistics were last reset
time zone

Example 11 Query pg_stat_replication_slots view

postgres=> SELECT * FROM pg_stat_replication_slots ;

□ Pg_stat_wal
Only one tuple of WAL output status is output to the pg_stat_wal view. The value of this view can
be reset by pg_stat_reset_shared function with 'wal' specified. The values of the wal_write_time and
wal_sync_time columns are output only when the track_wal_io_timing parameter to 'on'.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 19

Table 13 Pg_stat_wal view
Column name Data type Description
wal_records bigint Total number of WAL records.
wal_fpi bigint Total number of WAL full page images.
wal_bytes numeric Total amount of WAL generated.
wal_buffers_full bigint Number of times WAL data was written to disk because
WAL buffers became full
wal_write bigint Number of times WAL buffers were written.
wal_sync bigint Number of times WAL files were synced to disk.
wal_write_time double precision Total amount of time spent writing WAL buffers
wal_sync_time double precision Total amount of time spent syncing WAL files.
stats_reset timestamp with Time at which these statistics were last reset.
time zone

Example 12 Query pg_stat_wal view

postgres=> SELECT * FROM pg_stat_wal ;

3.1.2. Logical Replication

The following features have been added to Logical Replication.

□ Logical Streaming Replication

Traditional logical replication transfers updates to the subscription instance on every transaction
commit. PostgreSQL 14 offers a logical streaming replication feature that transfers data without
waiting for the transaction to be committed. For logical streaming replication, set the streaming

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 20

attribute to 'on' when creating or modifying SUBSCRIPTION. The default value for the STREAMING
attribute is 'off'.

Example 13 Streaming replication setting

postgres=# CREATE SUBSCRIPTION sub1 CONNECTION 'host=remhost1

dbname=postgres user=postgres password=<<PASSWORD>>'
PUBLICATION pub1 WITH (streaming = on) ;
CREATE SUBSCRIPTION
postgres=# SELECT subname, substream FROM pg_subscription
WHERE subname = 'sub1' ;
subname | substream
---------+-----------
sub1 | t
(1 row)

□ Binary transfer
Traditional logical replication has converted data into text and transfers it. Binary transfer is possible
by setting the attribute binary of SUBSCRIPTION to 'on'. This can be expected to reduce the amount
of network transfer. If no attribute is specified, it will be transferred in text format as before.

Example 14 Binary transfer setting

postgres=# CREATE SUBSCRIPTION sub2 CONNECTION 'host=remhost1

dbname=postgres user=postgres password=<<PASSWORD>>'
PUBLICATION pub2 WITH (binary = on) ;
CREATE SUBSCRIPTION
postgres=# SELECT subname, subbinary FROM pg_subscription
WHERE subname = 'sub2' ;
subname | subbinary
---------+-----------
sub2 | t
(1 row)

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 21

□ Separation of initial synchronization and differential update
Data initial synchronization and update information transactions have been separated. This eliminates
the need to start over from the initial data synchronization when an error occurs. An additional
temporary logical replication slot is required when migrating initial data. The name of this replication
slot is "pg_%u_sync_%u_%llu" (SUBSCRIPTION oid, table relid, System ID).

□ Wait Events
The following wait events can now be confirmed.

Table 14 Added Wait Events

Wait Event name Description
LogicalChangesRead Waiting for reading from a logical change file.
LogicalChangesWrite Waiting for writing to the logical change file.
LogicalSubxactRead Waiting for a read from a logical sub-transaction file.
LogicalSubxactWrite Waiting to write to a logical sub-transaction file.

□ Add Messages
The output plugin accepts a new parameter 'Messages' that controls if logical decoding messages are
written into the replication stream.

3.1.3. Parallel Query

SELECT part of the REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW statement can now be executed in parallel.
The example below is a log of the auto_explain module when the REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW
statement is executed.

Example 15 Execution plan log

LOG: duration: 6649.485 ms plan:

Query Text: REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW mview1;
Gather (cost=0.00..95721.67 rows=10000000 width=12)
Workers Planned: 2
-> Parallel Seq Scan on data1 (cost=0.00..95721.67
rows=4166667 width=12)

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 22

3.1.4. LZ4 compression of TOAST columns
It is now possible to specify LZ4 as the compression method for TOAST column data. In order to
perform LZ4 compression, PostgreSQL with --with-lz4 specified in the option of the 'configure'
command is required. To specify the compression method for TOAST columns in the CREATE
TABLE statement, specify pglz or lz4 in the COMPRESSION clause of the column attribute. The
default value is determined by default_toast_compression. In the ALTER TABLE statement (or
ALTER MATERIALIZED VIEW statement), the SET COMPRESSION clause can be specified in the
column definition change syntax. Changing the compression method with the ALTER TABLE
statement does not change the existing tuple.

Example 16 LZ4 compression

postgres=> CREATE TABLE compress1(c1 INT, c2 TEXT COMPRESSION lz4) ;

CREATE TABLE

postgres=> \d+ compress1

Table "public.compress1"

Column | Type | Collation | Nullable | Default | Storage | Compression | …

--------+---------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+-------------+ …

c1 | integer | | | | plain | | …

c2 | text | | | | extended | lz4 | …

Access method: heap

postgres=> ALTER TABLE compress1 ALTER COLUMN c2 SET COMPRESSION pglz ;

ALTER TABLE

postgres=> \d+ compress1

Table "public.compress1"

Column | Type | Collation | Nullable | Default | Storage | Compression | …

--------+---------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+-------------+ …

c1 | integer | | | | plain | | …

c2 | text | | | | extended | pglz | …

Access method: heap

In the CREATE TABLE (LIKE) statement, specify the "LIKE table name INCLUDING
COMPRESSION" clause to copy the table definition up to the compressed definition. Compression
attribute of each column can be found in the attcompression column of pg_attribute catalog. 'p' is pglz
compression and 'l' is LZ4 compression. To check the compression method of the column, execute the
pg_column_compression function with the column name.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 23

Example 17 Pg_column_compression function

postgres=> SELECT c1, pg_column_compression(c2) FROM compress1 ;

c1 | pg_column_compression
-----+-----------------------
100 | pglz
200 | lz4
(2 rows)

3.1.5. Execution Plan

The following enhancements have been implemented to the SQL statement execution plan creation
feature.

□ Asynchronous execution
Asynchronous processing can now be executed in ForeignScan processing. Improve performance by
running ForeignScan in parallel when accessing data on remote servers. To use this feature, set the
async_capable option to 'on' in the postgres_fdw module (default value is 'off').

Example 18 Asynchronous execution setting

postgres=# CREATE SERVER remsvr1 FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER postgres_fdw
OPTIONS (host 'remhost1', port '5432', dbname 'postgres',
async_capable 'on') ;
CREATE SERVER

It is displayed as Async Foreign Scan in the execution plan. In the example below, the partitions
part1v1 and part1v2 contained in the partition table part1 are implemented as FOREIGN TABLE
respectively.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 24

Example 19 Execution plan for asynchronous execution

postgres=> EXPLAIN SELECT * FROM part1 ;

QUERY PLAN
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Append (cost=100.00..306.87 rows=2482 width=42)

-> Async Foreign Scan on part1v1 part1_1 (cost=100.00..147.23 rows=1241

width=42)

-> Async Foreign Scan on part1v2 part1_2 (cost=100.00..147.23 rows=1241

width=42)

(3 rows)

□ Memoize
The new executor node type named Memoize has been added. The planner can include this node type
in the plan to have the executor cache the results from inside the parameterized nested loop join. The
use of this execution plan can be controlled by the parameter enable_memoize. The default value is
'on'. Currently, this execution plan is considered for regular joins and LATERAL type joins.

Example 20 Memoize node

postgres=> EXPLAIN SELECT COUNT(*),AVG(t1.unique1) FROM tenk1 t1 INNER JOIN

tenk1 t2 ON t1.unique1 = t2.twenty WHERE t2.unique1 < 1000 ;

QUERY PLAN

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Aggregate (cost=450.10..450.11 rows=1 width=40)

-> Nested Loop (cost=24.33..445.10 rows=1000 width=4)

-> Bitmap Heap Scan on tenk1 t2 (cost=24.04..381.54 …
Recheck Cond: (unique1 < 1000)
-> Bitmap Index Scan on tenk1_unique1 (cost=0.00..23.79 …
Index Cond: (unique1 < 1000)

-> Memoize (cost=0.30..1.85 rows=1 width=4)

Cache Key: t2.twenty

-> Index Only Scan using tenk1_unique1 on tenk1 t1 (cost=…
Index Cond: (unique1 = t2.twenty)
(10 rows)

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 25

3.1.6. Extended Statistics
It is now possible to define extended statistics on expressions. The pg_stats_ext_exprs system view
has been added to reference extended statistics with expressions.

Example 21 Extended statistics using expressions

postgres=> CREATE STATISTICS extstat1_data1 ON MOD(c1, 10),

3.1.7. Data types

The following data types have been added / extended.

