Unit 14

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
After studying this unit, students will be able to:
• define electric current.
• describe the concept of conventional current.
• understand the potential difference across a circuit component and name its unit .
• describe Ohm’s law and its limitations.
• define resistance and its unit(Ω).
• calculate the equivalent resistance of a number of resistances connected in series
and also in parallel.
• describe the factors affecting the resistance of a metallic conductor.
• distinguish between conductors and insulators.
• sketch and interpret the V-I characteristics graph for a metallic conductor, a
filament lamp and a thermister.
• describe how energy is dissipated in a resistance and explain Joule’s law.
2 2
• apply the equation E=I.Vt = I Rt = V t /R to solve numerical problem.
• calculate the cost of energy when given the cost per kWh.
• distinguish between D.C and A.C.
• identify circuit components such as switches, resistors, batteries etc.
• describe the use of electrical measuring devices like galvanometer, ammeter and
voltmeter (construction and working principles not required).
• construct simple series (single path) and parallel circuits (multiple paths).
• predict the behaviour of light bulbs in series and parallel circuit such as for
celebration lights.
• state the functions of the live, neutral and earthwires in the domestic main supply.
• state reason why domestic supplies are connected in parallel.
• describe hazards of electricity (damage insulation, overheating of cables, damp
conditions).
• explain the use of safety measures in household electricity, (fuse, circuit breaker,
earthwire).

Science, Technology and Society Connections

The students will be able to:
• calculate the total cost of electrical energy used in one month (30 day) at home.
suggest ways how it can be reduced without compromising the comforts and benefits
of electricity.
• describe the damages of an electric shock from appliances on the human body.
• identify the use of fuses, circuit breakers, earthing, double insulation and other safety
measures in relation to household electricity.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Charges in motion constitute electric current. This chapter Electric Current

Flow of electrons
will introduce you to current electricity and related Area A
phenomena such as conventional current, Ohm's law, Conducting I
electric power, Joule’s heating effect, hazards of electricity wire
and safety measures. We will also learn how current or Direction of
current
voltage is measured in a circuit by electrical devices.
The current is the rate of flow
of charge.
14.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT

Most of the electric charge around us is bound in neutral

atoms. It is not easy to overcome the electrostatic force of
attraction between the nuclei and electrons in an atom.
However, in metals some electrons are not tightly bound to
nuclei and are free to move around randomly. They have
weak force between them and the nucleus. Similarly, in
solutions some positive and negative charges can freely
move around randomly. When such free charges are exposed For your information
to an external electric field, they move in a specific direction, Battery
+ -
and thus constitute current. e- e-
Electric current is produced due to the flow of either positive Anode I Cathode
charge or negative charge or both of charges at the same
time. In metals, the current is produced only due to the flow Electrolytic
of free electrons i.e., negative charges. In case of electrolyte tank
its molecules in aqueous solution dissociate among positive
and negative ions. So the current in electrolyte is produced
Solution of electrolyte
due to the flow of both positive and negative charges. In electrolysis, current is
The rate of flow of electric charge through any cross- produced due to flow of both
sectional area is called current. positive and negative charges.
If the charge Q is passing through any area in time t, then In the electrolyte, positive ions
current I flowing through it will be given by are attracted to the cathode
and negative ions are attracted
Charge to the anode. This movement
Current =
Time of ions within the electrolyte
Q constitutes an electric current
or I= ........... (14.1) within the internal circuit.
t
SI unit of current is ampere (A).

