Based on Syllabus of CTEVT 2021

Diploma in Geomatics Engineering

A Complete Note on ;
Control Survey (EG 2102 GE)
Third Semester
Year II Part I

Note Written By,

Dhiren Batala
9865138028
[email protected]

@copypaste
Dhiren ( 2 ) Batala
Dhiren ( 3 ) Batala
 Control Survey
Unit 1: Levelling

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1. Introduction & Principle of Leveling

Introduction
• Levelling is defined as the art of determining the relative height of different
points on, above, or below the surface
• Levelling or leveling is a branch of surveying, the object of which is to
establish or verify or measure the height of specified points relative to a
datum.

Principle of Levelling
• The principle of leveling is to obtain a horizontal line of sight at which the
vertical distance of a point above or below this line of sight is found.
• The main purpose of leveling is:
 To find the heights of the given points in relation to the given data.
 To establish points at given heights or at different heights in relation
to given or considered data.

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1.1.2. Definitions of terms: Level, Levelling, level surface, level line, datum,
MSL, RL, BM (PBM & TBM), HI, BS, FS, IS, Turning point, Horizontal
plane, Horizontal line, Elevation, Altitude, Vertical plane, Vertical line
(1). Level
• Horizontal plane or line with respect to the distance above or below a
given Point.
(2). Leveling
• The technique of determining the relative altitude of a point on the
earth's surface or below the earth's surface.
(3). Level Surface
• Level srface is the continuous surface parallel to the mean spheroid of
the Earth.
(4). Level Line
• The line representing the level surface is termed the level line.
• The level line makes right angles to the vertical line or plumb line at any
Point.
(5). Datum
• Datum line is the reference line with respect to which the levels of other
station points are fixed.
(6). Mean Sea level (MSL)
• Mean sea level is an average level of the surface of one or more of
Earth's bodies of water from which heights such as elevation may be
Measured.
• Mean sea level is established by taking the average height of tides in the
Sea over a very long period (generally 19 years).
• Mean sea level or MSL is used as datum level for all important surveys of
that zone.
(7). Reduced Level (RL)
• Reduced level is the vertical difference between the level point and
datum line or the mean sea level.
(8). Benchmark (BM)
• Benchmark is the point laid above or below the datum line with a known
Elevation.

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(9). Permanent Benchmark (PBM)
• Permanent benchmarks are established with reference to GTS
benchmarks. They are established by local state government agencies or
railways at railway stations, public buildings, at bridges etc. Permanent
benchmarks are useful for future references also.
(10). Temporary Benchmark (TBM)
• Temporary benchmarks are created by the surveyors in the field to mark
the point in the field up to which the survey is completed.
(11). Line of collimation
• Line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs to the optical center of
the objective and its continuation.
• It is also known as Line of sight and is defined as the intersection of the
crosshairs and the optical center of the objective lens.
(12). Height of Instrument (HI)
• The elevation of the line of collimation with respect to the datum.
(13). Back Sight (BS)
• The Staff reading taken at a known elevation It is the first reading after
an instrument is set up.
(14). Fore Sight (FS)
• It is the last staff reading taken from a setting of the level.
• It is also termed minus sight.
(15). Intermediate Station (IS)
• Staff reading taken at those points whose elevation is to be determined.
• All staff reading between BS and FS are IS.
(16). Turning Point
• A point on which both a minus sight (FS) and a plus sight (BS) are taken
on a line of direct levels.
(17). Horizontal Plane
• The horizontal plane is a level surface radiating outward from the point
of observation and is perpendicular to the vertical axis
(18). Horizontal Line
• It is a straight line tangential to the level line at a point
(19). Elevation
• The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical
distance above or below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum.

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 (20). Altitude
• When the height of a point is its vertical distance above or below mean
sea level (as the reference plane), it is called the altitude of the point.
• The term elevation is mainly used when referring to points on the Earth's
surface, while altitude or geopotential height is used for points above
the surface.
(21). Vertical Plane
• The plane which contains the vertical line at a place is called a vertical
Plane.
(22). Vertical Line
• It is a line normal to the level line at a point.
• It is commonly considered to be the line defined by a plumb line.

1.1.3. Levelling instruments and accessories

 A levelling instrument or a level
• A level furnishes a horizontal line of sight, and the levelling staff is used
to determine the vertical distances of the points above or below the
horizontal line of sight.
• Types of Level Instruments
1. Dumpy Level
• These are more basic levels often used in construction work.
• The telescope is rigidly attached to a single bubble and the assembly is
adjusted either by means of foot screws which are adjusted first in one
direction, then at 90°.
• Simpler construction
• Fewer adjustments to be made
• Long life of the adjustment

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 2. Wye Level
• The essential difference between the dumpy level and wye level is that in
the former case the telescope is fixed to the spindle while in the Wye
level, the telescope is carried to 'Wye' supports
• The wye support consists of curved clips.
• If the clips are raised, the telescope can be rotated in the Wyes and can
be removed.
• The bubble tube may be detachable to the telescope.

3. Reversible Level
• A reversible level combines the features of both the dumpy level and the
wye level.
• The telescope is supported by the two rigid sockets into which the
telescope can be introduced from either end and then fixed in position
by a screw

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4. Tilting level
• This type of level is fitted with a circular bubble for preliminary
approximate leveling and a main bubble which is attached to the telescope.
• For each observation, the main bubble is viewed through an eyepiece, and
if the telescope is tilted fine screw is used to bring the two ends of the
bubble into coincidence.

5. Automatic Level
• This more modern type of level is now in general use.
• It has a compensator that consists of an arrangement of three prisms.
• The two outer ones are attached to the barrel of the telescope.
• The middle prism is suspended by fine wiring and reacts to gravity to
deviate the line of sight by the amount that the telescope is out of level.

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 A levelling Staff or Levelling Rod
• Levelling staff is a graduated rod of rectangular cross-section.
• In levelling, the levelling staff is kept vertical at the point whose
elevation is known or the point where elevation is to be determined.
• Types of Leveling Staff

1. Self-reading staff
• This type of leveling staff is the most commonly used one.
• The staff man holds the self-reading staff at the point and the
instrument man takes the reading on the staff.
a. Solid Staff
• It is available in one length of 3 m with no joints or hinges in between.
• There is no possibility of relative movement between parts and hence
readings are accurate.
b. Folding Staff
• They are available in two pieces of 2 m, hinged together so that one
piece can be folded over the other when not used.
• It is more accurate than the telescopic staff.
c. Telescopic Staff
• The telescopic staff consists of three pieces with a solid upper piece
and two hollow lower pieces.
• It is not as accurate as the folding staff.
2. Target staff
• The staff man holds the staff at the point.
• There is a target attached to the staff, which can be moved up or down.
• The instrument man directs the staff man to slide the target in the
staff till the line of sight bisects the target.
• The position of the target is fixed now.
• The staff man takes the reading of the staff.

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  Level Tripod
• The level is supported on a tripod which consists of three solid or framed
legs. At the lower ends, the legs are provided with pointed iron shoes.
The tripod head carries at its upper surface, an external screw to which
the foot plate (trivet) of the levelling head can screwed.

1.2 Methods of Levelling

1.2.1 Direct Levelling (Spirit Levelling): Simple Levelling, Differential Levelling,

Check Levelling, Fly Levelling, Reciprocal Levelling, Precise Levelling,
Profile Levelling, Cross Sectioning

 It is the most precise method of determining elevations and the most

commonly used by engineers.
 With a level set up at any place, the difference in elevation between
any two points within proper lengths of sight is given by the difference
between the rod readings taken on these points.
 Special methods of Direct Levelling (Sprit Levelling)
(1). Simple Levelling
• It is the simplest method of levelling. In this method, we place the levelling
instrument between the points for determining elevation. This type of
levelling is suitable if the distance between the points is less.
• In this levelling, only one setting of the instrument is done. This method is
used for determining the difference of elevations of two points which are
visible from a single position of the instrument.

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 Suppose A and B are two points whose difference of level is to be determined.
The level is setup at O, exactly midway between A and B. After proper temporary
adjustment, the staff reading on A and B are taken. The difference of these readings
gives the difference of level between A and B.

(2) Differential Levelling

• The operation of leveling to determine the elevation of points at some
distance apart is called differential leveling.
• When the points are apart, it may be necessary to set up the instruments
several times.

In above figure, suppose it is required to know the difference of level between

D1 and D. The level is setup at points 01, 02, 03... etc. After temporary adjustments,
staff readings are taken at every setup. The points A, B and C are known as change
points. Then the difference of Level between D1 and D is found out. If the difference
is positive, D1 is lower than D. If it is negative D1 is higher than D. After knowing the
RL of D1, that of D can be calculated.

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(3). Cheek Levelling
• It is conducted for the purpose of checking a series of levels, which have
previously been fixed.
• At the end of each day's work a line of levels starting from the point and
returning to the starting point of that day is run with the object of
checking the work done on that day.

(4). Fly Levelling

• Fly leveling is a process of finding the level difference between two points
and the leveling consists of taking back sights and fore sights only and not
intermediate sights.

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 (5). Reciprocal Levelling
• Method of leveling in which the difference in elevation between two points
is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations when it is
not possible to set up the level between the two points
• This type of levelling is done, when it is not possible to set up the level
between two points. It is the accurate method of levelling. It is suitable in
the place where ponds, rivers are seen.
• Reciprocal leveling eliminates the following errors:
- Error in instrument adjustment.
- Combined effect of earth curvature and the refraction of the
Atmosphere.
- Variations in the average refractions.

Let A and B be the points and observation be made with a level, the line of sight
of which is inclined upwards when the bubble is in the center of its run. The level is set
at a point near A and staff readings are taken on A and B with the bubble in the center
of its run. Since, B.M. A is very near to instrument in that case there is no error due to
curvature, refraction and collimation will be introduced in the staff readings at A, but
there will be an error e in the staff reading on B. the level is then shifted to the other
bank, on a point very near to B.M. B, and the readings are taken on the staff held at B
and A. Since B is very near, there will be no error due to the three factors in reading
the staff, but the staff reading on A have an error e. Let, ha and hb be the
corresponding staff readings on A and B for the first set of the level and ha' and h * b'
be the readings for second set.
From above figure, correct staff readings on A is ha and on B is hb-e Therefore
true difference in elevation (ΔH) = ha - (hb - e)……………….. (i)
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 Similarly, for second set, the correct staff reading will be on A is ha'-e and on B is hb'
There for true difference in elevation ( ΔH )=(ha -e)-hb' .............................(ii)
Now taking the average of two true differences in elevation by using equation (i)
and (ii), we get,
2ΔH = ha - (hb - e) + (ha' - e) - hb' = (ha - hb) + (ha'-hb')
ΔH = 1/2[(ha-hb) + (ha'-hb')]
The true difference in elevation therefore is equal to the mean of the two
apparent differences in elevations, obtained by reciprocal observations.