□ Maximum / minimum value of numeric data type

Infinity and -Infinity, which indicate the maximum and minimum values, can now be specified for
numeric and float types. The value obtained by dividing a non-zero floating point number by the
Infinity value, or the return value of zero when -Infinity is specified for the exp function and power
function.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 26

Example 22 Infinity/-Infinity value

postgres=> CREATE TABLE numeric1(c1 NUMERIC, c2 float) ;

CREATE TABLE
postgres=> INSERT INTO numeric1 VALUES ('Infinity', '-Infinity') ;
INSERT 0 1
postgres=> SELECT * FROM numeric1 WHERE c1='Infinity' ;
c1 | c2
----------+-----------
Infinity | -Infinity
(1 row)

postgres=> SELECT 0.1 / '-Infinity', exp('-Infinity'),

power(2, '-Infinity') ;
?column? | exp | power
----------+-----+-------
0 | 0 | 0
(1 row)

□ Multirange type
A data type has been provided that indicates multiple ranges that do not overlap. The specific data
types are as follows.

Table 15 Added data types

Data type name Description
datemultirange Date type range
int4multirange Int type range
int8multirange Bigint type range
nummultirange Numeric type range
tsmultirange Timestamp type range
tstzmultirange Timestamp with time zone type range
anymultirange Multi-range pseudo data type
anycompatiblemutirange Any pseudo-type multiple range type

The following is an example of range specification by bigint type.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 27

Example 23 Using multirange type

postgres=> SELECT '{[1, 5), (10, 20]}'::int8multirange ;

int8multirange
-----------------
{[1,5),[11,21)}
(1 row)
postgres=> SELECT nummultirange( numrange(1, 10, '()'),
numrange(15, 20, '[]')) ;
nummultirange
------------------
{(1,10),[15,20]}
(1 row)

□ Jsonb type
The access method by subscript for jsonb type has been enhanced.

Example 24 Enhancement of jsonb type

postgres=> SELECT ('[1, "2", null]'::jsonb)[1] ;

jsonb
-------
"2"
(1 row)

postgres=> SELECT ('{"age": 25}'::jsonb)['age'] ;

jsonb
-------
25
(1 row)
postgres=> SELECT ('{"email":"[email protected]",
"phone":"+3012345678"}'::jsonb) ['phone'] ;
jsonb
----------------
"+3012345678"
(1 row)

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 28

□ Pg_lsn type
It is now possible to perform addition / subtraction calculations using the numeric type for values of
the pg_lsn type.

Example 25 Calculation of pg_lsn type

postgres=> SELECT pg_current_wal_lsn(), pg_current_wal_lsn()
+ 256 ;
pg_current_wal_lsn | ?column?
--------------------+-----------
0/15D1F88 | 0/15D2088
(1 row)

□ Point type
The operators (<<|, >>|) that get strictly below/above can now be used for point types.

3.1.8. BRIN indexes

The following operator classes are now available for BRIN indexes.

□ Bloom Filter
The operator classes "{data type}_bloom_ops" that use Bloom filters have been added. The following
attributes can be specified for this operator class.

Table 16 Added attributes

Attribute name Description
n_distinct_per_range Specifies the estimated number of non-null values in the block range. The
default value is -0.1.
false_positive_rate Specifies the desired false positive rate used by the index. The default
value is 0.01.

Example 26 Using the Bloom filter in the BRIN index

postgres=> CREATE INDEX idx1_data1 ON data1 USING brin
(c1 numeric_bloom_ops (false_positive_rate = 0.05,
n_distinct_per_range = 100)) ;
CREATE INDEX

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 29

□ Min/Max-Multi Index
The operator classes "{data type}_minmax_multi_ops" have been added to store multiple minimum
and maximum values. The following attributes can be specified for this operator class.

Table 17 Added attribute

Attribute name Description
values_per_range Specifies the maximum number of values to be stored by the index. The
default value is 32, and values from 8 to 32 can be specified.

3.1.9. Wait Events

The following wait events have been added.

Table 18 Added Wait Events

Wait Event name Type Description
AppendReady IPC Waiting for subplan node preparation.
BaseBackupRead IO Waiting for base backup file to be read.
BufferIO IPC Waiting for buffer I/O to complete.
BufFileTruncate IO Waiting for buffer file truncation.
LogicalChangesRead IO Waiting to read the logical change file.
LogicalChangesWrite IO Waiting to write a logical change file.
LogicalSubxactRead IO Waiting to load a logical subtransaction.
LogicalSubxactWrite IO Waiting for a logical subtransaction to write.
WalReceiverExit IPC Waiting for the WAL receiver process to finish.

The following wait events have been retyped.

Table 19 Wait event with changed type

Wait Event name Before After Note
WalReceiverWaitStart Client IPC

3.1.10. Stored Procedure

The following functions have been added.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 30

□ SPI_execute_extended
This API replaces the deprecated SPI_execute_plan_with_paramlist. It is possible to specify the re-
owner used to fix the execution plan.

Syntax
int SPI_execute_extended(const char *src, const SPIExecuteOptions
*options)

□ SPI_cursor_parse_open
Set up a cursor using a query string and parameters.

Syntax
Portal SPI_cursor_parse_open(const char *name, const char *src,
const SPIParseOpenOptions *options)

□ SPI_scroll_cursor_fetch
Fetch some rows from a cursor

Syntax
void SPI_scroll_cursor_fetch(Portal portal, FetchDirection
direction, long count)

3.1.11. Pg_hba.conf file

By adding a backslash (\) at the end of a line, a single setting can now be described across multiple
lines. The backslash must be the last character on the line.

Example 27 Line breaks in the pg_hba.conf file

# IPv4 local connections:

host all all 127.0.0.1/32 trust
host postgres postgres 192.168.1.219/32 \
md5

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 31

3.1.12. LIBPQ library
The following extensions have been implemented in the libpq library.

□ Connection string target_session_attrs

The following values have been added to the settings of the target_session_attrs parameter.

Table 20 Added setting values

Value Description
read-only The destination database cannot be updated. The opposite of read-write.
primary Connect to the primary instance of streaming replication.
standby Connect to a standby instance of streaming replication.
prefer-standby Connect if a standby instance exists. If the standby instance does not exist,
connect to the primary instance.

□ Connection string sslcrldir

It is now possible to set the sslcrldir to specify the CRL storage directory for SSL connections. It can
also be specified by the environment variable PGSSLCRLDIR.

□ Connection string sslsni

Configure Server Name Indication (SNI) for SSL connections. It can also be specified by the
environment variable PGSSLSNI.

□ Pipeline mode
The libpq pipeline mode allows applications to avoid FE/BE protocol synchronization messages
implicitly included in the old libpq API after each query. The following functions have been added.

Table 21 Added functions for pipeline mode

Function name Description
PQpipelineStatus Returns the status of the current pipeline mode.
PQenterPipelineMode Enter pipeline mode.
PQexitPipelineMode Exit pipeline mode.
PQpipelineSync Request pipeline synchronization.

□ Debug log
The PQsetTraceFlags function has been added.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 32

□ Sync message
The PQsendFlushRequest function has been added.

3.1.13. ECPG
DECLARE STATEMENT statement can now be specified for ECPG.

Example 28 DECLARE STATEMENT statement

EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
char *selectStr = "SELECT c1 FROM data1";
long f1;
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

int main()
{
EXEC SQL CONNECT TO postgres USER postgres;

EXEC SQL DECLARE stmt1 STATEMENT;

EXEC SQL PREPARE stmt1 FROM :selectStr;
EXEC SQL DECLARE cur1 CURSOR FOR stmt1;
EXEC SQL OPEN cur1;
…
}

3.1.14. Roles
The following roles have been added.

□ Pg_database_owner
The pg_database_owner role has been added. Members of this role implicitly consist of the database
owner. It is usually expected to be used in a template database.

□ Pg_read_all_data / pg_write_all_data
Added pg_read_all_data role, which allows reading all objects in the database, and
pg_write_all_data role, which allows writing.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 33

3.1.15. Logfile
Additional information is now output to the log file.

□ Log_autovacuum_min_duration
Detailed information for each index is now output to the automatic VACUUM log
(log_autovacuum_min_duration).

Example 29 Index information for automatic VACUUM log

LOG: automatic vacuum of table "postgres.public.data1": index

scans: 1
pages: 0 removed, 5406 remain, 0 skipped due to pins, 0
skipped frozen
tuples: 500000 removed, 500000 remain, 0 are dead but not
yet removable, oldest xmin: 566
buffer usage: 21775 hits, 0 misses, 1 dirtied
index scan needed: 5406 pages from table (100.00% of total)
had 500000 dead item identifiers removed
index "idx1_data1": pages: 2745 in total, 0 newly deleted,
0 currently deleted, 0 reusable
index "idx2_data1": pages: 2745 in total, 0 newly deleted,
0 currently deleted, 0 reusable
avg read rate: 20.330 MB/s, avg write rate: 20.239 MB/s
…

□ Log_connection
Additional information about authentication is output to the connection log (log_connection).