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If a charge of one coulomb passes through a cross-sectional

area in one second, then current is one ampere. Smaller Units
Quick Quiz
of current are milli ampere (mA), micro ampere (µA),
How long does it take a current
which are defined below as: of 10 mA to deliver 30 C of
-3
1 mA = 10 A charge?
-6
1 µA = 10 A
Battery is one of the sources of current. The electrochemical
reaction inside a battery separates positive and negative
electric charges (Fig.14.1). This separation of charges sets up
potential difference between the terminals of the battery.
When we connect a conducting wire across the terminals of Connection
the battery, the charges can move from one terminal to the
other due to the potential difference. The chemical energy of
the battery changes to electrical potential energy. The
electrical potential energy decreases as the charges move In the absence of any external
around the circuit. This electrical potential energy can be source no current passes
through the conductor due to
converted to other useful forms of energy (heat, light, sound
random motion of electrons.
etc.). It is only the energy which changes form but the
number of charge carriers and the charge on each carrier
always remains the same (i.e., charge carriers are not used
up). Instead of electrical potential energy we use the term
electric potential which is potential energy per unit charge.
Positive Electrical
terminal potential energy
converted to
I light and heat
Direction of For your information
here
conventional High energy
current
chemical Energy
reaction Battery to do
separates work
charge
Lamp Low Energy
Pump
A battery raises electric charge
Negative back up to higher voltage
terminal
(energy) just like a pump which
Flow of electrons pushes water back up to high
Fig.14.1: Schematic diagram of battery as a current source energy so it can flow and do
Example 14.1: If 0.5 C charge passes through a wire in 10 s, then work again.
what will be the value of current flowing through the wire?
Solution: Given that, Q = 0.5 C, t= 10 s, therefore by using
I = Q/t = 0.5 C/10 s=0.05 A= 50 mA
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Conventional Current
Before the idea of free electrons which constitute current in
metals, it was thought that current in conductors flows due to
the motion of positive charges. Therefore, this convention is
still in use. We can understand the concept of conventional
current from the following analogies.
We know that when the ends of heated copper wire are at
different temperatures, heat energy flows from the end at
higher temperature to the end at lower temperature. The
flow stops when both ends reach the same temperature.
Water in a pipe also flows from higher level to the lower level.
Similarly, when a conductor is connected to a battery, it
pushes charges to flow current from higher potential to the
lower potential (Fig. 14.2). The flow of current continues as
long as there is a potential difference.
Current direction
V

Physics insight
Flow of free electrons

K + -
V 1 lit re s-1
Fig. 14.2: Current flows in a conductor when it is connected to a battery Pump

Conventional current is defined as:

Current flowing from positive to negative terminal of a battery
due to the flow of positive charges is called conventional current
- +
Conventional current produces the same effect as the
1 C s-1 = 1 A
current flowing from negative terminal to the positive
terminal due to the flow of negative charges. The flow of charge in a circuit is
like the flow of water in a pipe
The Measurement of Current except that a return wire is
How can we come to know that current has been established needed in order to have a
complete conducting path.
in the conductor? For this purpose, we use different electrical
instruments which detect the current in the circuit.
Galvanometer and ammeter are some common examples of
current measuring instruments.

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Galvanometer is very sensitive instrument and can detect

small current in a circuit (Fig.14.3). A current of few
milliamperes is sufficient to cause full scale deflection in it.
While making the connections polarity of the terminals of
the galvanometer should be taken into consideration.
Generally, the terminal of the galvanometer with red
colour shows the positive polarity while that of with black
colour shows the negative polarity. An ideal galvanometer
should have very small resistance to pass the maximum
current in the circuit.
After suitable modification galvanometer can be converted Fig.14.3: A galvanometer
into an ammeter (Fig. 14.4). A large current of the range such
as 1 A or 10 A can be measured by means of ammeter. Like
galvanometer, ammeter is also connected in series, so the
current flowing in the circuit also passes through the
ammeter (Fig.14.5).
Battery Knife switch

Ammeter

Fig.14.4: An ammeter
Light bulb Electric current
Fig.14.5: Schematic diagram showing the measurement of current

14.2 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

When one end A of a conductor is connected to the positive
terminal and its other end B is connected to the negative Do you know?
terminal of the battery, then the potential at A becomes The galvanometer has been
higher than the potential at B (Fig.14.6). named after Luigi Galvano
Direction of current (1737-1798). He, while
V d i s s e c t i n g a f ro g ' s l e g ,
discovered that dissimilar
A B metals touching the leg caused
it to twitch. This chance
discovery, the invention of the
Direction of electrons chemical cell and the battery.