(6). Precise Levelling

• This types of levelling have high precision. It is similar to differential
levelling. In precise surveying, special equipment and special precaution are
taken to eliminate errors.
• Precise leveling is the process of determination of the relative altitude of
the points on the earth surface. The altitude or height of any point is its
distance above the datum Surface (Mean sea level or Geoid).
Application of Precise or geodetic leveling:
1. Used for establishment of basic leveling network of a country.
2. Geodetic research Tectonic, crustal movement, MSL studies etc.
3. Framework of vertical control for major engineering works, dams,
bridges and canals etc.
Instruments used in Precise Levelling:
- Precise level; Wild N2, Wild N3, Wild NA2
- Good condition Tripod
- Parallel plate micrometer for precise measurements
- Invar staff with circular bubble
- Strut for supporting staff
- Ground metal plate
- Measuring Tape (for measuring distance of BS and FS)
- Compass (for making D card)

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(7). Profile Levelling(Longitudinal Levelling) (L-Sectioning)
• The process of determining the elevations of points at short measured
intervals along a fixed line such as the center line of a railway, highway,
canal, or sewer.
• It is also known as longitudinal sectioning.
• This gives the profile of the surface along the line.

• The process of determine the elevations of a series of points at measured

intervals along a line such as the center line of a proposed highway, railway,
canal, sewer or the center line of a natural feature such as a stream bed.
The purpose of profile levelling is to provide data from which a vertical
section of the ground surface along a surveyed line can be plotted. This
line is called profile. Generally, longitudinal section or L-section or profile
levelling carried out along the central line of particular route. It is a one
type of differential leveling carried out for certain purpose. The operation
of taking levels along the center line of any alignment at regular interval is
known as longitudinal leveling.

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 (8). Cross Section Levelling
• Process of taking levels on each side of a main line at right angles to that
line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section of the surface of the
ground, of underlying strata, or of both
• The operation of taking levels transverse to the direction of longitudinal
leveling, is known as cross section leveling. The cross sections are taken at
regular intervals (such as 20m, 40m, 50m etc) along the alignment. Cross-
section leveling is done in order to know the nature of the ground across
the Centre line of any alignment.

1.2.2 Indirect Levelling: Barometric, Hydrostatic, Trigonometric, Hypsometric,

GPS
 Elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles and
horizontal distances measured in the field.

(1) Barometric Levelling

• This method is based on the phenomenon that the difference in elevation
between two points is proportional to the difference in atmospheric
pressure.
• Barometers or altimeters are used to determine the change in atmospheric
Pressure.
(2) Hydrostatic Levelling
• Hydrostatic level measurement involves determining the height of a liquid
using the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the liquid on its surface.
• The Hydrostatic Levelling System (HLS) is a tool for measuring vertical
displacements. The advantage of hydrostatic measuring systems is their
high accuracy and resolution. With regard to this aspect, these systems are
far superior to modern geodetic instruments such as tachymeter and digital
levelling devices.
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 (3) Trigonometric Levelling
• It is an indirect method of leveling in which the difference in elevation of
the points is determined from the observed vertical angles and the
measured distances.
• It is commonly used in topographical work to find out the elevations of the
top of buildings, chimneys, churches, etc.
• Trigonometric leveling involves measuring a vertical angle from a known
distance with a theodolite and computing the elevation of the point.
(4) Hypsometric Levelling
• The method of leveling, which is used to estimate the height of a mountain
by observing the temperature at which water boil.
• Hence the elevation difference between the two points may be found by
noting the difference in the boiling point of water in the two places.
• This method is also useful only for exploratory survey.
(5) GPS Levelling
• GPS (Global Positioning System) is the most recent and advanced method
that is used in the determination of heights.
• Three-dimensional coordinates or coordinate can be obtained by GPS in the
geocentric Cartesian coordinate system (φ, λ, h).
• The height obtained from this system is with reference to ellipsoid

1.3 Field Procedure

1.3.1 Testing levels and Checking collimation error

Testing Levels
To test the accuracy of a level instrument, the following steps can be followed:
• Set up the level instrument on a tripod at a known benchmark or reference
point.
• Use a levelling staff to measure the height difference between the
benchmark and the level instrument.
• Rotate the level instrument 180 degrees and measure the height difference
between the benchmark and the level instrument again.
• The difference between the two height measurements should be zero or
very close to zero. If there is a significant difference, the level instrument
may need to be adjusted or repaired.

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Checking Collimation Error
Collimation error is the error caused by the line of sight of the
telescope not being parallel to the horizontal axis of the level instrument. This
error can be checked and corrected by following these steps:
• Set up the level instrument on a tripod at a known benchmark or
reference point.
• Focus the telescope on a distant target.
• Rotate the telescope 180 degrees without moving the level instrument
and focus on the same target again.
• The crosshairs in the telescope should be aligned with the same point on
the target when viewed from both positions. If they are not aligned,
• Adjust the collimation screws on the level instrument to correct the
collimation error.
• By regularly testing levels and checking collimation error, surveyors can
ensure the accuracy and reliability of their level instruments, which is
crucial for producing accurate survey data
• Collimation error occurs when the collimation axis is not truly horizontal
at position of level instrument is leveled. The effect is illustrated in the
sketch below, where the collimation axis formed a small angle 'a' with
the horizontal line.

• The amount of error increases due to the increase in distance of staff

from the instrument position. If the sight lengths for back sight and
fore sight are equal, the amount of linear effect is same for both
readings. Δh = (b + s.a) - (f + s.a) = b - f
That is, the effect of the collimation error is eliminated if back sight and
fore sight is equal.

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 Determination of Collimation Error By Two Peg Test Method:
Step:1- Set out and mark on the ground (with wooden pegs driven into the
earth) two point some 30m apart. Set up the level exactly mid-way
(within 15m) between them.

Take measurements of back sight and fore sight for this first set up. The
height difference Δh1 will be free of the effects of collimation error:
Δh1 = b1-f1 = (b + Sb.tana) (f + Sf.tana)
= b-f+tana. (Sb - Sf)
= b-f (because Sb = Sf)
Step:2- Move the level instrument to a position just beyond the fore staff

position (about 5m):

Then repeat the readings. In this case, Sb = 35m and Sf = 5m Then:

Δh2 = b2-f2 = (b + Sb.tana) (f + Sf.tana)
= b-f+tana. (Sb - Sf)
From Figure, tana = [Δh2-(b-f)]/ (Sb - Sf)
Now from first case, b-f=Δh1
therefore, tana=[Δh2-Δh1 ]/ (Sb - Sf)
Now correct reading for second case:
• b= b2-Sb tana
• b = b2-Sb [(Δh2-Δh1)/ (Sb - Sf)]

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 Obviously, this height difference is burdened with the effect of a collimation error
over 40m.
The entire process should be repeated as a check. It is practically impossible
to adjust the instrument so that no collimation error exists - the purpose of the
adjustment is to reduce the size of this error. If the discrepancy Ah2 - Ah1 can be
reduced to around 2mm this is perfectly adequate, provided sight lengths are there
after kept reasonably similar.

1.3.2 Field Procedure: Reconnaissance, Monumentation, Observation, Recording,

Computation (Rise and fall Method & Height of Instrument method).
1. Planning
• Planning is done in the office
• In this phase, existing maps are collected, leveling route map is drawn, and
tentative locations for BM are located.
2. Reconnaissance
This phase includes following steps;
• Field visit to verify the location of BM and leveling route
• Minor modification of leveling route and location of BMs
• Preparation of verified loop for levelling
• Choosing the best suitable alignment
• Determination of the exact location of each PBM and TBM
• Determination of the exact location of the instrument and the stave.
3. Monumentation
• In this phase the surveyor sets up control points and benchmarks at
suitable locations throughout the survey area.
This phase includes following steps:
• Preparation of D-card of BM
• Preparation of map of complete level loop
• Process of establishing Bench Marks (PBM/ TBM)
• Kind of marks
• Brass marks
• Steel marks
• Concrete pillar
• Iron rivet in pipe
• Wooden peg

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4. Observation
A. Setting up
• The operation of setting up includes fixing the instrument on the stand
and leveling the instrument.
• The tripod legs are so adjusted that the instrument is at a convenient
height and the tribrach is approximately horizontal.
• After having leveled the instrument approximately, accurate leveling is
done with the help of foot screws and with reference to the plate levels.
B. Elimination of Parallax
• Parallax is a condition arising when the image formed by the objective is
not in the plane of the crosshairs
• Unless parallax is eliminated, accurate sighting is impossible
• Parallax can be eliminated in two steps:
1. Focusing the eye-piece
• Point the telescope towards the sky and move the eye-piece in
or out till the cross-hairs are seen sharp and distinct.
2. Focusing on the objective
• The telescope is now directed towards the staff and the
focusing screw is turned till the image appears clear and sharp.
5. Reading and Bookkeeping
• Level books or loose-leaf leveling sheets shall be numbered and indexed in
a register.
• Details of the site, work, date, observer, chainman, booker, weather,
instrument, and any other relevant items shall be entered.
• Enter the first observation (which is on a known point) in the B.S. column,
and sufficient detail in the Remarks column to identify it. Enter the R.L.
of the point.
• Enter all other points on subsequent lines as I.S. except the point chosen
as the foresight. Identify them in the Remarks column as above.
• Enter the F.S. on a further line in the Foresight column.
• Change the instrument to the next setup. Enter the following B.S. on the
same line as the previous foresight but in the B.S. column.
• Repeat the above procedure at each setup.

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6. Computation (Rise & Fall method and H.I method)
This phase includes the following:
• Calculation of Rise/Fall
• Calculation of Height of Instrument
• Calculation of Reduced level
• Arithmetic check for each loop
• Calculation of height of BM /TBM
A. Height of Instrument Method
• In this method, the height of the instrument (H.I.) is calculated for
each setting of the instrument by adding B.S. to the elevation of the
B.M. (first point)
• The elevation of the reduced level of the turning point is then
calculated by subtracting from H.I. the FS.
• For the next setting of the instrument, the HI is obtained by adding
the BS taken on T.P. 1 to its RL.
• If there are some intermediate points, the RL of those points is
calculated by subtracting the IS from the height of the instrument for
that setting.
• Check: ΣΒ.S. - ΣF.S. = Last RL - First RL
• This check is only for the Hl and RL of turning points but not for the
intermediate points.

B. Rise and Fall Method

• In this method, the height of the instrument is not at all calculated
but the difference in level between consecutive points is found by
comparing the staff readings on the two points for the same setting
of the instrument.
• The difference between their staff readings indicates a rise or fall
according to the staff reading at the point.
• Check: ΣΒ.S. - ΣF.S. = ΣRise - ΣFall= Last RL - First RL
• This provides a complete check on the IS also.
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 • The arithmetic check would only fail in the unlikely, but possible, case
of two or more errors occurring in such a manner as to balance each
other.

Difference Between Rise & Fall Method and Height of Instrument Method.

S.N. Height of Instrument Method Rise & Fall Method

1. It is rapid as it involves few It is laborious involving several
calculation. Calculation.
2. There is no check on the RL of the There is a check on the RL of the
intermediate sight. intermediate points.
3. Errors in the intermediate RLs cannot Errors in the intermediate RLs can
be detected. be detected as all the points are
correlated.
4. There are two checks on the accuracy There are three checks on the
of RL calculation. accuracy of RL calculation.
5. This system is suitable for This system is suitable for fly
longitudinal leveling where there are a leveling where there are no
number of intermediate sights intermediate sights.