Example 30 Authentication information log at the time of connection

LOG: connection received: host=192.168.1.219 port=51524

LOG: connection authenticated: identity="demo" method=md5
(/usr/local/pgsql/data/pg_hba.conf:91)
LOG: connection authorized: user=demo database=postgres
application_name=psql

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 34

3.1.16. Process name
The information is appended to some process names in the instance.

□ WAL Receiver
The status is now output to the process name of the wal receiver process.

Example 31 Process name of WAL receiver

$ ps -ef|grep receiver | grep -v grep

postgres 93255 93249 0 14:34 ? 00:00:01 postgres:
walreceiver streaming 0/5D744F8
$

□ WAL sender
The replication command name is now output to the process name of the WAL sender process for
logical replication.

Example 32 Process name of WAL sender

$ ps -ef|grep sender | grep -v grep
postgres 92995 92944 0 14:28 ? 00:00:00 postgres:
walsender postgres [local] START_REPLICATION
$

3.1.17. Regular Expression

The complement-class escapes \D, \S, \W are now allowed within bracket expressions. Also, 'word'
has been added as a character class. This is the equivalent of \w.

Example 33 'Word' character class

postgres=> SELECT 'abc def' ~ '[[:word:]] [[:word:]]' ;
?column?
----------
t
(1 row)

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 35

3.1.18. Text search
The languages for text search have been increased. The following languages have been added to
PostgreSQL 14.

Table 22 Added languages

Language name Description
armenian Armenian language
basque Basque language
catalan Catalan language
hindi Hindi language
serbian Serbian language
yiddish Yiddish language

3.1.19. Test module

The PL/Sample module, which can be used as a template for procedure languages, has been added.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 36

Example 34 PL/Sample module

$ cd src/test/modules/plsample
$ ls -l
total 24
drwxrwxr-x. 2 postgres postgres 26 Sep 28 06:00 expected
-rw-r--r--. 1 postgres postgres 440 Sep 28 05:57 Makefile
-rw-r--r--. 1 postgres postgres 469 Sep 28 05:57 plsample--1.0.sql
-rw-r--r--. 1 postgres postgres 5046 Sep 28 05:57 plsample.c
-rw-r--r--. 1 postgres postgres 177 Sep 28 05:57 plsample.control
-rw-r--r--. 1 postgres postgres 228 Sep 28 05:57 README
drwxrwxr-x. 2 postgres postgres 26 Sep 28 06:00 sql

3.1.20. Maximum password length

The maximum length limit for password strings used for client authentication has been removed.

3.1.21. LLVM
Now supports LLVM 12.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 37

3.2. SQL Statement
This section explains new features related to SQL statements.

3.2.1. ALTER CURRENT_ROLE

The statements that can specify CURRENT_USER clause, such as the ALTER AGGREGATE,
ALTER CONVERSION, and ALTER DATABASE statements, can now also specify a
CURRENT_ROLE clause.

Example 35 ALTER DATABASE statement

postgres=# ALTER DATABASE demodb OWNER TO CURRENT_ROLE ;
ALTER DATABASE

3.2.2. ALTER SUBSCRIPTION

The syntax for adding/removing publications for existing subscriptions has been added.
Specify ADD PUBLICATION clause or DROP PUBLICATION clause in the ALTER
SUBSCRIPTION statement.

Syntax
ALTER SUBSCRIPTION subscription_name [ ADD | DROP ] PUBLICATION
publication_name

3.2.3. ALTER TABLE

CONCURRENTLY clause can now be specified in the ALTER TABLE DETACH PARTITION
statement. If CONCURRENTLY is specified, it will be executed at a lower lock level to avoid blocking
other sessions that may be accessing the partitioned table. In this mode, two transactions are used
internally and cannot be executed within a transaction block. Also, it cannot be executed on a
partitioned table that contains the default partition.
If FINALIZE is specified, the previous DETACH CONCURRENTLY call that was canceled or
interrupted is completed.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 38

Syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name DETACH PARTITION partition_name
[ FINALIZE | CONCURRENTLY ]

3.2.4. COPY FREEZE

Visibility Map is now updated with the execution of COPY FREEZE statement.

Example 36 Check visibility map after executing COPY FREEZE statement

postgres=# BEGIN ;
BEGIN
postgres=*# TRUNCATE TABLE visible1 ;
TRUNCATE TABLE
postgres=*# COPY visible1 FROM '/home/postgres/visible1.csv'
CSV FREEZE ;
COPY 3
postgres=*# COMMIT ;
COMMIT
postgres=# SELECT * FROM pg_visibility_map('visible1', 0) ;
all_visible | all_frozen
-------------+------------
t | t
(1 row)

3.2.5. CREATE INDEX

The INCLUDE clause can now be specified when creating SP-GiST indexes.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 39

3.2.6. CREATE PROCEDURE/FUNCTION

The following enhancements have been implemented for the CREATE PROCEDURE and CREATE
FUNCTION statements.

□ OUT clause
It is now possible to specify the OUT clause as a parameter of PROCEDURE.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 40

Example 38 CREATE PROCEDURE statement
postgres=> CREATE PROCEDURE sum_n_product(x int, y int, OUT sum
int, OUT prod int) AS $$
BEGIN
sum := x + y ;
prod := x * y ;
END $$ LANGUAGE plpgsql ;
CREATE PROCEDURE
postgres=> SELECT proargmodes FROM pg_proc WHERE
proname='sum_n_product' ;
proargmodes
-------------
{i,i,o,o}
(1 row)
postgres=> CALL sum_n_product(2, 4, NULL, NULL) ;
sum | prod
-----+------
6 | 8
(1 row)

□ LANGUAGE SQL
When the LANGUAGE SQL clause is specified in the CREATE FUNCTION statement and
CREATE PROCEDURE statement, it is not necessary to enclose it in character literals, and SQL
standard-compliant syntax is supported. The source for FUNCTION / PROCEDURE created with this
syntax is stored in the prosqlbody column of the pg_proc catalog.

Example 39 LANGUAGE SQL

postgres=> CREATE PROCEDURE insert_data1(id INTEGER, val TEXT)
LANGUAGE SQL
BEGIN ATOMIC
INSERT INTO data1 VALUES (id, val) ;
INSERT INTO data1 VALUES (id, val) ;
END ;
CREATE PROCEDURE

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 41

FUNCTION and PROCEDURE created in the standard format are aware of the dependencies of the
objects they are used on. For this reason, when the DROP TABLE CASCADE statement is executed,
FUNCTION with dependencies will be dropped at the same time.

Example 40 DROP TABLE CASCADE statement

postgres=> CREATE PROCEDURE insert_data1(id NUMERIC, val TEXT)
LANGUAGE SQL
BEGIN ATOMIC
INSERT INTO data1 VALUES (id, val);
END ;
CREATE PROCEDURE
postgres=> DROP TABLE data1 ;
ERROR: cannot drop table data1 because other objects depend on it
DETAIL: function insert_data1(numeric,text) depends on table
data1
HINT: Use DROP ... CASCADE to drop the dependent objects too.
postgres=> DROP TABLE data1 CASCADE ;
NOTICE: drop cascades to function insert_data1(numeric,text)
DROP TABLE

3.2.7. CREATE TABLE

It is now possible to specify different values of COLLATION for partition boundaries.

Example 41 CREATE TABLE statement

postgres=> CREATE TABLE part_coll (c1 TEXT) PARTITION BY RANGE
(c1 COLLATE "POSIX") ;
CREATE TABLE
postgres=> CREATE TABLE part_coll_p1 PARTITION OF part_coll FOR
VALUES FROM ('a' collate "C") to ('g') ;
CREATE TABLE

3.2.8. CREATE TRIGGER

The OR REPLACE clause can now be specified in the CREATE TRIGGER statement.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 42

Example 42 CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER statement
postgres=> CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER data1_trig1 AFTER INSERT
ON data1 FOR EACH ROW EXECUTE FUNCTION data1_ins_func1 () ;
CREATE TRIGGER

3.2.9. CREATE TYPE

SUBSCRIPT clause that specifies the MULTIRANGE_TYPE_NAME clause and generic subscript
access for the function you specify more than one range type has been added to the CREATE TYPE
statement.

Syntax
CREATE TYPE name AS RANGE (
SUBTYPE = subtype
[ , MULTIRANGE_TYPE_NAME = multirange_type_name ]
)

Syntax
CREATE TYPE name (
INPUT = input_function,
OUTPUT = output_function
[ , SUBSCRIPT = subscript_function ]
)

3.2.10. GRANT / REVOKE

It is now possible to specify the GRANTED BY clause for granting roles with GRANT and REVOKE
statements in accordance with the SQL standard. The GRANTED BY clause can only specify the
current role that executes the GRANT statement, so it behaves the same as in previous versions.

Syntax
GRANT role_name [, …] TO role_specification
[ WITH ADMIN OPTION ] [ GRANTED BY role_specification ]

REVOKE [ ADMIN OPTION FOR ] role_name [, …] FROM role_specification

[ GRANTED BY role_specification ] [ CASCADE | RESTRICT ]

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 43

Example 43 GRANTED BY clause
postgres=> GRANT SELECT ON data1 TO user1 GRANTED BY CURRENT_USER ;
GRANT
postgres=> GRANT SELECT ON data1 TO user1 GRANTED BY postgres ;
ERROR: grantor must be current user

3.2.11. INSERT
The following enhancements have been implemented in the INSERT statement.

□ ON CONFLICT clause
It is now possible to qualify a table name for a column specification in the WHERE clause in the ON
CONFLICT clause.