K + -
V
Fig.14.6
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This causes a potential difference between the two ends of

the conductor. The flow of current continues as long as
there is a potential difference. The agency which provides For your information
the potential difference for the steady flow of current in the
copper wire is the battery. As the current flows from higher
potential to the lower potential through the conductor, the
electrical energy (due to current) is converted into other Zinc can (-)
forms (heat and light etc.).
When current flows through the conductor, it experiences a
Carbon rod (+)
resistance in the conductor by collisions with atoms of the
conductor. The energy supplied by the battery is utilized in
overcoming this resistance and is dissipated as heat and In a dry cell chemical energy
other forms of energy. The dissipation of this energy is changes into electric energy.
accounted for by the potential difference across the two ends
of the light bulb. Thus
Potential difference across the two ends of a conductor
causes the dissipation of electrical energy into other forms
of energy as charges flow through the circuit.
SI unit of potential difference is volt. A potential
difference of 1 V across a bulb means that each coulomb Do you know?
of charge or 1 ampere of current that passes through the The volt is named after the
bulb consumes 1 joule of energy. When a bulb is lit, the Italian physicist Alessandro
Volta (1745-1827), who
energy is taken from the current and is transformed into developed the first practical
light and heat energy. electric battery, known as a
voltaic pile. Because potential
difference is measured in units
14.3 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (e.m.f) of volts, it is sometimes
A source of electromotive force (e.m.f.) converts non- referred to as voltage.
electrical energy (chemical, thermal, mechanical etc.) into
electrical energy. Examples of sources of e.m.f. are batteries,
thermocouples and generators. When a conductor is
connected to a battery, current flows through it due to
potential difference.
For the continuous flow of current through a wire, battery
supplies energy to the charges. The positive charge leaves the
positive terminal of the battery, passes through the
conductor and reaches the negative terminal of the battery.
As a positive charge enters the battery at its lower potential
point (negative terminal), the battery must supply energy,
say W to the positive charge to drive it to a point of higher
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potential i.e., positive terminal. Now we define e.m.f. of the

source as:
It is the energy supplied by a battery to a unit positive charge
when it flows through the closed circuit. Or The energy
converted from non-electrical forms to electrical form when
one coulomb of positive charge passes through the battery.
Energy
Thus e.m.f =
Charge
W ........ (14.2)
or E = Fig.14.7: A voltmeter
Q
where E is the e.m.f., W is energy converted from non-
electrical forms to electrical form and Q is positive charge. For your information
-1 Open circuit, Closed circuit,
The unit for e.m.f. is JC which is equal to volt (V) in SI system. no current flows current flows
Hence, if the e.m.f. of the battery is 2 V, the total energy
supplied by the battery is 2 joules when one coulomb of
charge flows through the closed circuit.
Switch Switch

The Measurement of Potential Difference

The potential difference across a circuit component (e.g. light
bulb) can be measured by a voltmeter (Fig. 14.7) connected For your information
directly across the terminals of the component. The positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminal of
the voltmeter and the negative terminal of the battery is
connected to the negative terminal of the voltmeter.
Battery Knife switch

I
I
Voltmeter Electric current

A digital multimeter can be

Fig. 14.8: Schematic diagram for measuring potential difference in a used to measure current,
circuit resistance and potential
An ideal voltmeter should have very large value of resistance difference. Here, the
so that no current passes through it. Voltmeter is always multimeter is in voltmeter
connected in parallel with the device across which the mode to measure the
potential difference across a
potential difference is to be measured (Fig. 14.8).
battery.
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The Measurement of e.m.f

In general, e.m.f refers to the potential difference across the
terminals of the battery when it is not driving current in the
external circuit. So in order to measure e.m.f of the battery
we connect voltmeter directly with the terminals of the
battery as shown in Fig. 14.9.