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 1.3.3 Precautions to be Taken in The Field
• Do not tighten knobs forcefully.
• Do not clean the objective and eyepiece with hand use soft clean cloth.
• Ensure that tripod screws and hinges are kept tight.
• Keep height of instrument is suitable for height of surveyor.
• Setup the level instrument at shade during leveling.
• Select the staff station in stable place. Use turning plate at turning points
but do not use turning plate at Bench Marks.
• Place the instrument at equal distance from back and fore staff. (use
pacing for ordinary leveling and tape for precise leveling) Make Total of
back distance and total of fore distance equal.
• Leveling work should be carried form known point to known point. If known
point is not available them work should be closed at same station for check.
• Take three wires reading for check of observation and distance calculation.
• Staff should be placed vertically during staff reading.
• Prepare clear sketch of the leveling route showing location of BMs.
• The leveling station should be chosen in such a way that the total number
of station is odd. (helps to eliminate zero error)
• Check the collimation error daily before starting work. (2mm tolerance for
20m)
• The difference between the average of three wire reading and middle wire
should not be more than 1mm..etc...

1.4 Errors and adjustment in Levelling

1.4.1 Specification adopted by Survey Department of Nepal for establishment

of various order Bench marks

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1.4.2 Types of Error
1. Mistake or Gross Error
• Mistakes are errors that arise from inattention, inexperience,
carelessness, and poor judgment or confusion in the mind of the observer.
• If a mistake is undetected, it produces a serious effect on the final result.
• Some major mistakes during leveling work are mentioned here;
- Mistakes are occurs where ever observations are taken.
- Mistakes in recording.
- Mistakes in calculations.
2. Systematic Errors (Cumulative errors)
• An error that, under the same conditions, will always be of the same size
and sign.
• It always follows some definite mathematical or physical law, and a
correction can be determined and applied.
• Here are some systematic errors during leveling work;
- Zero error.
- Curvature and Refraction effect.
- Instrument not correctly adjusted (Collimation error).
3. Accidental Errors (Compensating errors)
• An error that remains after mistakes and systematic errors have been
eliminated and is caused by a combination of reasons beyond the ability of
the observer to control.
• They tend sometimes in one direction and sometimes in the other.
• Some examples of accidental errors during leveling are mentioned here;
- Estimation error during staff reading.
- Non verticality of staff (leveling rod).
- Error due to temperature variation

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1.4.3 Sources of Error
1. Instrumental Errors
a. Error due to imperfect adjustment
• If the line of sight is not parallel to the axis of the bubble tube, the rod
readings will be incorrect.
• The error is likely to be cumulative.
b. Error due to sluggish bubble
• If the bubble is sluggish, it will come to rest in the wrong position.
• This error is compensating.
c. Error due to movement of the objective slide
• If the objective slide is slightly worn out, it may not move in a truly
horizontal direction.
• This error is compensating.
d. Rod not of standard length
• Incorrect lengths of divisions on a rod cause errors similar to those
resulting from the incorrect marking on a tape.
• The error is systematic and directly proportional to the difference in
Elevation.
e. Error due to defective joint
• The joint of the extendable rods may be worn out from setting the rod
down 'on the run' and from other sources.
• This may result in a large cumulative error.
2. Natural Errors
a. Earth's curvature
• The effect of curvature is to increase the rod readings.
• A systematic error of considerable magnitude is produced.
b. Refraction
• The effect of refraction is to decrease the rod readings.
• Errors due to refraction tend to be compensating but may be cumulative
on a full day's run.
c. Variation in temperature
• The error is usually accidental, but under certain conditions it may
become systematic.
d. Settlement of the tripod on the turning point
• Whether the tripod settles or the turning point settles, the error is
always systematic, and the resulting elevation will always be too high.

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 e. Wind vibrations
• High wind shakes the instrument and thus disturbs the bubble and rod.
• Precise leveling work should never be done in high wind.
3. Personal Errors
a. Mistakes in manipulation
• These include mistakes in setting up the level, imperfect focusing of eye-
piece and of objective, errors in centering the bubble and failure to
watch it after each sight, and errors due to resting the hands on the
tripods or telescope.
b. Mistake in Rod handling (Non-verticality of Staff)
• If the rod is not in plumb, the reading taken will be too great.
• The error varies directly with the magnitude of rod reading and directly
as the square of the inclination.
• The error can be minimized by carefully plumbing the rod either by eye
estimation or by using a rod level.
c. Errors in Sighting
• The error is caused when it is difficult to tell when the cross-hair
coincides with the center of the target in a target rod.
• This is an accidental error
d. Mistakes in reading the rod
• Reading upwards, instead of downwards
• Reading downwards, instead of upwards when the staff is inverted
• Reading the wrong meter mark when the staff is near the level
• To omit a zero or even two zeros from a reading
• Reading against a stadia hair
e. Mistakes in Reading and Computing
• Entering back sights and foresight in a wrong column
• Omitting the entry
• Entering the wrong remark against a reading
• Ordinary arithmetical mistakes
• Adding a FS instead of subtracting it and/or subtracting a BS reading
instead of adding it.

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 1.4.4 Permissible Error in Different Order of Levelling
Leveling work is carried out from one Bench Mark and ends over next Bench Mark.
Permissible error During leveling work is based on the distance and order of leveling
work. The general formula for calculation of permissible error is,
P.E = ±C√K mm
Where,
P.E.= Permissible closing error in mm
C = Constant (depends on the order of leveling)
K = Distance in Kilometers
According to leveling Instruction book, the tolerance for different order
leveling during field check are specified as the maximum acceptable miss-closure
between forward and backward leveling on any section of leveling.

During tertiary leveling there are possibilities of two types of tertiary leveling with
following tolerance;

1.4.5 Adjustment of Error

• The formula used for calculating the corrections that need to be applied to
the measured values is given as follows:
 Correction (Error x Distance between the instrument and the point of
observation) / Distance between the instrument and the benchmark
In this formula:
• Error refers to the error that was recorded during the levelling process,
either as a systematic or random error.
• Distance between the instrument and the point of observation refers to the
distance between the levelling instrument and the point where the error was
recorded.
• Distance between the instrument and the benchmark refers to the distance
between the levelling instrument and the benchmark that was used as the
reference point for the levelling survey.
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 The corrections obtained from this formula are then added to or subtracted from
the measured values to obtain the corrected values. It is important to note that this
formula can only be used to correct for systematic errors and not for random errors.
Therefore, it is essential to minimize random errors during the levelling process by
taking appropriate measures such as using high-quality equipment, minimizing
environmental disturbances, and ensuring that the surveyors are well trained and follow
proper procedures.

D-Card (Description Card):

• The preparation of description cards are the vital part in the process of
monumentation. This consists of all the necessary information and
measurement of the Bench Mark locality, thus serving as an identity for that
particular Bench Mark. By the help of D-Cards, the Bench marks can be
recovered any time in future.
• Almost all Bench Marks are monumented under ground level or well inside the
rock surface to protect them from destruction. This is why the description
cards must be mentally completed during monumentation.
• The Description card must contain following information;
- District - Municipality/VDC
- Ward no - Grid sheet no
- One inch sheet no - Type of Bench mark
- Type of land - Land owner

Numbering Of Bench Marks and Numbering Of Alignment:

The Process of Bench Mark numbering and alignment Numbering is different for
different orders of the levelling survey;
a) High Precision/First Order Levelling:
• Alignment is described by 3 digit and the starting digit is number 1
indicating the order of work (100-199).
• Three digits are assigned for numbering PBM (001-999), eg; 103-050 (1
indicates order of work, 103 is alignment number, 050 Bench mark number).
b) Second Order Levelling:
• Alignment is described by 3 digit and the starting digit is number 2
indicating the order of work (200-299).
• Three digits are assigned for numbering PBM (001-999), eg; 201-098 (2
indicates order of work, 201 is alignment number, 098 Bench mark number).

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 c) Third Order Levelling:
• Alignment is described by 3 digit and the starting digit is number 3
indicating the order of work (300-399).
• Three digits are assigned for numbering PBM (001-999), eg; 301-091 (3
indicates order of work, 301 is alignment number, 091 Bench mark number).

Open Leveling And Closed Leveling

Open Leveling
• The leveling starts from a known point and ends at an unknown point.
• No check on the accuracy of the measured elevations.
Closed leveling
• In the closed leveling, the accuracy of measurements can be checked by
comparing the known elevation of the last point with the measured elevation.
• Closing error = Measured elevation of the closing point - Known elevation.

Leveling Problems
1. Leveling in Summits and Hollows
• In leveling over the summit, the level should be set up sufficiently high so
that the summit can be sighted without extra setting.
• Similarly, in leveling across a hollow, the level should be set only sufficiently
low to enable the levels of all the required points to be observed.
2. Taking the level of an Overhead Point
• When the point under observation is higher than the line of sight, staff
should be kept inverted on the overhead point keeping the foot of the staff
touching the point, and reading should be taken.
3. Leveling Ponds and Lakes too Wide to be Sighted Across
• When the ponds and lakes are too wide to be sighted across, an advantage
may be taken of the fact that the surface of still water is a level surface.
• A peg may be driven at one end of the pond, keeping its top flush with the
water surface.
• A similar peg may be driven to the other side.
• Level may be first set to one side the staff kept on the peg and reading ‘
Taken.
• The instrument is then set on the other side near the bank and reading is
Taken.

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4. Leveling Across River
• If the width of the river is less, the method of reciprocal leveling is to be
Used.
• If the river is too wide to be sighted across, leveling may be continued from
one side to the other considering the water level is still, and taking water
levels at points directly opposite each other.
5. Leveling Past High Wall
• When the height of the wall is more than the length of the staff, a suitable
mark is made at the height, where the line of sight intersects the face of
the wall .
• The vertical distance between the mark and the top of the wall is measured.
• The instrument is then set to the other side of the wall and a similar mark
is made at the collimation level on the wall.
• The vertical height of the top of the wall is measured from the mark and
the HI is then calculated.

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Unit 2: Traverse

2.1 Introduction

2.1.1 Introduction to Traverse

• "Traverse" refers to a series of connected survey lines or measurements
that are used to determine the location and elevation of points on the
earth's surface.
• Traversing involves a series of measurements or observations that are taken
along a series of lines or paths that connect the points to be surveyed.
• The measurements typically include horizontal and vertical angles, distances,
and elevations, and are recorded using various surveying instruments, such as
theodolites, total stations, levels, and GPS receivers.
• Traversing is a fundamental technique in surveying and is used in various
applications, such as land surveying, engineering surveying, geodetic
surveying, and construction surveying.

2.1.2 Definition of Terms

(1). Traverse:
• A series of connected survey lines or measurements that are used to
determine the location and elevation of points on the earth's surface.
(2). Control Point:
• A point of known location and elevation that is used as a reference for
the survey.
(3). Starting Point or Station:
• The first point in the traverse, from which all other points are
referenced and measured.
(4). Traverse legs or lines:
• The individual survey lines or measurements that connect the points in
the traverse.
• Traverse legs are usually measured using surveying instruments such as
theodolites, total stations, or GPS receivers.
(5). Distances:
• The lengths of the traverse legs or lines, measured in meters, feet, or
other units.