Example 44 Table qualified with ON CONFLICT clause

postgres=> INSERT INTO data1 AS d1 VALUES (10, 'data1') ON CONFLICT
(c1) WHERE d1.c2 = 'data1' DO NOTHING ;
INSERT 0 1

□ GENERATED ALWAYS clause

It is now possible to specify multi-tuple DEFAULT clause when executing an INSERT statement on
a table that has a column with a GENERATED ALWAYS clause.

Example 45 Multiple tuple DEFAULT clause

postgres=> CREATE TABLE gen1(c1 INT PRIMARY KEY, c2 INT
GENERATED ALWAYS AS (c1+1) STORED) ;
CREATE TABLE
postgres=> INSERT INTO gen1 VALUES (100, DEFAULT),(200, DEFAULT) ;
INSERT 0 2
postgres=> SELECT * FROM gen1 ;
c1 | c2
-----+-----
100 | 101
200 | 201
(2 rows)

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 44

3.2.12. REINDEX
The following enhancements have been implemented to the REINDEX statement.

□ Partitioned table
It is now possible to specify a partitioned table for the REINDEX statement.

Example 46 Execute REINDEX statement on a partitioned table

postgres=> CREATE TABLE part1(c1 NUMERIC, c2 VARCHAR(10))
PARTITION BY RANGE (c1) ;
CREATE TABLE
postgres=> CREATE TABLE part1v1 PARTITION OF part1 FOR VALUES
FROM (0) TO (100000) ;
CREATE TABLE
postgres=> CREATE TABLE part1v2 PARTITION OF part1 FOR VALUES
FROM (100000) TO (200000) ;
CREATE TABLE
postgres=> CREATE INDEX idx1_part1 ON part1(c1) ;
CREATE INDEX
postgres=> REINDEX TABLE part1 ;
REINDEX

□ Specifying the tablespace

Tablespaces for indexes can now be specified in the optional TABLESPACE clause.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 45

Example 47 Specifying the tablespace
postgres=> REINDEX (TABLESPACE ts1, VERBOSE) INDEX idx1_data1 ;
INFO: index "idx1_data1" was reindexed
DETAIL: CPU: user: 0.00 s, system: 0.00 s, elapsed: 0.00 s
REINDEX
postgres=> REINDEX (TABLESPACE ts1, VERBOSE) TABLE data1 ;
INFO: index "data1_pkey" was reindexed
DETAIL: CPU: user: 0.00 s, system: 0.00 s, elapsed: 0.00 s
INFO: index "idx1_data1" was reindexed
DETAIL: CPU: user: 0.00 s, system: 0.00 s, elapsed: 0.00 s
INFO: index "pg_toast_16385_index" was reindexed
DETAIL: CPU: user: 0.00 s, system: 0.00 s, elapsed: 0.00 s
REINDEX

3.2.13. VACUUM
The following enhancements have been implemented in VACUUM.

□ TOAST table
The PROCESS_TOAST option can now be specified in the VACUUM statement. This option
performs VACUUM processing on the TOAST table. This parameter is enabled by default. To disable
processing of the TOAST table, specify the PROCESS_TOAST FALSE option.

Example 48 VACUUM (PROCESS_TOAST) statement

postgres=> VACUUM (PROCESS_TOAST FALSE, VERBOSE) data1 ;
INFO: vacuuming "public.data1"
INFO: "data1": found 0 removable, 37 nonremovable row versions in
1 out of 5406 pages
DETAIL: 0 dead row versions cannot be removed yet, oldest xmin:
518
There were 38 unused item identifiers.
Skipped 0 pages due to buffer pins, 0 frozen pages.
0 pages are entirely empty.
CPU: user: 0.00 s, system: 0.00 s, elapsed: 0.00 s.
VACUUM

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 46

□ Failsafe Mechanism
If it determines that the table's relfrozenxid or relminmxid is dangerously past, VACUUM bypasses
non-freeze processing. The parameters vacuum_failsafe_age and vacuum_multixact_failsafe_age
have been added as these thresholds.

□ Bypass index vacuum

Allow vacuum to skip index vacuuming when the number of removable index entries is insignificant.
The vacuum parameter INDEX_CLEANUP has a new default of auto that enables this optimization.

Example 49 Autovacuum log at bypass index vacuum

LOG: automatic vacuum of table "postgres.public.data1": index
scans: 0
pages: 0 removed, 5406 remain, 0 skipped due to pins, 0
skipped frozen
tuples: 15000 removed, 985000 remain, 0 are dead but not yet
removable, oldest xmin: 880
index scan bypassed: 82 pages from table (1.52% of total)
have 15000 dead item identifiers
avg read rate: 0.095 MB/s, avg write rate: 0.191 MB/s
buffer usage: 10793 hits, 2 misses, 4 dirtied
WAL usage: 5407 records, 1 full page images, 356929 bytes
…

3.2.14. SELECT
The following enhancements have been implemented to the SELECT statement.

□ Support for reserved words

In PostgreSQL 14, AS clause is no longer required even when a reserved word is specified as an
alias for a column in the SELECT statement. The number of reserved words that cannot be used for
aliases has been significantly reduced.

Example 50 No AS clause required

postgres=> SELECT loc analyze FROM dept ;
analyze
---------
(0 rows)

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 47

□ GROUP BY DISTINCT
It is now possible to specify DISTINCT to eliminate duplicates in the GROUP BY clause. It is also
possible to specify ALL to output all (the default behavior is ALL).

Example 51 GROUP BY DISTINCT

postgres=> SELECT a, b, c FROM (VALUES (1, 2, 3),
(4, NULL, 6), (7, 8, 9)) AS t (a, b, c)
GROUP BY ALL ROLLUP(a, b), ROLLUP(a, c) ORDER BY a, b, c ;
a | b | c
---+---+---
1 | 2 | 3
1 | 2 |
…
| |
(25 rows)

postgres=> SELECT a, b, c FROM (VALUES (1, 2, 3),

(4, NULL, 6), (7, 8, 9)) AS t (a, b, c) GROUP BY
DISTINCT ROLLUP(a, b), ROLLUP(a, c) ORDER BY a, b, c ;
a | b | c
---+---+---
1 | 2 | 3
1 | 2 |
…
| |
(13 rows)

□ SEARCH clause / CYCLE clause

The SEARCH and CYCLE clauses defined in the SQL standard can now be specified in the WITH
clause of recursive SQL statements. The CYCLE clause is used for closed circuit detection, and the
SEARCH clause can be used to specify depth-first search (DEPTH FIRST) or breadth-first search
(BREADTH FIRST).

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 48

Example 52 SEARCH clause (DEPTH FIRST)
postgres=> CREATE TABLE graph0(f INT, t INT, label TEXT) ;
CREATE TABLE
postgres=> INSERT INTO graph0 VALUES (1, 2, 'arc 1 -> 2'),
(1, 3, 'arc 1 -> 3'), (2, 3, 'arc 2 -> 3'),
(1, 4, 'arc 1 -> 4'), (4, 5, 'arc 4 -> 5') ;
INSERT 0 5
postgres=> WITH RECURSIVE search_graph(f, t, label) AS (
SELECT * FROM graph0 g
UNION ALL
SELECT g.* FROM graph0 g, search_graph sg WHERE
g.f = sg.t
) SEARCH DEPTH FIRST BY f, t SET seq
SELECT * FROM search_graph ORDER BY seq ;
f | t | label | seq
---+---+------------+-------------------
1 | 2 | arc 1 -> 2 | {"(1,2)"}
2 | 3 | arc 2 -> 3 | {"(1,2)","(2,3)"}
1 | 3 | arc 1 -> 3 | {"(1,3)"}
1 | 4 | arc 1 -> 4 | {"(1,4)"}
4 | 5 | arc 4 -> 5 | {"(1,4)","(4,5)"}
2 | 3 | arc 2 -> 3 | {"(2,3)"}
4 | 5 | arc 4 -> 5 | {"(4,5)"}
(7 rows)

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Example 53 SEARCH clause (BREADTH FIRST)
postgres=> WITH RECURSIVE search_graph(f, t, label) AS (
SELECT * FROM graph0 g
UNION ALL
SELECT g.* FROM graph0 g, search_graph sg WHERE g.f = sg.t
) SEARCH BREADTH FIRST BY f, t SET seq
SELECT * FROM search_graph ORDER BY seq ;
f | t | label | seq
---+---+------------+---------
1 | 2 | arc 1 -> 2 | (0,1,2)
1 | 3 | arc 1 -> 3 | (0,1,3)
1 | 4 | arc 1 -> 4 | (0,1,4)
2 | 3 | arc 2 -> 3 | (0,2,3)
4 | 5 | arc 4 -> 5 | (0,4,5)
2 | 3 | arc 2 -> 3 | (1,2,3)
4 | 5 | arc 4 -> 5 | (1,4,5)
(7 rows)