Battery Knife switch

Voltmeter

Fig. 14.9: Schematic diagram for measuring e.m.f. of the battery

14.4 OHM'S LAW

R
Activity 14.1: Take a nichrome wire of about 50 cm length and
apply a potential difference of 1.5 V from a battery
(Fig.14.10a). Measure the current flowing through the wire
using an ammeter connected to it in series. Also measure the
potential difference across the wire using a voltmeter + –
connected across it. Obtain a set of readings for I and V, by (a) V
increasing the number of cells. Plot a graph between I and V.
This will be a straight line (Fig.14.10-b). Voltage
If V is the potential difference across the two ends of any (V)
conductor, then current I will flow through it. The value of the
current changes with the changes in potential difference and
is explained by Ohm's law, stated as:
Crurrent (A)
The amount of current passing through a conductor is directly (b)
proportional to the potential difference applied across its
Fig. 14.10
ends, provided the temperature and the physical state of the
conductor does not change.
i.e., I V or V I
or V = IR
where R is the constant of proportionality, and is the
resistance of the conductors. Its SI unit is ohm, denoted by a
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symbol Ω. If a graph is plotted between the current I and the

potential difference V, a straight line will be obtained. For your understanding
Resistance: The property of a substance which offers 1. In order to measure current
opposition to the flow of current through it is called its through a resistance, ammeter
is always connected in series
resistance.
with the resistance.
This opposition comes from the collisions of moving 2. In order to measure
electrons with atoms of the substance. potential difference across a
resistance, voltmeter is always
Unit of Resistance: ohm connected in parallel with the
resistance.
The SI unit of resistance R is ohm. If we put V = 1 V, and I = 1 A,
the value of R will be 1 Ω. Thus

When a potential difference of one volt is applied across the

ends of a conductor and one ampere of current passes
through it, then its resistance will be one ohm. Physics Insights

Example 14.2: Reading on voltmeter connected across a

heating element is 60 V. The amount of current passing
through the heating element measured by an ammeter is 2 A.
What is the resistance of the heating coil of the element?
Solution: Given that, V = 60 V, I = 2 A I I
Using Ohm's law
V = IR
V 60 V
or R= = = 30 V A-1 = 30 Ω
I 2A
14.5 V-I Characteristics of Ohmic and Non Ohmic
Conductors For your information

Ohm's law is valid only for certain materials.

Resistance

Materials that obey Ohm's law, and hence have a constant

resistance over a wide range of voltages, are said to be ohmic.
Materials having resistance that changes with voltage or
current are non-ohmic. Temperature
A thermister is a temperature
Ohmic conductors have a linear voltage-current relationship dependent resistor and its
over a large range of applied voltages (Fig. 14.11-a). The resistance decreases as
straight line shows a constant ratio between voltage and temperature rises. Thermister
current. Ohm's law is obeyed. For example, most metals is used in a circuit that senses
show ohmic behaviour. temperature change.
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Non ohmic materials have a non linear voltage-current

Voltage
relationship. For example, filament lamp, and thermister. (V)
The resistance of filament rises (current decreases) as it
Crurrent (A)
gets hotter, which is shown by the gradient getting steeper
(a)
(Fig.14.11-b). A thermister (a heat sensitive resistor)
behaves in the opposite way. Its resistance decreases Voltage
(current increases) as it gets hotter (Fig. 14.11-c). This is (V)
because on heating, more free electrons become available Crurrent (A)
for conduction of current.
(b)

14.6 FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE Voltage

(V)
A short pipe offers less resistance to water flow than a long
pipe. Also the pipe with larger cross sectional area offers less Crurrent (A)
(c)
resistance than the pipe having smaller cross sectional area.
Same is the case for the resistance of wires that carry current. Fig.14.11: Voltage vs current
The resistance of a wire depends both on the cross sectional graph for
area and length of the wire and on the nature of the material (a) Fixed resistance
(b) Filament lamp
of the wire. Thick wires have less resistance than thin wires.
(c) Thermister
Longer wires have more resistance than short wires. Copper
wire has less resistance than steel wire of the same size.
Electrical resistance also depends on temperature.
At a certain temperature and for a particular substance
1. The resistance R of the wire is directly proportional
to the length of the wire i.e.,
FR  qL1q 2 ....... (14.3) Point to ponder!
It means, if we double the length of the wire, its resistance
will also be doubled, and if its length is halved, its resistance
would become one half.
2. The resistance R of the wire is inversely proportional
to the area of cross section A of the wire i.e.,
FR  q11q 2 ....... (14.4)
A
The current versus voltage
It means that a thick wire would have smaller resistance than graph of a resistor is a straight
a thin wire. line with a constant slope. The
After combining the two equations, we get graph for light bulb is curved
L with a decreasing slope. What
R  q1q 2
F can you infer from this?
A
L
R=ρ ........ (14.5)
A
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where ‘ρ’ is the constant of proportionality, known as specific