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(6). Bearings or azimuths:
• The angle made by a line with a reference line in clockwise or
anticlockwise direction.
• Bearing Systems:
1. Whole circle Bearing
2. Quadrantal Bearing/ Reduced Bearing
• Bearing Types:
1. True Bearing
2. Magnetic Bearing
3. Grid bearing
4. Arbitrary Bearing

(7). Elevation or height:

• The vertical distance between a point and a reference surface or
datum, usually measured in meters or feet.
(8). Closing error:
• The difference between the starting point and the ending point of the
traverse, usually expressed as a distance and a bearing or azimuth.
• A small closing error indicates good accuracy and precision in the
traverse measurements.
(9). Adjustment:
• The process of correcting the measured traverse data to eliminate any
systematic errors or inconsistencies.
• Traverse adjustment is usually done using mathematical methods such
as the method of least squares.

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 (10). Traverse table:
• A table that shows the coordinates, bearings, distances, and elevations
of each point in the traverse, as well as any corrections or adjustments
applied to the measurements.
(11). Latitude:
• Latitude is a measurement of the angular distance of a point north or
south of the equator.
• The latitude of a line is projection on north south meridian.
(12). Longitude (Departure):
• Longitude, on the other hand, is a measurement of the angular distance
of a point east or west of the Prime Meridian, which is the reference
line for measuring longitude.
• The Longitude or departure of a line is projection on east west
meridian.
Purpose and Objectives of Traversing
❖ Mapping:
• Traversing is used to create accurate maps and plans of the surveyed
area, showing the location and elevation of the surveyed points.
❖ Boundary definition:
• Traversing is used to establish the boundaries of the surveyed area,
either for legal or administrative purposes or for planning and
development purposes.
❖ Engineering design:
• Traversing is used to provide accurate and reliable survey data for
engineering design and construction projects, such as building
construction, road and highway design, and resource exploration.
❖ Geodetic surveys:
• Traversing is used in geodetic surveys, which are surveys that measure
the large- scale shape and size of the earth, as well as its gravity field
and other geophysical properties.
❖ Resource management:
• Traversing is used to provide accurate and reliable survey data for the
management of natural resources, such as forestry, mining, and agriculture.
❖ Monitoring:
• Traversing is used to monitor changes in the surveyed area over time,
such as changes in the location and elevation of landmarks, buildings, or
natural features.

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2.1.3 Principles of Traversing
• The principle of traversing is that" if the direction and length of any line is
known then the coordinates of its head
(endpoint) can be found from the given
coordinates of its tail (starting point)".
• Latitude (AN)= d cosa
• Departure(ΔΕ)= d sina
• If the coordinate of A is known then, the
coordinate of B can be calculated.
i.e. E2 = E1 +ΔΕ and N2 = Ν1 + ΔΝ
• The bearing of the line is given by:
Tanθ= "ΔΕ" /"ΔΝ"

2.1.4 Classification of Traverse and use

❖ On the basis of Start and End points
1. Open Traverse:
• An open traverse starts from a known point and ends at an unknown point.
This type of traverse is useful when exploring new areas or extending
existing survey networks.
• In an open traverse, the final position of the last station is not known and
the traverse is considered incomplete until a further station is fixed.
• Open traverses are preferred when exploring new areas, where the final
location is not known, or when working in areas with challenging terrain or
visibility conditions.
2. Closed Traverse
• A closed traverse is a survey that starts and ends at the same known
point, forming a closed loop or circuit.
• This type of traverse is used to verify the accuracy and precision of the
survey measurements and to adjust any errors or inconsistencies.
• In a closed traverse, the final position of the last station is known and
the traverse is considered complete.
• In general, closed traverses are preferred in areas where there are no
major obstacles or changes in terrain elevation, and where survey errors
can be minimized.

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 3. Linked Traverse:
• A linked traverse is a combination of closed and open traverses.
• The traverse is completed by measuring the angles and distances between
a series of points, some of which form a closed loop, and others form an
open path.
• The traverse is linked by measuring the coordinates of points common to
both the closed and open parts.
4. Loop Traverse:
• In a loop traverse, the traverse is completed by measuring the angles and
distances between a series of points that form a loop.
• The traverse starts and ends at the same point.
• However, unlike a closed traverse, a loop traverse does not require that
the starting and ending points be the same.
❖ On the basis of the Instrument Used
1. Chain Traverse:
• In a chain traverse, a surveyor uses a chain or a tape measure to measure
the distances between the surveyed points.
• This type of traverse is commonly used in relatively flat terrain where
the measurements are more accurate and precise.
2. Electronic Traverse:
• An electronic traverse uses electronic instruments such as a total station
or GPS receiver to measure the distances and angles between the
surveyed points.
• This type of traverse is commonly used in complex terrain or in areas
with limited visibility.
3. Compass Traverse:
• In a compass traverse, a surveyor uses a compass to measure the angles
between the surveyed points.
• This type of traverse is typically used in areas with low accuracy
requirements or in areas where there are no significant obstacles or
changes in terrain elevation.
4. Theodolite Traverse:
• In a theodolite traverse, a surveyor uses a theodolite to measure the
angles between the surveyed points.
• This type of traverse is typically used in areas where high accuracy is
required and where there are significant obstacles or changes in terrain
elevation.

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 5. Plane Table Traverse:
• In a plane table traverse, a surveyor uses a plane table to draw a map of
the surveyed area.
• This type of traverse is typically used in areas with low accuracy
requirements or in areas where there are no significant obstacles or
changes in terrain elevation.
❖ On the basis of accuracy and precision
1. Primary Traverse
• Highly precise traversing.
• Long-range EDM is used for distance and precise theodolite T2/T3 is
used for angle measurement.
• Used where second-order triangulation is not possible.
• 15 km of traverse legs are taken into account.
2. Secondary Traverse
• Under the controlled area of primary traverse.
• It is used to establish the third and fourth-order points.
• 5 km of the traverse leg is taken into account.
3. Tertiary Traverse
• It is conducted under a controlled area of primary and second-order
traverse.
• Used for cadastral purpose.

2.1.5 Standard and Specification

, Measurement
factor Traverse order छ।
Traverse Order Specification International Practices
Traverse (Order) Specification
छ

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2.2 Method of traversing

2.2.1 Chain, Compass, Plane Table Traverse

Chain Traverse:
• A traverse in which a chain is used to measure distances between points.
It is a traditional method and is suitable for smaller areas with flat
terrain.
- Only linear measurement are taken by chain - Angle is
preserved or set out by tie line.
- Use for flat, level and small area.
Compass Traverse:
• A traverse in which a compass is used to measure angles between points.
It is suitable for areas with undulating terrain and is a quick and simple
method.
- Magnetic Compass is used for measuring direction of leg and
tape is used for distance measurement.
- Used for small, bushy ground where chain traverse is not
Possible.
- Bowditch's method is used to adjust the traverse.

Plane Table Traverse:

• A plane table traverse is a surveying technique used to determine the
coordinates of a series of points on the ground. The technique involves
using a plane table, which is a portable device consisting of a flat surface
mounted on a tripod, and a sighting device such as a telescope.
- Alidade is used for direction of traverse leg and distance
measured by tape.
- Comparably large area than compass.
- Graphical Method of traverse.
- Adjustment is done graphically.

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2.2.2 Stadia Traverse and Theodolite Traverse
Stadia Traverse/Tacheometry Traverse:
• The Stadia Traverse is a method used in surveying to measure the
distance between two points using an instrument called a stadia rod or
leveling rod. The method involves setting up the instrument at one point
and reading the distances to different points along the traverse line
using the stadia hairs or marks on the rod. The stadia hairs are vertical
crosshairs in the eyepiece of the instrument that allow the user to read
the distance between the instrument and the stadia rod.
- Angle measurement as theodolite and distance by stadia
method.
- Adjustment by transit rule.
Theodolite Traverse:
• A traverse in which a theodolite is used to measure the angles between
traverse legs. It is suitable for larger areas and is a more accurate
method.
- Theodolite is used for angular measurement and steel band is
used for linear measurement.
- Precise and Accurate CP establishment.
- Adjustment by transit rule/bowditch rule.

2.2.3 Traverse Route: Open and Closed

1) Closed Traverse:
• If the traverse formed by the survey lines closes at a station i.e. if
the survey lines form a polygon or starts and finishes at the same
survey station of the known co-ordinates then the traverse is known as
closed traverse.
- A closed traverse is generally used for locating the boundaries
or for surveying large areas.
- It starts either from known station and ends to same station or
another known station.
- Closed traverses has more check and is accurate.
- Closed traverse is itself linear and angular check.
• There are two kinds of closed traverse
a. Closed loop traverse / close circuit traverse.
b. Link traverse / Open loop closed traverse.

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 a. Closed loop traverse / close circuit traverse.
• Starts from known point and ends to same point.
• It is geometrically and mathematically closed - Linear and
angular check can be easily done.
• Usually it is used in broad or circular area for establishing CP,
survey of forest, lake etc.
b. Link traverse / Open loop closed traverse.
• Starts from a known station and closed to another known
station.
• It is geometrically open but mathematically closed.
• Mostly used in linear area. Example:
• To establish Control point for route survey.
• Most accurate method of traverse because started from
known station and ends on another known station.

2) Open Traverse:
• If a traverse starts and finishes at points other than the starting
point of known coordinates, then such traverse is known as an open
traverse.
• An open traverse is generally used for preliminary and construction
surveys for highways, roads, pipelines, transmission lines, etc.
- Ether starts from known or unknown station and ends to another
unknown or known station.
- It is geometrically and mathematically open.
- Checks only possible by additional observation.
- It has no check itself.
- It is used in linear alignment and usually run for preliminary
Survey.
- Suitable for long narrow strip
- There is no check on summation of angles based on mathematical
conditions.
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 - There is no check on position of intermediate points as there is
no known Or assumed position except the starting station.

2.3 Field procedure

2.3.1 Field operation: Reconnaissance, Monumentation, and Signaling, Selection

Of Traverse Station, Types of Monumentation, Construction of
monument, D-Cards,Traverse Chart/Sketch

Reconnaissance:
• Before starting the traverse survey, a preliminary reconnaissance of the
area must be done.
• This will help in identifying the locations of the survey stations and the
approximate distance between them.
• During Reconnaissance following points to be consider while selection of
station:
- Intervisibility between two stations.
- Station should have at stable ground such as rocks, harden soil, to
avoid disaster
- Station should not be near the root of tree, river side, land slide
area.
- Traverse leg should be as longer as possible, shorter leg produce
bisection error in angle. Ratio between longest leg and shortest leg
in a particular traverse must be within 2:1.
- Selection of station near the permanent objects like house corner,
large tree to identify later one.
- Traverse must be closed to higher order station.
- For initiation of traverse.
• one known point and bearing of initial line is necessary. OR,
• two known coordinate at initial station is necessary.

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Monumentation and Signalling:
• long-lasting stability and visibility. The marking of selected station on the
ground permanently is called monumentation.
• It is to be done very accurately and carefully.
• Marking them with signaling devices, such as flags or reflectors, for easy
identification during the survey.
• There are following monuments:
1). Concrete pillar: pillar has 5mm diameter and 2mm hole copper wire
at center of top.