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Example 54 CYCLE clause
postgres=> CREATE TABLE graph1(f INT, t INT, label TEXT) ;
CREATE TABLE
postgres=> INSERT INTO graph1 VALUES
(1, 2, 'arc 1 -> 2'), (1, 3, 'arc 1 -> 3'),
(2, 3, 'arc 2 -> 3'),
(1, 4, 'arc 1 -> 4'), (4, 5, 'arc 4 -> 5'),
(5, 1, 'arc 5 -> 1') ;
INSERT 0 6
postgres=> WITH RECURSIVE search_graph(f, t, label) AS (
SELECT * FROM graph1 g
UNION ALL
SELECT g.* FROM graph1 g, search_graph sg
WHERE g.f = sg.t
) CYCLE f, t SET is_cycle TO TRUE DEFAULT FALSE USING PATH
SELECT * FROM search_graph ;
f | t | label | is_cycle | path
---+---+------------+----------+---------------------------------
1 | 2 | arc 1 -> 2 | f | {"(1,2)"}
1 | 3 | arc 1 -> 3 | f | {"(1,3)"}
2 | 3 | arc 2 -> 3 | f | {"(2,3)"}
1 | 4 | arc 1 -> 4 | f | {"(1,4)"}
…
5 | 1 | arc 5 -> 1 | t | {"(5,1)","(1,4)","(4,5)","(5,1)"}
2 | 3 | arc 2 -> 3 | f |
{"(1,4)","(4,5)","(5,1)","(1,2)","(2,3)"}
(25 rows)

□ USING AS clause
It is now possible to use aliases for columns specified in the JOIN USING clause. Aliases are also
available in the SELECT clause for the columns specified in the JOIN. This is a feature defined in
SQL:2016 feature F404 "Range variable for common column names".

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Example 55 JOIN USING AS clause
postgres=> SELECT d1.c1, x.c1, x.c2 FROM data1 d1 JOIN data2 d2
USING (c1, c2) AS x ;

3.2.15. TRUNCATE
TRUNCATE statements can now be executed in FOREIGN TABLE if supported by FOREIGN
DATA WRAPPER. The postgres_fdw module now supports the TRUNCATE statement.

Example 56 TRUNCATE statement for FOREIGN TABLE

postgres=> CREATE FOREIGN TABLE remote1(c1 NUMERIC, c2
VARCHAR(10)) SERVER remsvr1 ;
CREATE FOREIGN TABLE
postgres=> TRUNCATE TABLE remote1 ;
TRUNCATE TABLE

3.2.16. Functions
The following functions have been added / extended.

□ Bit_count
Outputs the number of bits that are turned on in the specified bit string or bytea type.

Syntax
bigint BIT_COUNT(bit | bytea)

Example 57 Bit_count function

postgres=> SELECT bit_count(B'0101011001'::bit(10)) ;
bit_count
-----------
5
(1 row)

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□ Bit_xor
An aggregate function bit_xor has been added to calculate the XOR of a bit string. The bit_or and
bit_and functions are already provided.

Syntax
integer | bit BIT_XOR(bigint | bit | integer | smallint)

Example 58 Bit_xor function

postgres=> SELECT SUM(c1), BIT_XOR(c1) FROM data1 ;
sum | bit_xor
------------+---------
5000050000 | 100000
(1 row)

□ Date_bin
Truncates the entered timestamp at the specified interval. It is similar to the date_trunc function, but
can be truncated at any interval.

Syntax
timestamp with time zone DATE_BIN(stride interval, source
timestamp with time zone, origin timestamp with time zone)

Example 59 Date_bin function

postgres=> SELECT date_bin('15 minutes', TIMESTAMP'2020-02-11
15:44:17', TIMESTAMP'2001-01-01 00:02:30') ;
date_bin
---------------------
2020-02-11 15:32:30
(1 row)

□ Make_timestamp / make_timestamptz
These functions can now specify a negative value indicating the BC to the specified year.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 53

Example 60 Create a date BC

postgres=> SELECT make_timestamp(-2, 12, 25, 10, 20, 30) ;

make_timestamp
------------------------
0002-12-25 10:20:30 BC
(1 row)

□ Split_part
It is now possible to specify a negative value for the third parameter of the split_part function. If a
negative value is specified, the part from the right side of the string specified in the first parameter can
be cut off.

Example 61 Split_part function

postgres=> SELECT split_part('www.postgresql.org', '.', -1) ;
split_part
------------
org
(1 row)

□ Substring
It now conforms to the syntax formulated in the SQL standard, SQL:2003.

Syntax
text SUBSTRING(search_text text SIMILAR pattern text ESCAPE escape
text)

The execution result is the same as SUBSTRING(text FROM pattern FOR escape).

Example 62 Substring function

postgres=> SELECT substring('Thomas' SIMILAR '%#"o_a#"_' ESCAPE '#') ;
substring
-----------
oma
(1 row)

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 54

□ Trim / ltrim / rtrim
The ltrim and rtrim functions can now be used for bytea types, and the trim function can now specify
LEADING and TRAILING clauses for bytea types.

Example 63 Rtrim function

postgres=> SELECT rtrim('abc'::bytea, 'c'::bytea) ;
rtrim
--------
\x6162
(1 row)

postgres=> \df rtrim

□ Trim_array
The function trim_array has been added to remove the end of an array.

Syntax
anyarray TRIM_ARRAY(array anyarray, n integer)

Example 64 Trim_array function

postgres=> SELECT trim_array(ARRAY[1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) ;
trim_array
------------
{1,2,3}
(1 row)

□ Unistr
The unistr function evaluates the specified Unicode escaped string.

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Syntax
text UNISTR(text)

Example 65 Unistr function

postgres=> SELECT unistr('\0441\+00043B\u043E\043D') ;
unistr
--------
слон
(1 row)

□ String_to_table
The string_to_table function separates the string with the specified separator and converts it to a table.

Syntax
setoff STRING_TO_TABLE(string text, delimiter text [, null_string
text])

Example 66 String_to_table function

postgres=> SELECT string_to_table('ABC-+-DEF-+-GHI', '-+-',
'abc') ;
string_to_table
-----------------
ABC
DEF
GHI
(3 rows)

□ Jsonb type ISO 8601 format date

Supports ISO 8601 date formats. This feature has been backported since PostgreSQL 13.1.

© 2020-2021 Hewlett Packard Japan, G.K. 56

Example 67 Date format in ISO 8601 format
postgres => SELECT jsonb_path_query('"2017-03-10T12:34:56+3:10"',
'$.datetime()') ;
jsonb_path_query
-----------------------------
"2017-03-10T12:34:56+03:10"
(1 row)

□ Pg_get_wal_pause_state
Returns the paused state of recovery. Returns "not paused" if no pause was requested, "pause
requested" if pause was requested but recovery is not paused, and "paused" if recovery is paused. In
PostgreSQL 14, recovery is now paused if the required parameter values are missing.

Syntax
text PG_GET_WAL_REPLAY_PAUSE_STATE()

Example 68 Pg_get_wal_pause_state function

postgres=# SELECT pg_wal_replay_pause() ;
pg_wal_replay_pause
---------------------

(1 row)

postgres=# SELECT pg_get_wal_replay_pause_state() ;

pg_get_wal_replay_pause_state
-------------------------------
paused
(1 row)

□ Pg_log_backend_memory_contexts
The pg_log_backend_memory_contexts function outputs the memory status of the process with the
specified ID as a LOG level message.

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Syntax
bool PG_LOG_BACKEND_MEMORY_CONTEXTS(pid integer)

Example 69 Pg_log_backend_memory_contexts function

postgres=# SELECT pg_log_backend_memory_contexts(pg_backend_pid()) ;

LOG: logging memory contexts of PID 67300

STATEMENT: SELECT pg_log_backend_memory_contexts(pg_backend_pid());

LOG: level: 0; TopMemoryContext: 68704 total in 5 blocks; 14416 free (10
chunks); 54288 used

□ Pg_terminate_backend
The pg_terminate_backend function now has a parameter to specify a timeout. The function will
return true if the session exits within the timeout.

Syntax
boolean PG_TERMINATE_BACKEND(pid integer,
timeout bigint DEFAULT 0)

□ Pg_xact_commit_timestamp_origin
This function outputs the time stamp and replication origin for the transaction ID. There is a need to
specify 'on' the track_commit_timestamp the execution of this function.

Syntax
record PG_XACT_COMMITTED_TIMESTAMP_ORIGIN(xid xid, OUT timestamp
timestamp with time zone, OUT roident oid)

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Example 70 Pg_xact_commit_timestamp_origin function
postgres=# SHOW track_commit_timestamp ;
track_commit_timestamp
------------------------
on
(1 row)

postgres=# SELECT * FROM

pg_xact_commit_timestamp_origin(txid_current()::text::xid) ;
timestamp | roident
-----------+---------
|
(1 row)

□ Pg_last_committed_xact
The function now outputs a roident column indicating the replication origin in the execution result.