resistance. Its value depends upon the nature of conductor
i.e., copper, iron, tin, and silver would each have a different
Interesting Information
values of ‘ρ’. Diamond does not conduct
If we put L = 1 m, and A = 1 m2 in Eq. (14.5), then R = ρ, i.e., the electricity, because it has no
resistance of one metre cube of a substance is equal to its free electrons. However, it is
specific resistance. The unit of ‘ρ’ is ohm-metre (Ω m). very good at conducting heat
Example 14.3: If the length of copper wire is 1 m and its because its particles are very
firmly bonded together.
diameter is 2 mm, then find the resistance of this copper wire. Jewellers can tell if a diamond is
Solution: Given that, length of the wire L = 1 m, diameter a real diamond or a fake one
of the wire d = 2 mm = 2× 10-3m made from glass, by holding it
Cross sectional area of the wire to their lips. A real diamond
feels very cold due to good
2 3.14  ( 2 10 3 ) 2 m22 ability of transferring heat four
A = πd /4 = or five times better than copper.
‫ﻰ‬
A = 3.14 ×10-6 m2
Specific resistance of copper ρ = 1.69 × 10-8 Ωm
-8 -6 2
Now we have R = ρ × L/A = 1.69 × 10 Ωm × 1 m/3.14 × 10 m
R = 0.54 ×10-2 Ω

14.7 CONDUCTORS
Why do we always use metal wires for conduction of electricity?
Because, they are good conductors of electricity and offer less For your information
resistance to the flow of current. But how can they conduct
Specific
electricity with much ease? Metals like silver and copper have Metal resistance
excess of free electrons which are not held strongly with any (10-8Ω m)
particular atom of metals. These free electrons move randomly
in all directions inside metals. When we apply an external electric Silver 1.7
field these electrons can easily move in a specific direction. This Copper
movement of free electrons in a particular direction under the Aluminium
influence of an external field causes the flow of current in metal
Tungsten
wires. The resistance of conductors increases with increase in
temperature. This is due to increase in the number of collisions of Platinum
electrons with themselves and with the atoms of the metals. Iron 9.8

14.8 INSULATORS Nichrome 100

Graphite 3500
All materials contain electrons. The electrons in insulators,
like rubber, however, are not free to move. They are tightly

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bound inside atoms. Hence, current cannot flow through an

insulator because there are no free electrons for the flow of
current. Insulators have very large value of resistance.
Insulators can be easily charged by friction and the induced
charge remains static on their surface. Other examples of
insulators are glass, wood, plastic, fur, silk, etc.

14.9 COMBINATION OF RESISTORS

(i) Series combination (ii) Parallel combination
Resistors can be connected in two ways.

(i) Series Combination

In series combination, resistors are connected end to end V1 V2 V3
(Fig. 14.12) and electric current has a single path through the
circuit. This means that the current passing through each I R1 R2 R3
resistor is the same.
(.) + –
Equivalent Resistance of Series Circuit K V
Fig.14.12: Three resistors in
The total voltage in a series circuit divides among the series combination
individual resistors so the sum of the voltage across the
resistance of each individual resistor is equal to the total Do you know?
voltage supplied by the source. Thus, we can write as We use heating effect of an
V= V1+V2+V3 ......... (14.6) electric current for different
purposes. For example, when a
where V is the voltage across the battery, and V1, V2, V3 are the current flows through the
voltages across resistors R1, R2 and R3 respectively. If I is the filament of a bulb, it glows
current passing through each resistor, then from Ohm's law white hot and gives out light.
V= IR1+IR2+IR3 Electric heaters have very thin
wires that glow red hot when a
V= I(R1+R2+R3 ) ......... (14.7)
current flows.