2). Concrete slab having rod at center:

3). Brass mark: 2mm hole at center:

4). Pyramid(earthenware): 2mm hole at top

5). Galvanized pipe fill with concrete:

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Signaling
• Ground position even center of monument may not be seen so some signal is
used for observation such process is called signaling. - Generally ranging rod
is used for traverse signal while for higher order work ranging pole or prism
reflector may used.
• Signal must be erect and truly vertical.
Selection of Traverse Station and Selection types of Monumentation:
• This involves selecting the starting and ending points of the traverse, as
well as intermediate stations, based on their visibility, accessibility, and
stability.
• The selection of the type of monumentation is an important decision as it
directly affects the accuracy and longevity of the survey data.
• There are several types of monumentation that can be used in traverse
surveying, including stone pillars, concrete blocks, iron pipes, brass disks,
and wooden stakes. The choice of monumentation depends on the survey
area's physical and environmental characteristics, the expected life of the
monument, and the survey's precision requirements.
D-Card (Description Card Preparation):
• It is Fourth phase of field work during Traverse Surveying.
• After monumentation D-card is prepared for every station.
• It just an identity card of the station.
• The information of D-card helps to relocate or find the station in the
entire area.
• The information of D-card must be complete and clear so it can read
Easily.
• Information like grid sheet no, base sheet no, station name and number,
type of monument and its diagram, field sketch, location(district, VDC,
ward), land owner, local representative, visible station number and name,
witness marks with direction and dimension, sketch and description to
reach the station.
Traverse Chart/Sketch:
• This is a graphical representation of the survey, showing the location and
orientation of the traverse stations.
• It is used to verify the accuracy and completeness of the survey data and
to prepare the final survey report.

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2.3.2 Angle Measurement: Horizontal Angles, Zenithal/Vertical Angle, Bearing
Computation
1. Horizontal Angle
• The angle between two successive traverse legs is named as traverse angle
or horizontal angle.
• From the traverse angle, the Bearing of the lines is computed.
• It is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds, and is used to determine
the direction and position of the survey stations relative to each other.
• The horizontal angle is measured using a theodolite or a total station.
• The instrument is set up at the first survey station and is pointed toward
the reference line.
• Different sets of readings are made for accuracy in different orders of
traversing.
• Primary traverse-----7 sets reading
• Secondary traverse----5 sets reading
• Tertiary traverse -------3 sets reading
Note: no of sets value= 180°/n, Where
n is the no. of sets (Both Face Left and Face Right readings are taken)
• A horizontal angle is measured either by the method of repetition or by
reiteration.
I. Method of Repetition
• By this method, an angle is measured two or more times by
allowing the Vernier to remain
clamped each time at the end
of each measurement instead of
setting it back at zero when sighting
the previous station.
• Thus an angle reading is mechanically
added several times depending upon
the number of repetitions.
• The average horizontal angle is then obtained by dividing
the final reading by the number of repetitions.
Steps:
• To measure an angle, say ABC, by the method of repetition, set up
the instrument at B and level it. Make the instrument left faced.
• Sight the station A with telescope, bisect the rod, then zero set
the theodolite.

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 • Unclamp the lower clamp and swing the telescope clockwise to sight
C. Bisect station C by tangent screw. Record the left face reading.
• Unclamp the lower clamp and turn the telescope clockwise to sight
A again. Bisect A accurately using the lower tangent screw. The
Vernier readings will not change in this operation since the upper
plate is clamped to the lower.
• Unclamp the upper clamp, turn the telescope clockwise, and sight C.
Bisect C accurately by the upper tangent screw.
• Repeat the process until the angle is repeated the required number
of times (Usually 3). The average angle with the face left will be
equal to the final reading divided by three.
• Change face and follow the above procedure
• The average horizontal angle is then obtained by taking the average
of the two angles obtained with face left and face right.
II. Method of Reiteration
• This method is also known as the 'Direction Method' and is
suitable for the measurements of
the angles of a group having a
common vertex point.
• Several angles are measured
successively and finally the
horizon is closed.
• The number of sets depends on the
accuracy required.
Steps:
• Set the instrument over O and level it. Set one Vernier to zero and
bisect point A accurately.
• Loose the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise to point B.
Bisect B accurately using the upper tangent screw.
• Similarly, bisect successively, C, D, etc. thus closing the circle
• On final sight to A, the reading of the Vernier should be the same
as the original setting. If not the discrepancy is noted and
distributed.
• Repeat the above steps with the other face.

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2. Vertical Angles
• Vertical angle is the angle which the inclined line of sight to an object
makes with the horizontal.
• It may be an angle of elevation or an angle of depression depending upon
whether the object is above or below the horizontal plane passing through
the trunnion axis of the instrument.
• To measure the vertical angle, the instrument should be leveled with
reference to the altitude bubble.
Steps:
• Level the instrument with reference to the plate level
• Keep the bubble central for all pointing of the telescope
• Loosen the vertical circle clamp and rotate the telescope in the
vertical plane to sight the object.
• Read both the Verniers of the Vertical Circle. The mean of the two
gives the vertical angle.
• Similar observations may be made with another face. The average
of these two will give the required angle.
3. Bearing Computation
• The bearing of a line is the horizontal angle that it makes with a reference
line.
• In order to measure the magnetic bearing of a line, the theodolite should
be provided with either a tubular compass or a trough compass.
Steps:
• Set the instrument at A and level it accurately
• Set accurately the Vernier A to zero
• Loosen the lower clamp. Release the needle of the compass. Rotate
the instrument about its outer axis till the magnetic needle roughly
points to the north. Using the lower tangent screw, bring the needle
exactly against the mark so that it is in a magnetic meridian. The
line of sight will also be in the magnetic meridian.
• Loosen the upper clamp and point the telescope towards B. Bisect B
accurately using the upper tangent screw. Read verniers A and B.
• Change the face and repeat the above steps.

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4. Measuring Direct Angles
• Direct angles are the angles measured clockwise from the preceding line to
the following line.
• They are also known as angles to the
right or azimuths from the backline
and may vary from 0 to 360°
Steps:
• Set the theodolite at Q and
level it accurately. With Face Left, set the reading on the Vernier A
to zero.
• Unclamp the lower clamp and direct the telescope to P. Bisect it
accurately using the lower tangent screw.
• Unclamp the upper clamp and swing the telescope clockwise and
sight R. Bisect R accurately using the upper tangent screw. Read
both Vernier
• Plunge the telescope, unclamp the lower clamp, and take back sight
on P. Reading on the Vernier will be the same as in the previous step.
• Unclamp the upper clamp and bisect R again. Read the Vernier. The
reading will be equal to twice the angle. The angle will be obtained
by dividing the final reading by two
• Similarly, angles at other stations may also be measured.
5. Measuring Deflection Angle
• A deflection angle is the angle that a survey line makes with the
prolongation of the preceding line.
• It is designated as Right (R) or Left (L)
according as it is measured clockwise
or anti-clockwise from the prolongation
of the previous line .
• Its value may vary from 0 to 180°
Steps:
• Set the instrument at Q and level it
• With both plates clamped at 0°, take back sight on P
• Plunge the telescope. Thus the line of sight is in the direction PQ
produced when the Vernier reading on Vernier A is 0°
• Unclamp the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise to take
the foresight on R. Read both the Vernier.

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 • Unclamp the lower clamp and turn the telescope to sight P again.
The Vernier still read the same reading as in the above step. Plunge
the telescope.
• Unclamp the upper clamp and turn the telescope to sight R. Read
both Vernier. Since the deflection angle is doubled by taking both
the face readings, one-half of the final reading gives the deflection
angle at Q

2.3.3 Distance Measurements: Distance Measurement by Tapes, Substense

Bar, Stadia Method, and EDM
• Distance means the horizontal distance of a traverse leg.
• Only horizontal distance is used for coordinate computation. So if slope
distance is measured, it is converted into horizontal distance.
• In a traverse survey, distance measurement is an essential part of the
process to determine the length of lines between survey points.
• There are several methods used for distance measurement in traverse
survey, which include:
1. Distance Measurement by Tapes
• This method involves the use of steel or fiberglass tape that is
pulled tight between two points.
• The length of the tape is known, and the distance between the
two points is measured by reading the markings on the tape.
2. Distance Measurement by Subtense bar
• In the traverse survey, the subtense bar is an instrument used
for distance measurement. It is also known as the stadia rod or
tachometer rod.
• By measuring the angles and using trigonometry, the distance
between the two points can be calculated. The formula used to
calculate the distance is:
Distance = (100 x staff length x cosine of the angle)/(stadia
interval x number of divisions on the staff)
• The subtense bar method is commonly used for measuring long
distances, such as in highway and railway surveys.

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3. Distance Measurement by Stadia Method
• In traverse survey, the stadia method is a technique used to
measure distances using a surveying instrument such as a
theodolite or total station.
• The stadia method is based on the principle of vertical angles
and is commonly used in highway and railway surveys to measure
long distances.
• The stadia method is an accurate and efficient way to measure
distances in a traverse survey, but it requires careful attention
to detail and precise readings of the vertical angles.
• Using the vertical angle readings and the stadia interval, the
distance between the two points can be calculated using the
stadia formula:
D = (S x f)/(S1 - S2)
4. Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
• In traverse surveys, EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement) is
a modern and accurate method of measuring distances between
survey points.
• EDM uses electronic instruments that emit laser or infrared
waves to measure the distance between two points.
• The instrument calculates the time taken for the wave to travel
to the target and back and uses this information to determine
the distance.
• The distance between the two points is calculated by multiplying
the time taken by the speed of light or infrared waves.
• Overall, EDM is a highly accurate and efficient method of
measuring distances in traverse surveys and is commonly used in
a variety of surveying applications.

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2.3.4 Field Precautions
Traverse surveying is a method of surveying in which a series of connected
survey lines are established between two fixed points to determine the relative
positions of the points on the ground. It is important to take certain precautions
during traverse surveying to ensure accurate results. Here are some precautions
that are typically taken:
1) Weather: Surveying should be avoided during inclement weather, such as
heavy rain, fog, or snow. This is because these conditions can affect the
accuracy of the measurements.
2) Instruments: The surveying instruments, such as the theodolite, should be
carefully calibrated and checked for accuracy before use. It is also
important to keep the instruments clean and dry during use.
3) Station Markers: The station markers used in traverse surveying should
be securely placed and clearly marked. They should be protected from
damage and displacement by animals, vehicles or people.
4) Measuring Tape: The measuring tape should be checked for accuracy
before use, and it should be carefully handled during the survey to avoid
stretching or breaking.
5) Field Book: The field book should be kept clean and dry during the survey.
All measurements and observations should be recorded accurately and legibly.
6) Team Coordination: The surveying team should work in coordination with
each other to ensure that measurements are taken at the same time, and
that the instruments are properly aligned.
7) Obstructions: Any obstructions that could interfere with the survey
measurements, such as vegetation or buildings, should be noted and
accounted for in the measurements.
8) Levelling: Levelling of instruments should be done correctly to avoid
incorrect angles and readings.
9) Repeat Observations: In order to ensure accuracy, it is recommended to
take repeat measurements and observations.
10) Safety: Safety precautions should be taken during traverse surveying,
including the use of safety equipment such as hard hats, safety glasses,
and high-visibility clothing.