Syntax
record PG_LAST_COMMITTED_XACT()

Example 71 Pg_last_committed_xact function

postgres=# SELECT * FROM pg_last_committed_xact() ;
xid | timestamp | roident
-----+-------------------------------+---------
515 | 2021-10-01 11:08:58.549866+09 | 0
(1 row)

□ Pg_get_catalog_foreign_keys
Added pg_get_catalog_foreign_keys function to retrieve information about foreign keys defined in
a system catalog. This function can be run by general users.

□ Pg_create_logical_replication_slot
The parameter twophase has been added to support two-phase commit.

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Example 72 Pg_create_logical_replication_slot function
postgres=# \dfS pg_create_logical_replication_slot
List of functions

-[ RECORD 1 ]-------+-------------------------------------------------------
Schema | pg_catalog

Name | pg_create_logical_replication_slot

Result data type | record

Argument data types | slot_name name, plugin name, temporary boolean DEFAULT
false, twophase boolean DEFAULT false, OUT slot_name name, OUT lsn pg_lsn
Type | func

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3.3. Configuration parameters
In PostgreSQL 14 the following parameters have been changed.

3.3.1. Added parameters

The following parameters have been added.

Table 23 Added parameters

Parameter name Description (context) Default value
client_connection_check_int The time interval between optional checks that 0
erval the client is still connected. (user)
compute_query_id Compute query identifiers. (superuser) auto
debug_discard_caches Aggressively invalidate system caches for 0
debugging purposes. (superuser)
default_toast_compression Default compression for new columns. (user) pglz
enable_async_append Use of async append plans. (user) on
enable_memoize Enable Memoize node. (user) on
huge_page_size The size of huge page. (postmaster) 0
idle_session_timeout The maximum allowed idle time. (user) 0
in_hot_standby Shows whether hot standby is currently active. off
(internal)
log_recovery_conflict_waits Logs standby recovery conflict waits. (sighup) off
min_dynamic_shared_memo Amount of dynamic shared memory reserved at 0
ry startup. (postmaster)
recovery_init_sync_method Sets the method for synchronizing the data fsync
directory before crash recovery. (sighup)
remove_temp_files_after_cra Remove temporary files after backend crash. on
sh (sighup)
ssl_crl_dir Location of the SSL certificate revocation list ''
directory. (sighup)
track_wal_io_timing Collects timing statistics for WAL I/O activity. off
(superuser)
vacuum_failsafe_age Age at which VACUUM should trigger failsafe. 1600000000
(user)
vacuum_multixact_failsafe_ Multixact age at which VACUUM should trigger 1600000000
age failsafe. (user)

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□ Compute_query_id
If the parameter value is set to on, a unique ID will be calculated for the query being executed. The
query ID will be the same value for all SQLs that have the same meaning in the database. The query
ID can be displayed by EXPLAIN VERBOSE statement, queryid column in pg_stat_activity
view, %Q in log_line_prefix parameter, and so on. This is an adaptation of the functionality
previously used by the pg_stat_statements module. The default value is 'auto', which is automatically
enabled if modules such as pg_stat_statements require this parameter.

Example 73 Display query ID

postgres=# SET compute_query_id = on ;
SET
postgres=# EXPLAIN VERBOSE SELECT * FROM data1 ;
QUERY PLAN
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Seq Scan on public.data1 (cost=0.00..15406.00 rows=1000000
width=12)
Output: c1, c2
Query Identifier: 3365166609774651210
(3 rows)

□ Idle_session_timeout
Specifies the timeout value in milliseconds for forcibly terminating idle sessions. The default value
is 0, which means that no timeout will occur. During transaction execution,
idle_in_transaction_session_timeout is used and idle_session_timeout is ignored.

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Example 74 Idle timeout
postgres=> \set VERBOSITY verbose
postgres=> SET idle_session_timeout = 1000 ;
SET
postgres=> -- Wait one second.
postgres=> SELECT 1 ;
FATAL: 57P05: terminating connection due to idle-session timeout
LOCATION: ProcessInterrupts, postgres.c:3356
server closed the connection unexpectedly
This probably means the server terminated abnormally
before or while processing the request.
The connection to the server was lost. Attempting reset: Succeeded.
postgres=>

□ Log_recovery_conflict_waits
In an environment where the log_recovery_conflict_waits parameter is enabled on the standby
instance, conflict information is output to the log when a conflict occurs when deadlock_timeout is
exceeded. Also, if the conflict is resolved, it will be output to the log. The following is the output
conflict information.

Example 75 Log of conflict state

-- When conflict occurs
LOG: recovery still waiting after 1031.776 ms: recovery conflict
on snapshot
DETAIL: Conflicting process: 53647.
[49948] CONTEXT: WAL redo at 1/8ECE0138 for Heap2/PRUNE:
latestRemovedXid 895 nredirected 0 ndead 167; blkref #0: rel
1663/14892/17264, blk 108

-- When conflict is resolved

LOG: recovery finished waiting after 26073.257 ms: recovery
conflict on snapshot
CONTEXT: WAL redo at 1/8ECE0138 for Heap2/PRUNE: latestRemovedXid
895 nredirected 0 ndead 167; blkref #0: rel 1663/14892/17264, blk
108

□ Remove_temp_files_after_crash
Determines whether to remove the temporary files that were created when the backend process
terminated abnormally. Conventionally, these files are not removed until the instance is restarted.
The default value is 'on', which means that the temporary files will be deleted if the backend process
terminates abnormally.

3.3.2. Changed parameters

The setting range and options were changed for the following configuration parameters.

Table 24 Changed parameters

Parameter name Changes

log_line_prefix Added %P to indicate the process ID of the parallel group leader.

Added %Q to indicate query ID.
password_encryption The set value on/true/1 has been removed.
restore_command Dynamic changes are now possible by reloading the parameter file.
unix_socket_directories Abstract namespaces starting with @ can now be specified.

3.3.3. Removed parameters

The following parameters have been removed. The parameter vacuum_cleanup_index_scale_factor
is disabled since PostgreSQL 13.3.

Table 25 Removed parameters

Parameter name Reason
operator_precedence_warning It was deemed unnecessary as PostgreSQL 9.4 and earlier
are no longer supported.
vacuum_cleanup_index_scale_factor It can be specified in the index to maintain compatibility,
but it has no effect.

3.3.4. Parameters with default values changed
The following parameters have changed default values.

Table 26 Parameters with default values changed

Parameter name PostgreSQL 13 PostgreSQL 14 Note
checkpoint_completion_target 0.5 0.9
password_encryption md5 scram-sha-256
server_version 13.4 14.0
server_version_num 130004 140000
vacuum_cost_page_miss 10 2

3.4. Utilities
Describes the major enhancements of utility commands.

3.4.1. Configure
The following options have been added to the 'configure' command.

□ Specify SSL library

Added "--with-ssl={library name}" option to specify the SSL library. Also, conventional "--with-
openssl" option has been left for compatibility.

Example 76 Configure command for SSL

$ ./configure --help | grep ssl
--with-ssl=LIB use LIB for SSL/TLS support (openssl)
--with-openssl obsolete spelling of --with-ssl=openssl
$

□ Column compression method

The --with-lz4 option has been added to take advantage of the LZ4 column compression feature.
The compiler flag LZ4_CFLAGS and the linker flag LZ4_LIBS have been added as environment
variables.

Example 77 Configure command for LZ4

$ ./configure --help | grep -i lz4
--with-lz4 build with LZ4 support
LZ4_CFLAGS C compiler flags for LZ4, overriding pkg-config
LZ4_LIBS linker flags for LZ4, overriding pkg-config
$

3.4.2. Initdb
The following options have been added to the initdb command.

□ --no-instructions option
When this option is specified, a message indicating the instance start-up method will not be output.

Example 78 --no-instructions option
$ initdb -D data --no-instructions
The files belonging to this database system will be owned by user
"postgres".
This user must also own the server process.
…
initdb: warning: enabling "trust" authentication for local
connections
You can change this by editing pg_hba.conf or using the option -
A, or
--auth-local and --auth-host, the next time you run initdb.

□ --data-checksums option
In the message output when the --help option is specified, the --data-checksums option that specifies
the checksum has been promoted from "Less commonly used options:" to the commonly used option
"Options:".

Example 79 Checksum specification option

$ initdb --help
initdb initializes a PostgreSQL database cluster.

Usage:

initdb [OPTION]... [DATADIR]

Options:
-A, --auth=METHOD default authentication method for local connections

--auth-host=METHOD default authentication method for local TCP/IP

connections
--auth-local=METHOD default authentication method for local-socket
connections

[-D, --pgdata=]DATADIR location for this database cluster

-E, --encoding=ENCODING set default encoding for new databases
-g, --allow-group-access allow group read/execute on data directory

-k, --data-checksums use data page checksums

--locale=LOCALE set default locale for new databases

□…--clobber-cache option

□ --discard-cache option
Run the bootstrap backend with the debug_discard_caches=1 option. This takes a very long time
and is only of use for debugging.

3.4.3. Pg_amcheck
The pg_amcheck command has been added. This command makes it easy to check the structure of
tables and indexes against a database with the Contrib module amcheck installed. In the following
example, it can be seen that the damaged part of data2 table.

Example 80 Pg_amcheck command

$ pg_amcheck --database=postgres --table=data2 --verbose
pg_amcheck: including database: "postgres"
pg_amcheck: in database "postgres": using amcheck version "1.3" in
schema "public"
pg_amcheck: checking heap table "postgres"."public"."data2"
heap table "postgres"."public"."data2", block 0, offset 17:
xmin 3236212 equals or exceeds next valid transaction ID 0:546
heap table "postgres"."public"."data2", block 0, offset 48:
line pointer to page offset 6282 is not maximally aligned
pg_amcheck: checking btree index
"postgres"."pg_toast"."pg_toast_16399_index"
pg_amcheck: checking heap table
"postgres"."pg_toast"."pg_toast_16399"

Many options can be specified for the pg_amcheck command other than the above example.

Table 27 Major options
Option name Description
--all Check all databases.
--index=PATTERN Check matching index(es).
--schema=PATTERN Check matching schema(s).
--on-error-stop Stop checking at end of first corrupt page.
--parent-check Check index parent/child relationships.
--startblock=BLOCK Begin checking table(s) at the given block number.
--endblock=BLOCK Check table(s) only up to the given block number.
--jobs=NUM Use this many concurrent connections to the server.
--progress Show progress information.

3.4.4. Pg_dump
The pg_dump command has been following enhancements are implemented.

□ Restore partitions
It is now possible to restore a single partition from the partitioned table as a table.

□ Dumping Extension settings

The --extension option has been added to limit the extension definitions to be dumped. Specify the
pattern for the extension name.

Example 81 --extension option

$ pg_dump --extension=cube
--
-- PostgreSQL database dump
…
--
-- Name: cube; Type: EXTENSION; Schema: -; Owner: -
--

CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS cube WITH SCHEMA public;

…

□ Multiple --verbose option
In the pg_dump command, pg_dumpall command, pg_restore command, and pg_rewind command,
specifying the -v option multiple times will now increase the output level of the log.

3.4.5. Pg_dumpall
The pg_dumpall command now has an option --no-toast-compression that does not dump the
compression settings for TOAST data.

3.4.6. Pg_rewind
It is now possible to specify a standby instance of streaming replication as the connection destination.

3.4.7. Psql
The following features have been added to the psql command.

□ Displaying access methods

The Access Method is now output to the output of the \di+, \dm+, \dt+, and \dtS+ commands.

Example 82 Display access method

public | idx1_data2 | index | demo | data2 | permanent | btree | …

□ \dt, \di command
It is now possible to specify for TOAST table and TOAST index.

Example 83 Specifying the TOAST table

postgres=> \di pg_toast.pg_toast_1213_index

□ \dX command
Outputs a list of extended statistics.

Example 84 List of extended statistics

postgres=> CREATE STATISTICS stat1_data1 ON c1, c2 FROM data1 ;
CREATE STATISTICS
postgres=> ANALYZE data1 ;

□ \d+ command
When the table name is specified in the \d+ command, a compression setting column (Compression)
is output between the Storage and Stats target columns. This column can be suppressed by setting the
HIDE_TOAST_COMPRESSION variable to 'on'.

Example 85 \d+ command

postgres=> \d+ compress1

Table "public.compress1"

Column | Type | Collation | Nullable | Default | Storage | Compression | …

--------+---------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+------------+ …

c1 | integer | | | | plain | | …

c2 | text | | | | extended | lz4 | …

Access method: heap

postgres=> \set HIDE_TOAST_COMPRESSION on

postgres=> \d+ compress1

Table "public.compress1"

Column | Type | Collation | Nullable | Default | Storage | Stats target | …

--------+---------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------------+ …

c1 | integer | | | | plain | | …

c2 | text | | | | extended | | …

Access method: heap

□ \df, \do command

These commands can now add specify the data type.

Example 86 \df, \do command
postgres=> \do - pg_catalog.int4

List of operators

------------+------+---------------+----------------+-------------+-----------

pg_catalog | - | | integer | integer | negate

(1 row)

postgres=> \df sum (numeric)

List of functions

Schema | Name | Result data type | Argument data types | Type

------------+------+------------------+---------------------+------

pg_catalog | sum | numeric | numeric | agg

(1 row)

□ \dT command
The \dT command now accepts alias names for data types.

Example 87 \dT command with alias

postgres=> \dT int
List of data types

Schema | Name | Description

------------+---------+-------------------------------------------------
pg_catalog | integer | -2 billion to 2 billion integer, 4-byte storage
(1 row)

□ Behavior when the editor is closed

The \e command (also \ef and \ev commands) launches the editor and no longer re-executes SQL
statements in the file if the file is not modified.

3.4.8. Reindexdb
The --tablespace option has been added to the reindexdb command. It is now possible to specify the
tablespace in which to store the indexes to be recreated.

Example 88 REINDEXDB --tablespace option
$ reindexdb --table=data1 --tablespace=ts1 --verbose postgres
INFO: index "idx1_data1" was reindexed
DETAIL: CPU: user: 0.00 s, system: 0.00 s, elapsed: 0.00 s
INFO: index "pg_toast_16385_index" was reindexed
DETAIL: CPU: user: 0.00 s, system: 0.00 s, elapsed: 0.00 s

3.4.9. Vacuumdb
The following options have been added to the vacuumdb command.

□ --force-index-cleanup option
Always remove index entries pointing to dead tuples.

□ --no-index-cleanup option
Do not delete unnecessary tuples in the index.

□ --no-truncate option
Do not truncate the free pages at the end of the table.

□ --no-process-toast option
Do not perform VACUUM processing on the TOAST table.

Example 89 Vacuumdb command options
$ vacuumdb --help

vacuumdb cleans and analyzes a PostgreSQL database.

Usage:

vacuumdb [OPTION]... [DBNAME]

Options:
-a, --all vacuum all databases

-d, --dbname=DBNAME database to vacuum

--disable-page-skipping disable all page-skipping behavior
-e, --echo show the commands being sent to the server

-f, --full do full vacuuming

-F, --freeze freeze row transaction information
--force-index-cleanup always remove index entries that point to

dead tuples

-j, --jobs=NUM use this many concurrent connections to vacuum

--min-mxid-age=MXID_AGE minimum multixact ID age of tables to vacuum
--min-xid-age=XID_AGE minimum transaction ID age of tables to

vacuum

--no-index-cleanup don't remove index entries that point to dead

tuples
--no-process-toast skip the TOAST table associated with the

table to vacuum
--no-truncate don't truncate empty pages at the end of the

table
-P, --parallel=PARALLEL_WORKERS use this many background workers for vacuum,
if available
…

3.5. Contrib modules
Describes new features related to the Contrib modules.

3.5.1. Amcheck
The verify_heapam function has been added to check the structure of the table.

Example 90 Verify_heapam function

postgres=# CREATE EXTENSION amcheck ;
CREATE EXTENSION
postgres=# SELECT verify_heapam('data1') ;
verify_heapam
---------------
(0 rows)

3.5.2. Btree_gist
All functions provided by the btree_gist module is now parallel-safe.

3.5.3. Cube
The cube type now supports binary I/O.

Example 91 Cube type binary access

postgres=> CREATE EXTENSION cube ;
CREATE EXTENSION
postgres=> SELECT typname, typreceive, typsend FROM pg_type
WHERE typname='cube' ;
typname | typreceive | typsend
---------+------------+-----------
cube | cube_recv | cube_send
(1 row)

3.5.4. Hstore
It is now possible to access columns of type hstore using subscripts.

Example 92 Access using subscripts

postgres=> CREATE EXTENSION hstore ;
CREATE EXTENSION
postgres=> CREATE TABLE hstore1 (id INT, attr hstore) ;
CREATE TABLE
postgres=> INSERT INTO hstore1 VALUES (1, '"attr1"=>"val1",
"attr2"=>"val2", "attr3"=>"val3"') ;
INSERT 0 1
postgres=> SELECT id, attr['attr1'], attr->'attr2' FROM hstore1 ;
id | attr | ?column?
----+------+----------
1 | val1 | val2
(1 row)

3.5.5. Old_snapshot
This is a newly added Contrib module. This module defines the pg_old_snapshot_time_mapping
function. When the parameter old_snapshot_threshold is set to something other than -1, the mapping
between XIDs and timestamps can be displayed.

Example 93 Pg_old_snapshot_time_mapping function
postgres=# SHOW old_snapshot_threshold ;
old_snapshot_threshold
------------------------
90min
(1 row)

postgres=# CREATE EXTENSION old_snapshot ;

CREATE EXTENSION
postgres=# SELECT * FROM pg_old_snapshot_time_mapping() ;
array_offset | end_timestamp | newest_xmin
--------------+------------------------+-------------
0 | 2021-10-01 10:13:00+09 | 533
1 | 2021-10-01 10:14:00+09 | 534
2 | 2021-10-01 10:15:00+09 | 535
3 | 2021-10-01 10:16:00+09 | 535
(4 rows)

3.5.6. Pageinspect
The following functions for GiST indexes have been added.

Table 28 Added functions

Function name Description
gist_page_opaque_info Returns information about the opaque area.
gist_page_items Returns the data in the page as record type.
gist_page_items_bytea Returns the data in the page in bytea type.