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2.3.5 Recording, Computation and Plotting
Recording:
During this stage, the surveyor measures the angles and distances
between the points in the traverse. The angles are usually measured using a
theodolite, which is a specialized instrument for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles. The distances are measured using a tape or an electronic
distance measuring device. The measurements are recorded in a field book or
data collector.
Computation:
During this stage, the surveyor calculates the coordinates of the traverse
points using the recorded angles and distances. This involves applying
mathematical formulas and techniques such as trigonometry, geometry, and
coordinate geometry. The computations can be done manually using tables and
calculators or automatically using specialized software.
Plotting:
During this stage, the surveyor draws a map or plan of the traverse points
using the computed coordinates. This involves using a scale and a drawing
instrument such as a compass, protractor, or CAD software. The map or plan
shows the positions and relationships of the traverse points and can be used
for various purposes such as planning, design, or construction.
• There are two principal methods of plotting a traverse survey:
1. Angle and Distance Method
• In this method, distances between stations are laid off to scale, and
angles (or bearings) are plotted by one of the methods below:
• By Protractor
• By the Tangent of the Angle
• By the Chord of the Angle
• This method is suitable for the small survey, and is much inferior to
the co-ordinate method in respect of the accuracy of plotting.
2. Co-ordinate Method
• In this method, survey stations are plotted by calculating their
co-ordinates
• This method is by far the most practical and accurate one for
plotting traverses or any other extensive system of horizontal
control.
• Closing errors can be eliminated by balancing, prior to plotting, in
this method.

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2.4 Error and Adjustment in Traverse

2.4.1 Types of Error

1). Angular Error/ Errors in angle :
• Angular error is the types of the error in traversing. angular error is
the deviation of angle from the actual/ correct angle.
• The error in the angle can be checked by;
This is only done in closed traverse
a) Closed loop traverse:
- Sum of interior angles (2n -4) rt. Angle,
- Sum of exterior angles (2n +4) rt. Angle,
- Differences from measure value to value given by above
formula is called angular misclosure.
b) Link traverse:
- In this traverse, angular check would be
• Calculated bearing of last leg = bearing observed by
astronomical observation
• Bastronomical = Bcalculated
2). Linear Error/ Errors in Length :
• The error in the length is checked as;
a. For loop traverse
- Sum of latitude = 0
- If sum of latitude and sum of departure is not equal to zero,
the quantity of non zero is called error in northing(eN) and
error in easting(eE).
- Sum of departure = 0
b. Link traverse
- Sum of Latitude N last point – N first point.
- Sum of Departure = E last point – E first point.
3). Closing Error :
• An error obtained by closing the traverse is called closing error.
• The shortening or excess of traverse from starting position is closing
error.
• Closing error occurs due to error in easting(departure) and error in
northing(latitude).
Let,
- Error in departure = eΕ = ΣΔΕ, Error in latitude = eN = ΣΔΝ
- Closing error(magnitude) e =√(eE² + eN²)

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 - Direction of closing error =tan-1 (eEle N)
- Accuracy = e/p = 1/(p/e)
where, p is perimeter of traverse
• You should end up where you started
- Sum of Lat's = 0
- Sum of Dep's = 0
• These errors can be minimized or eliminated by different methods;
1. Bowditch method 2. Transit method
3. Graphical method 4. Axis Method
5. Arbitrary Method

2.4.2 Sources of Error

Like any measurement process, traverse surveying is subject to errors, There
are mainly three sources of errors, they are: personal error, instrumental error,
and natural error.
1) Personal Error: This type of error arises due to the surveyor's limitations,
such as visual acuity, physical stamina, and experience in using the equipment.
Personal errors can result from reading the instrument inaccurately or
misjudging the position of the target or object being measured. They can also
occur due to incorrect recording or transcription of data, arithmetic
mistakes, or misidentification of targets or points.
Error due(poor skill and lack of experience) of persons involved in traversing:
• Error due to inaccurate centering and levelling.
• Error due to false observation(reading)
• Error due to recording and booking etc.
2) Instrumental Error: Instrumental errors result from limitations and errors
associated with the equipment or tools used in traverse surveying. These
errors include the incorrect calibration of the equipment, misalignment of the
target or instrument, errors in the reading or adjustment of the instrument,
or defects in the equipment, such as wear or damage.
Error due to instrument(maladjusted instruments)
• Error due to imperfect geometry of instrument
• Error due to standardization of instrument
• Error due to graduation of instrument
• Error due to non vertical signal
• Error due to optical geometry of instrument

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 3) Natural Error: Natural errors are those that arise due to external factors
such as weather, terrain, and other environmental conditions. Examples of
natural errors include variations in temperature, air pressure, and humidity,
which can affect the accuracy of measurements. The curvature of the Earth's
surface can also lead to errors, as can magnetic interference, atmospheric
refraction, and other geophysical phenomena.

2.4.3 Traverse Adjustment by Bowditch, Transit, Graphical, Axis rule

1. Bowditch's Method
• The basis of this method is on the assumptions that the errors in linear
measurements are proportional to vī and that the errors in angular
measurements are inversely proportional to √ī, where I is the length of
a line.
• The Bowditch's rule, also termed the Compass rule, is mostly used to
balance a traverse where linear and angular measurements are of equal
precision.
• The total error in latitude and in departure is distributed in proportion
to the lengths of the sides.
• The Bowditch Rule is:
Correction to Latitude (or Departure) of any side =
Total Error in Latitude (or Departure) X
Thus, if = Correction to latitude of any side
= Correction to departure of any side
∑L= Total error in Latitude
∑D= Total error in Departure
Σl= length of the perimeter, and l= Length of any side

We have, ∑L . and ∑D .

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 2. Transit Method
• The transit rule may be employed where angular measurements are
more precise than the linear measurements.
• According to this rule, the total error in latitudes and in departures is
distributed in proportion to the latitudes and departures of the sides.
• It is claimed that the angles are less affected by corrections applied
by the transit method than by those by Bowditch's method.
• The Transit rule is:
Correction to Latitude (or Departure) of any side=

Total Error in Latitude (or Departure) X

3. Graphical Method
• For rough survey the Bowditch rule may be applied graphically without
doing theoretical calculations.
• Before plotting the traverse directly from the field notes, the angles
or bearings may be adjusted to satisfy the geometric conditions of the
traverse.

- Let us consider a traverse closed loop ABCDEA. Due to the error in

observation the traverse loop starting from point A does not end at A
but at A1. so it is plotted as AB1C1D1E1A1. Thus the closing error is
AA1.
- Draw a straight line AA1 (Fig (b)) equal to the perimeter of the
plotted traverse, and set off along it AB1, B1C1, C1D1, D1E1, and E1A1
equal to the length of the sides of the plotted traverse-to any
convenient scale.
- Draw a line Ala parallel and equal to the closing error AA1. Join A and a
and from B1, C1, D1, and El draw lines B1b, C1c, D1d, and Ele parallel to
Ala, intersecting the line Aa at b, c, d, and e, respectively.

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 - The intercepts B1b, C1c, etc., represent the corrections both in
magnitude and direction at B, C, etc.
- These corrections give the directions and distances through which
stations B, C, etc., are to be shifted.
- At stations B, C, etc., the lines parallel to the corrections and
distances equal to B1b, C1c, etc., are plotted as shown in Fig. a.
- Join points A, B, C, D, and E to get the adjusted traverse.

3. Axis Rule / Method

• This Method Is Used To Balance A Traverse Where Angles Are
Measured More Precisely Than The Lengths and Thus This Axis
Method Is Used For Correction Of Lengths Only.
• Since The Angles Are Measured More Precisely And Therefore The
Direction Of Lines Do Not Change Much While Applying The Correction
And Thus The General Shape Of The Traverse Do Not Change Much.
• This method is adopted when the angles are measured very accurately,
the corrections being applied to lengths only.
Correction to any length = That Length X

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Unit 3 Triangulation
1. Introduction
3.1.1 Definition
• Triangulation is a process of determining the location of a point by measuring
the angles between it and two or more reference points of known coordinates.
• The process of a measuring system comprised of connected triangles whose
vertices are stationsmarked on the surface of the earth and in which angular
observations are supported by occasional distance and astronomical
observation is known as triangulation.
• Triangulation is the method of control survey that provides s framework of
survey points, whose relative positions, in two or three dimensions, are known
to some prescribed degree of accuracy
• This method is commonly used to create topographic maps, establish
property boundaries, and mark the location of infrastructure.

3.1.2 Purpose
• For establishment of accurate control points for plane and geodetic survey of
large areas.
• For establishment of accurate control points photogrammetric survey of
large areas.
• To assist in determination of the size and shape of the earth.
• To determine the accurate location for setting out of engineering works such
as piers and abutments for long-span bridge.
• Fixing of center lines, terminal points, shafts for long tunnels and
measurement of deformation of dams.

3.1.3 Principle
• The principle of triangulation is based on the fact that if the angles and
distances of two sides of a triangle are known, the third side and its position
can be calculated
• This principle is used in surveying, navigation, and geodesy to determine the
position of an unknown point by measuring the angles between it and two or
more reference points of known coordinates
• The resulting network of triangles forms a framework for mapping and
construction and is critical to ensuring the accuracy and reliability of
subsequent survey work.

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3.1.4 Scope
The scopes of the triangulation surveying are as follows:
1) Mapping and charting: Triangulation surveying is used in mapping and charting
the Earth's surface. It is used to determine the precise location and elevation
of points on the surface, which are then used to create maps and charts.
2) Geodetic surveying: Triangulation surveying is also used in geodetic surveying,
which involves measuring the Earth's size, shape, and gravitational field. By
measuring the angles and distances between points on the Earth's surface,
geodetic surveyors can determine the Earth's shape and size with a high degree
of accuracy.
3) Navigation: Triangulation surveying is used in navigation, particularly in aviation
and marine navigation. By using triangulation to determine the location of
navigational beacons and other landmarks, pilots and navigators can determine
their own position and navigate with greater accuracy.
4) Land surveying: Triangulation surveying is used in land surveying to determine
property boundaries and create topographic maps. By measuring the angles and
distances between points on the ground,surveyors can determine the precise
location of property lines and create detailed maps of the terrain.
5) Engineering surveying: Triangulation surveying is also used in engineering
surveying, which involves the measurement and analysis of the Earth's surface
for engineering projects such as building construction, road and bridge
construction, and land development. By using triangulation to determine
the location and elevation of points on the surface, engineers can plan and
design their projects withgreater accuracy.

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3.1.5 Types of Triangulation Figures and Stations

Types of Triangulation Figures

• A triangulation figure or triangulation system is a group of system of
triangles such that any triangle has one side, and only one side common
to each of the preceding and the following triangles
1. Single Chain of Triangles
• This triangle is used when a narrow strip of land is to be covered.
• Though the system is rapid and economical, it is not so accurate for
primary triangulation works as the number of conditions to be
fulfilled in the figure adjustment is relatively small also it is not
possible to carry out the solution of the triangles through the
figures by independent routes.
• If the accumulation of error is not to become excessive, baselines
must be introduced frequently.