Example 94 Information of GiST index
postgres=# SELECT * FROM
gist_page_opaque_info(get_raw_page('idx1_gist1', 1)) ;
lsn | nsn | rightlink | flags
-----------+-----------+-----------+--------
0/2216510 | 0/2216510 | 473 | {leaf}
(1 row)

postgres=# SELECT * FROM

gist_page_items(get_raw_page('idx1_gist1', 1), 'idx1_gist1') ;
itemoffset | ctid | itemlen | keys
------------+-------------+---------+--------------
1 | (457,65535) | 144 | (c2)=('' '')
2 | (249,65535) | 144 | (c2)=('' '')
3 | (487,65535) | 144 | (c2)=('' '')
…

□ Output of bt_metap function

Additional information "last cleanup num del pages" is now output.

Example 95 Output of bt_metap function

3.5.7. Passwordcheck
The reason is now output in the output of the check using the Cracklib library.

Example 96 Password check

postgres=# CREATE USER demo PASSWORD 'password123' ;
ERROR: password is easily cracked
postgres=# \! tail -3 data/log/postgresql-2020-10-01_151319.log
ERROR: password is easily cracked
DETAIL: cracklib diagnostic: it is based on a dictionary word
STATEMENT: CREATE USER demo PASSWORD 'password123';

3.5.8. Pgstattuple
The pgstattuple_approx function can now be executed on TOAST tables.

Example 97 Pgstattuple_approx function

postgres=# SELECT pgstattuple_approx((SELECT reltoastrelid FROM
pg_class WHERE relname='data1')) ;
pgstattuple_approx
-----------------------
(0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0)
(1 row)

3.5.9. Pg_stat_statements
The following features have been extended to the pg_stat_statements module. When using
pg_stat_statements, compute_query_id parameter must be specified as 'on' or 'auto'.

□ Pg_stat_statements view
The following columns have been added.

Table 29 Added columns

Column name Data type Description
toplevel boolean True if the query was executed as a top level.

□ Track utility commands
Tracking is now available for REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW statement, CREATE TABLE AS
statement, SELECT INTO statement, CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW statement, etc.

Example 98 Tracking REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW statement

postgres=# REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW mview1 ;
REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW
postgres=#
postgres=# SELECT query, rows FROM pg_stat_statements WHERE
query LIKE 'REFRESH%';
query | rows
----------------------------------+---------
REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW mview1 | 1000000
(1 row)

□ Pg_stat_statements_info view
The pg_stat_statements_info view has been added. This view can be used to check the operational
status of the pg_stat_statements module. Currently, the pg_stat_statements view only provides a
dealloc column showing the number of SQL statements deleted and a stats_reset column showing the
date and time the statistics were reset. The 'dealloc' column is used to validate the
pg_stat_statements.max parameter.

Example 99 Pg_stat_statements_info view

postgres=# \d pg_stat_statements_info
View "public.pg_stat_statements_info"

Column | Type | Collation | Nullable | Default

3.5.10. Pg_trgm
Equality operators are now supported on GiST / GIN indexes.

Example 100 Index equation operator

postgres=> CREATE INDEX trgm_idx ON test_trgm
USING gist (t gist_trgm_ops) ;
CREATE INDEX
postgres=> EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM test_trgm
WHERE t='100000' ;
QUERY PLAN
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Index Scan using trgm_idx on test_trgm (cost=0.28..8.30 rows=1
width=5) (actual time=0.424..0.732 rows=1 loops=1)
Index Cond: (t = '100000'::text)
Rows Removed by Index Recheck: 2
Planning Time: 0.038 ms
Execution Time: 0.744 ms
(5 rows)

3.5.11. Pg_surgery
A new Contrib module, pg_surgery, has been added. It provides a function heap_force_freeze to force
a tuple to freeze, and a function heap_force_kill to force it to be deleted.

Example 101 Pg_surgery Contrib module
postgres=# SELECT xmin, ctid, c1 FROM data1 ;
xmin | ctid | c1
------+-------+-----
517 | (0,1) | 100
(1 row)
postgres=# SELECT heap_force_freeze('data1'::regclass,
ARRAY['(0, 1)']::tid[]) ;
heap_force_freeze
-------------------

(1 row)
postgres=# SELECT xmin, ctid, c1 FROM data1 ;
xmin | ctid | c1
------+-------+-----
2 | (0,1) | 100
(1 row)
postgres=# SELECT heap_force_kill('data1'::regclass,
ARRAY['(0, 1)']::tid[]) ;
heap_force_kill
-----------------

(1 row)
postgres=# SELECT xmin, ctid, c1 FROM data1 ;
xmin | ctid | c1
------+------+----
(0 rows)

3.5.12. Postgres_fdw
The following enhancements have been implemented for the postgres_fdw module.

□ Functions
The following functions have been added to control the active session.

Table 30 Added functions
Function name Description
postgres_fdw_disconnect Disconnect a specified active session.
postgres_fdw_disconnect_all Disconnect all active sessions.
postgres_fdw_get_connections Return all active sessions.

Example 102 Execution of postgres_fdw related functions

postgres=> CREATE FOREIGN TABLE remote1(c1 NUMERIC,
c2 VARCHAR(10)) SERVER remsvr1 ;
CREATE FOREIGN TABLE
postgres=> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM remote1 ;
count
---------
1000000
(1 row)

postgres=> SELECT * FROM postgres_fdw_get_connections() ;

server_name | valid
-------------+-------
remsvr1 | t
(1 row)

postgres=> SELECT postgres_fdw_disconnect_all() ;

postgres_fdw_disconnect_all
-----------------------------
t
(1 row)

□ TRUNCATE statement
The TRUNCATE statement can now be executed on an foreign table.

□ Supports Bulk Insert

In response to the addition of the Bulk Insert API to the Foreign Data Wrapper, batch_size can now
be specified as an option for FOREIGN SERVER and FOREIGN TABLE that use postgres_fdw.

Example 103 Batch_size option setting
postgres=> CREATE FOREIGN TABLE data1(c1 NUMERIC, c2 VARCHAR(10)) SERVER svr1
OPTIONS (batch_size '1000') ;

CREATE FOREIGN TABLE

postgres=> \d data1

Foreign table "public.data1"

Column | Type | Collation | Nullable | Default | FDW options

--------+-----------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
c1 | numeric | | | |

c2 | character varying(10) | | | |

Server: svr1
FDW options: (batch_size '1000')

The following interfaces have been added to the Foreign Data Wrapper for the bulk insert feature.

Table 31 Added Interface functions

Interface name Description
ExecForeignBatchInsert Execution of batch transmission process.
GetForeignModifyBatchSize Acquisition of batch size.

□ keep_connections option
The option keep_connections controls remote connections after a transaction completes. The default
value is 'on', which keeps the connection after the transaction is completed. Setting this option to 'off'
closes the connection when the transaction completes.

□ IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA statement

Partitions can now be specified in the LIMIT TO and EXCEPT clauses.

□ Reconnect
If the session with the remote instance is found to be broken, it will now be reconnected.

URL list
The following websites are references to create this material.

□ Release Notes
https://www.postgresql.org/docs/14/release-14.html
□ Commitfests
https://commitfest.postgresql.org/
□ PostgreSQL 14 Manual
https://www.postgresql.org/docs/14/index.html
□ Git
git://git.postgresql.org/git/postgresql.git
□ GitHub
https://github.com/postgres/postgres
□ Announce of PostgreSQL 14 GA
https://www.postgresql.org/about/news/postgresql-14-released-2318/
□ Postgres Professional
https://habr.com/ru/company/postgrespro/blog/541252/
□ PostgreSQL 14 Open Items
https://wiki.postgresql.org/wiki/PostgreSQL_14_Open_Items
□ Qiita (Nuko@Yokohama)
http://qiita.com/nuko_yokohama
□ pgsql-hackers Mailing list
https://www.postgresql.org/list/pgsql-hackers/
□ PostgreSQL Developer Information
https://wiki.postgresql.org/wiki/Development_information
□ pgPedia
https://pgpedia.info/postgresql-versions/postgresql-14.html
□ SQL Notes
https://sql-info.de/postgresql/postgresql-14/articles-about-new-features-in-postgresql-14.html
□ Slack - postgresql-jp
https://postgresql-jp.slack.com/

Change history
Change history
Version Date Author Description
0.1 Apr 18, 2021 Noriyoshi Create an internal review version.
Shinoda Reviewers:
Tomoo Takahashi
Akiko Takeshima
(Hewlett Packard Enterprise Japan)
1.0 May 21, 2021 Noriyoshi Modification completed according to PostgreSQL 14
Shinoda Beta 1.
1.1 Oct 5, 2021 Noriyoshi Modification completed according to PostgreSQL 14
Shinoda GA.

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