2. Double Chain of Triangles

• The double chain of triangles is used to cover a broader area.

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3. Centered Triangles and Polygons
• In this arrangement there is always an interior station.
• The interior station may be bounced by three or more sides.
• The interior station is a common vertex for all the triangles.
• This arrangement provides the required checks on computations.
• However, the progress of work is slow due to more number of
instrument stations.

4. Braced Quadrilaterals
• Quadrilaterals with four corner stations and observed diagonals
form the best triangulation figures.
• These are best suited for hilly terrains.
• Since the computed length of sides can be carried through the
system by different combinations of sides and angles, this system is
the most accurate among all the systems.

5. Combined System
• In this system, the
combination of two or
more of the above
systems are used to
form the triangulation net.
• This is used when the
area to be surveyed is
large, and only one system is not suitable

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Types of Triangulation Stations
On the basis of the observation on the triangulation stations of a
triangulation (Δn) net and their use in computation, the stations of the net
are categorized on follows;
1) Main Stations
• The Triangulation stations that are used to carry forward the
network of the triangulation are known as main stations.
• Observations at each main station are made with every care and
precaution. ABCDEGHIJ in fig are main stations.
2). Subsidiary Station
• The triangulation stations that are used only to provide additional
rays to intersected points are known as subsidiary stations.
• These stations are not used to carry forward the triangulation
network.
• Observation on two zeros are considered to be sufficient for such
stations. K & L in figure are the subsidiary stations.
3). Satellite Station
• The stations which are selected closed to main in stations to avoid
the intervening obstruction are known are as satellite stations.
• The satellite stations are also known as false stations or eccentric
stations.
• In these stations observations are made with the some precision as
for the main stations.
• Station G' in fig. is the satellite station.
4). Pivot Stations
• Those stations at which no observations are made but the angles at
them are used for the continuity of the triangulation series are
known as pivot stations.
• As there is no check on the observations of the triangles involving
a pivot station it is advisable to avoid such a station in normal
Triangulation net.
• Station F is the example
of a pivot station.

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Criteria For Selection Of Triangulation Figures
• The figure should be such that at least one and preferably both routes
should be well conditioned.
• The figure should be such that the computations can be done through two
dependent routes.
• The length of all the lines in a figure should be comparable. Very long or
very short lines should be avoided.
• The figure ought to be to such an extent that minimum work may get the
most extreme advancement.
• As far as possible, the complex figure should not involve more than 12
Conditions.
• Angles of the simple triangle should not be less than 45°, and in the case
of quadrilaterals, no angle should be less than 30° and in the case of
centered polygons, no angle should be less than 40°

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3.1.6 Classifications of Triangulation and their Specifications
• There are six kinds of Triangulation stations in Nepal. The Geodetic
Survey Branch, has published a book, in which specifications for these
control points has been given. According to the Blue book the
specifications are as follows.
 Basic First order Triangulation
 First order Triangulation
 Second order Triangulation
 Third order Triangulation
 Fourth order Triangulation
 Fifth order/Temporary Triangulation

Order of Triangulation and Specifications

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3.1.7 Strength of Figure
• Accuracy of a triangulation network not only does depend on methods and
precision used during observation but also depends on shape of the figures
in the triangulation network.
• The accuracy of the system due to shape of the figure in the net is
measured in terms of the strength of figures.
• Defined as a figure which gives the least error in the calculated length of
the last line in the system due to the shape of triangle and the composition
of the figures.
• The strength of figure is a factor to be considered in establishing a
triangulation system to maintain thecomputations within a desired degree
of precision. It plays also an important role in deciding the layout of
triangulation system.
The strength of figure is a function of:
1. The geometric strength of the triangles that make up the network.
Ideally, the triangles should be equilateral.
2. The number of stations occupied for angle or direction measurements
lines occupied at only one end should be avoided whenever possible.
3. The number of angle and side conditions used in adjusting the
network. this number should be large in proportion to the numbers of
observations.
The following equation is used to evaluate the strength of figure:

R= ∑( + + + +)……………………………(1)
Where R = Strength of figure
Where,
D = the number of directions observed excluding the known side of the figure,
, = the difference per second in the sixth place of logarithm of the sine of
the distance angles A, B respectively. (Distance angle is the angle in a
triangle opposite to a side), and
C = the number of geometric conditions for side and angle to be satisfied in
each figure. It is given by,
C = (n' - S' + 1) + (n - 2S + 3)……………………………(2)
Where,
n = the total number of lines including the known side in a figure,
n' = the number of lines observed in both directions including the
known side,

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 S = the total number of stations, and
S' = the number of stations occupied
For the computation of the quantity
∑( + + + +)

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3.2 Field Procedure

3.2.1 Reconnaissance and Monumentation

Reconnaissance
• Examination of the terrain to be surveyed
• Suitable position for stations
• Determination of inter visibility
• Computation of the height of signals & towers.
• Selection of conspicuous natural features for reference points.
• Miscellaneous information collection
- Access to various An stations.
- Transportation facilities
- Availability of food and water.
- Camping ground.
- Access to market.
For reconnaissance, the following instruments are generally employed:
1. Small theodolite and sextant for measurement of angles.
2. Prismatic compass for measurement of bearings.
3. Steel tape.
4. barometer for ascertaining elevations.
5. Binocular.
6. Drawing instruments and materials.
7. Guyed ladders, creepers, ropes, etc., for climbing trees.
How to select an Δn station ?
- Peak
- Clear visibility
- Shape of triangles
- Accessible
- Commanding position (Usefulness for future use)
- Should require less clearing & cutting
- Line of sight should not pass through the sites where there is more
effect of irregular refraction like towns factories and furnaces.
- Adequate length of sides.

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Monumentation
• Marking of the triangulation stations permanently is called monumentation.
During monumentation the following points should be considered:
1. Stability:
• The monument should be set on some geologically stable
foundation so that it may last for a long period of time.
2. Witness:
• Proper witness marks should be marked around the station mark so
that the user can easily locate the point with the help of the
witness marks.
3. Security:
• Monumentation should be done in a secured place so that no one
can destroy it easily and it should not be done at places where
there is a probability of excavation or construction in the near
future.
• Generally a monument should consist of one two or three marks
placed on the same vertical line so that if the upper mark is
destroyed due to some reason the lower may be used as the
triangulation station.
• Depending on the type of survey station, area of the survey, and
nature of the surface rock structure there are various types of
monuments in use,
• Monumentation is generally done using concrete pillars, slabs,
galvanized pipes, wooden pegs, etc.
D-Card
• A description card for survey stations in triangulation is a document
that provides important information about the survey stations used
in triangulation.
• The purpose of the description card is to provide a clear and concise
overview of the survey stations to the surveyors and other
stakeholders involved in the triangulation process
• The description card typically includes the following information:
- Station Name: A unique name or identifier for the survey station.
- Location: The geographical coordinates of the survey station,
including latitude, longitude, and elevation.
- Marker Type: The type of marker used to mark the survey
station, such as a concrete monument, metal pin, or wooden stake.

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 - Marker Size and Shape: The size and shape of the marker used
to mark the survey station, including dimensions and any
distinguishing features.
- Accuracy: The expected accuracy of the survey station, including
the estimated error range.
- Date of Establishment: The date when the survey station was
established.
- Surveyor's Name: The name of the surveyor who established the
survey station.
- Additional Information: Any additional information that may be
relevant to the survey station, such as nearby landmarks or any
known issues with the station.

3.2.2 Signals
• Signal is a device erected to define the exact position of the triangulation
station so that it can be observed from other station.
• Tower is a structure over a station to support the instrument and the
observer and is provided when the station or signal both to be elevated.
• Erection of a target vertically above the station mark so that it can be
observed from other stations is called signaling.
• The signal should be vertical, sharp, and distinct
• The accuracy of triangulation depends to a large extent on the proper
centering of the signal.
Characteristics of Signal:
• It should be noticeable and clearly visible against the background.
• It should be capable of being accurately centered over the station mark.
• It should be suitable for accurate bisection from other stations.
Types of Signals:
1. Opaque Signals
2. Luminous Signals
1. Opaque Signals
• Used during the day
• Commonly used for short distances
• Also known as non-luminous signals
• Various forms and the ones most commonly used are the following
a). Pole Signal b). Target Signal
c). Pole and Brush Signals d). Stone Cairn
e). Beacon f). Tower

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a). Pole Signal
• It consists of a round pole painted black and white in
alternate and is supported vertically over the station mark
on a tripod.
• They are painted alternative red and white strips of 0.2 or
0.5 meters.
• They are erected above the station mark vertically with the
help of a tripod.
• A flag at its top can be attached to make it distinct
b). Target Signal
• It consists of a pole carrying two square or rectangular
targets placed at right angles to each other.
• The targets are generally made of cloth stretched on
wooden frames.
• Target signals are suitable up to a distance of 6 km.
c). Pole and Brush Signals
• It consists of a straight pole about 2.5 meters long with a bunch of long
grass tied symmetrically around the top making a cross.
• The signal is erected vertically over the station mark by
heaping a pile of stones up to 1-7 meters around the
pole.
• A rough coat of whitewash is applied to make it more
conspicuous to be seen against a black background.
d). Stone Cairn
• It consists of stones built up to a height of 3
meters in a conical shape.
• This white-washed opaque signal is very useful if
the background is dark.
e). Beacon
• It consists of red and white cloth tied around
the three straight poles.
• This can be easily centered over the station marks
• Beacons are useful when simultaneous observations are made at both the
Stations.

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 f). Tower
• A tower is erected at the triangulation station
when the station or the signal or both are to be
elevated to make indivisibility between stations.
• Towers generally have two independent
structures.
• Outer structure is for supporting the observer
and the signal whereas the inner one is for
supporting the instrument only.
• The two structures are made entirely
independent of each other so that the
movement of the observer does not disturb the
instrument setting.
• Two towers may be made of masonry, timber, or steel.
• Timber scaffolds are most commonly used, and have been constructed to
heights over 50 m.
2. Luminous Signals
• Further divided into two categories:
a. Sun Signals
• Those signals which reflect the rays of the sun towards the station of
observation, are known as heliotropes.
• Such signals can only be used in clear weather.
• It consists of a circular plane mirror and some device for pointing the
mirror so that the light may be seen at the instrument station.
• The position of the point to be sighted is shown by means of sunlight
reflected by the mirror.
• There are two types of heliotropes that are used in Trigonometrical
Division.
- Single Mirror heliotrope.
- Double Mirror heliotrope.
b. Night Signals
• Used when observations are required to made at night.
• Various form of oil lamp with parabolic reflectors for less than 80 km.
• These are used for sights less than 80 km.
• Acetylene lamps designed by captain G.T. McCaw. These are used for
sights more than 80 km.

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3.2.3 Observation and Recording
(1). Baseline Measurement
• The accuracy of an entire triangulation system depends on that
attained in the measurement of the baseline and, therefore, the
measurement of baseline forms the most important part of the
triangulation operations.
• As the baseline forms the basis for computations of the triangulation
system it is laid down with great accuracy in its measurement and
alignment.
• The length of the baseline depends upon the grade of the
triangulation.
• The length of the base is also determined by the desirability of
securing strong figures in the base net.
• Ordinarily the longer base, the easier it will be to secure strong
figures.
• Equipment for baseline measurement
- Tandardized tapes,
- Hunter's short base,
- Tachometric measurements, - EDM
• Selection of site for the baseline:
- The site should be fairly level
- The site should be free from obstructions
- The ground should be firm and smooth
- The two extremities of the baseline should be inter-visible
- The site should be such that well-conditioned triangles can be
Obtained.
- The site should be such that a minimum length of the baseline
as specified, is available.
(2). Angular Measurement
• Procedure for angular measurement
1. Setting up a tripod
• The tripod should be set up in the best possible position to ensure
easy centering and leveling of the instrument
• It should be adjusted to a convenient height for the observer
• It should be positioned so that the plumb bob which is suspended
from a fixing screw under the tripod head is 2-3 cm above the
ground mark.
• The tripod legs are pushed firmly into the ground.
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2. Setting Up the Theodolite
• When the tripod is set up, lift the theodolite carefully from the
carrying box an attach it to the tripod head keeping the fixing screw
slightly loose.
3. Centering With Plumb Bob
• Move the theodolite on the tripod head till the plumb bob is few
millimeter above the station mark.
• Tighten the fixing screw and remove the plumb bob.
4. Leveling Up
• Center the circular bubble by adjusting the foot screw and open
horizontal clamp.
• Turn the alidade so that plate level is parallel to the line joining any
two foot screws A, B.
• Centre the bubble by giving foot screw A, B equal and opposite turn
• Turn alidade clockwise through 90 degree, center the bubble by
turning third screws C only.
• Repeat the above 2 procedure to exactly center the bubble.
5. Centering with Optical Plummet
• The station mark can be seen through the optical plummet which can
be set to bring black crosshair into sharp focus.
• The central fixing is still loose, so slide the theodolite over tripod
head until station mark is centered.
• After the fixing, screws are re-tightened.
6. Telescope Crosshair Focusing
• Aim telescope at a sky, turn dioptric black ring on the eyepiece very
slowly until crosshair appear sharp and black.
• Slightly turn this ring in every image focusing
7. Image Focusing
• Focusing sleeve should be turned until the object is seen in the
eyepiece of the telescope clearly and without parallax.
• The observer must move his eye slightly to ensure that there is
absolutely no apparent movement of the image in relation to the
crosshairs.
8. Sighting
• After correct focusing, turn the horizontal drive screw until a single
vertical crosshair bisect the target

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 9. Horizontal Angle
• Measured in two different ways
a. Method of Repetition-single angle with great precision
b. Method of Reiteration-multiple angle with a single vertex
10. Measurement of Vertical Angle
• Vertical angle is the angle which the inclined line of sight to an
object makes with the horizontal.
• It may be the angle of elevation or depression depending upon
whether the object is above or below the horizontal plane passing
through the trunnion axis of the instrument.
• Used to calculate the reduced level of triangulation point under
Consideration.
Recording the observation
The following are recorded during observation:
i) Name of instrument
ii) Location
iii) Map sheet reference
iv) Weather, Date
v) Horizontal angle (required set)
vi) Vertical angle
vii) Height of instrument, height of signal
vi) Observer, recorder and checked by:

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3.2.4 Field Precautions
Triangulation is a surveying method used to determine the location of a point
by measuring the angles between it and two other known points. Field
precautions taken during triangulation include:
1) Proper selection of stations: The stations should be selected such that
they have clear visibility and are easily accessible. The stations should be
stable and provide a solid foundation for the instrument.
2) Leveling of the instrument: The instrument used for triangulation should
be leveled properly before taking measurements. The leveling should be
done with the help of a spirit level.
3) Clearing of obstructions: Any obstructions that may obstruct the line of
sight between the stations should be cleared. This includes trees, buildings,
and other obstacles.
4) Proper instrument handling: The instrument should be handled carefully
and gently to prevent any damage or misalignment.
5) Accuracy of measurements: The measurements taken during triangulation
should be accurate and precise. Any errors in measurements can lead to
inaccurate results.
6) Checking of instruments: The instruments used for triangulation should be
checked periodically to ensure that they are in proper working condition.
7) Weather conditions: The weather conditions should be favorable for taking
measurements. Rain, fog, and other adverse weather conditions can affect
the accuracy of measurements.
8) Record keeping: Proper record keeping should be maintained to keep track
of the measurements taken and the progress of the survey.
9) Safety measures: Safety measures should be taken to ensure the safety
of the surveyors and the equipment used during the survey. This includes
wearing protective gear and avoiding hazardous areas.

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 3.2.5 Computation and adjustment
The following describes the adjustments and computations that are typically
performed in a plane triangulation system, in the order they are usually carried out:
• Adjustments of observed angles.
• Computation of length.
• Computation of azimuth and the latitude and departure of all sides.
• Computation of independent coordinates.
(i) Adjustment of observed angles:
• The first step in a plane triangulation system is to adjust the observed
angles. This involves correcting the measured angles to account for any
systematic or random errors that may have occurred during the
measurement process.
• This is typically done using a least squares adjustment technique, which
minimizes the sum of the squares of the differences between the
measured angles and the adjusted angles.
• The adjusted angles are then used in subsequent computations.
• All the angles of a triangulation network are to be adjusted before using
them in computation of sides.
A) Station Adjustment:
• All the measured angles are corrected so that they satisfy the
following geometrical conditions:
- Sum of angles around a station making a closed circle should be
equal to 360;
[A + B + C = 360°]
B) Figure Adjustment:
• Adjustment of the figures of triangulation network can be done by
both the method of equal shift and the method of least square.
- Sum of three angles of a plane triangle should be equal to 180
- The sum of the eight angles of a braced quadrilateral should
be equal to 360

3.3 Error and Adjustment in Triangulation

3.3.1 Types of error

3.3.2 Sources of error
3.3.3 Error adjustment and Accuracy Assessment

___Similar as Traversing___

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Unit 4 Trilateration
4.1 Definition and Principles
Definition
• Trilateration is a surveying technique used to determine the position of an
unknown point in space by measuring the distances between that point and at
least three known points whose locations are already known.
• Trilateration is a highly accurate and precise method of establishing and
expanding horizontal control points.
• In trilateration, the distances between the unknown point and the known points
are measured using various instruments such as total stations, GPS receivers, or
rangefinders.
• These distances are then used to calculate the coordinates of the unknown
point in relation to the known points.
• In contrast to triangulation, it doesn't involve the measurement of angles.

Principles
• The method of surveying called trilateration is based on the trigonometric
proposition that if three sides of a triangle are known, the angles of the
triangle can be computed.
• All three sides of a triangle are measured in the field with an EDM instrument.
• The horizontal angles are not measured in the field.
• The angles in a trilateration system are computed indirectly from the lengths of
the sides of the triangle by using the Cosine formula
• The trilateration is adjusted after the computation of the angles and then the
coordinates of the stations are determined as in the case of the triangulation
system.
Law of Sines :
= = , = = ,

Law of Cosines :
= - 2bc.CosA, = - 2ac.CosB, = - 2ab.CosC

Cos (C) = ,
Cos (A) = ,
Cos (B) = .

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4.2 Purpose and Scope
• The purpose of trilateration in surveying is to determine the location of an
unknown point in three-dimensional space by measuring its distances to at least
three known points whose positions are already known.
Scopes of trilateration are:
Mapping and land surveying:
• Trilateration can be used to accurately measure the boundaries of land
parcels and determine the positions of features such as buildings, roads,
and watercourses.
Construction:
• Trilateration can be used to accurately position construction features
such as foundations, columns, and beams.
Navigation:
• Trilateration is used in GPS navigation systems to determine the position
of a receiver on the Earth's surface, which can guide vehicles, ships, and
aircraft to their destinations.
Resource exploration:
• Trilateration can be used to determine the position of resources such as
minerals and oil deposits.
• Overall, the purpose and scope of trilateration extend to a wide range of
applications in surveying, engineering, construction, and navigation, and can
provide critical information for efficient and safe decision-making.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Trilateration

Advantages
• It is a highly accurate and rapid method of control survey. It is superior to
triangulation and traversing if properly executed.
• It is generally more economical than triangulation.
• All angles can be computed by using the measured distance of the sides of
the triangle. So, no angle should be measured except the azimuth of the
baseline.
• It is not necessary to measure all the lines from a station simultaneously.
This is unlike triangulation in which all the angles at a station are measured
simultaneously.

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 Disadvantages
• Angle or azimuth error may be accumulated which affects the overall
accuracy.
• EDM always measures slope distance so extra zenithal/vertical angle, height
of instrument, and height of target should also be measured to convert
slope distance to horizontal distance.
• Trilateration cannot be used in situations where precise angle measurements
must be taken to intersect reference objects.
• For precise work, we should take into account the refraction, and curvature
of the earth which add more volume of work.

Difference Between Triangulation and Trilateration

4.3 Field Operation (Reconnaissance, Monumentation, Signaling, Observation,

Recording, Computation and Adjustment)
4.4 Field Precautions

___Similar as Triangulation___

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Unit 5 Resection and Intersection

5.1 Definition and Principles

Resection
• Resection is a surveying method used to determine the location of an unknown
point by measuring angles and distances from known points.
• This technique is often used when it is not possible to directly measure the
distance to the point being located.
• In resection, the surveyor measures the angles between the known points and
the unknown point and then uses trigonometry to calculate the location of the
unknown point.
• Measurements can be made with a compass and topographic map, theodolite,
or with a total station.
• The unknown point should be set up in such a way that all 3 known points lie on
the opposite face of the unknown point.
Use of Resection
• Suitable for detailing or setting out
• Used for joining the map with National Land System
• Used to merge map with respect to the common grid system
• To determine the observers positions in war
• To provide control points in instrument station
3 Point Resection Problem
• The three-point resection problem in surveying involves occupying an unknown
point and observing angles only to three known points.
• Today, with the advent of total stations/EDMs,
the problem is greatly simplified.
• If the unknown point P lies on a circle defined
by the three known control points then the
solution is indeterminate or not uniquely possible.
• There are, theoretically, an infinite number
of solutions for the observed angles.
• If the geometry is close to this, then the solution is weak.
• In addition, there is no solution to this problem when all the points lie in a
straight or nearly straight line.
• There are a number of approaches to solving the resection problem and one of
them is Collins Method. (Refer to classroom Note for derivation)

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 Intersection
• Intersection, on the other hand, is a surveying technique used to determine
the location of a point by measuring angles from two or more known points to
the point being located.
• In this technique, the surveyor sets up a theodolite at each known point and
measures the angle between the theodolite and the point being located.
• The intersection of these angles is the location of the unknown point.
Use of Intersection
• Curve Ranging
• Surveying details in inaccessible positions
• Point location in an industrial measurement system
• Surveying points at buildings in elevation.

5.2 Purpose and scope

5.3 Field Operation (Reconnaissance, Monumentation, Signaling, Observation,

Recording, Computation and Adjustment)

5.4 Field Precautions

................................... THE END ...................................

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