We can replace the combination of resistors with a single

resistor called the equivalent resistance Re such that the Quick Quiz
same current passes through the circuit. From Ohm's law Which metal is used as the
V= I Re filament of an electric bulb?
Explain with reason.
Thus, Eq. (14.7) becomes
I Re = I(R1+R2+R3)
Re= R1+R2+R3 ......... (14.8)
Thus, the equivalent resistance of a series combination is
equal to the sum of the individual resistances of the

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combination.
If resistances R1, R2, R3, …….., Rn are connected in series, then
the equivalent resistance of the combination will be given by
Re = R1+ R2+ R3 + ……..+ Rn
Point to ponder!

Example 14.4: If two resistors of 6 kΩ and 4 kΩ are connected in

series across a 10 V battery, then find the following quantities:
(a) Equivalent resistance of the series combination.
(b) The current flowing through each of the resistance.
(c) Potential difference across each of the resistances.
A bird can sit harmlessly on
Solution: Given that, R1= 6 kΩ and R2= 4 kΩ high tension wire. But it must
(a) The equivalent resistance of the series combination is Re= R1+R2 not reach and grab
or Re = 6 kΩ + 4 kΩ =10 kΩ neighboring wire. Do you
(b) If a battery of 10 V is connected across the equivalent know why?
resistance Re, the current passing through it is given by
V 10 V -3
I= = = 1.0 x 10 A = 1 m A
Re 10 kΩ
In the case of series combination same current would pass
through each resistance. Hence, current through R1 and R2
would be equal to 1 mA.
(c) Potential difference across R1= V1= I R = 1.0 x 10-3A × 6 kΩ = 6 V
-3
Potential difference across R2= V2= I R2= 1.0 x 10 A × 4 kΩ = 4 V

(ii) Parallel Combination

In parallel combination one end of each resistor is connected
with positive terminal of the battery while the other end of
each resistor is connected with the negative terminal of the
R1
battery (Fig.14.13). Therefore, the voltage is same across
I1
each resistor which is equal to the voltage of the battery i.e., I2 R2
V = V1 = V2 = V3 R3
I I3
Equivalent Resistance of Parallel Circuit + –
In parallel circuit, the total current is equal the sum of the K V I
currents in various resistances i.e., Fig 14.13: Three resistors in
I = I 1 + I 2 + I3 ......... (14.9) parallel combination
Since the voltage across each resistance is V, so by Ohm's law
V V V
I1 = , I2 = and I3 =
R1 R2 R3

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Thus, Eq.14.9 becomes

V V V
I= + +
R1 R2 R3
1 1 1
I = V ( + + ) ......... (14.10)
R1 R2 R3
We can replace the combination of resistors with a single
resistor called the equivalent resistance Re such that the For your information
same current passes through the circuit. From Ohm's law
current 3 A 2A
I = V/Re.Thus, Eq. 14.10 becomes
1A 1A 1A
V 1 1 1
=V + +
Re R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1 ......... (14.11)
= + +
Re R1 R2 R3
In parallel circuit current
Thus, the reciprocal of equivalent resistance of a parallel
divides into branches.
combination is sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances, which is less than the smallest resistance of the
combination. If resistances R1, R2, R3, …...., Rn are connected in
parallel, then the equivalent resistance of the combination
will be given by
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +.........+
Re R1 R2 R3 Rn
Parallel circuits have two big advantages over series circuits.
1. Each device in the circuit receives the full battery voltage.
2. Each device in the circuit may be turned off independently
without stopping the current flowing to the other devices in
the circuit. This principle is used in household wiring.

Example 14.5: If in the circuit (Fig. 14.13), R1= 2 Ω, R2= 3 Ω,

R3= 6 Ω, and V= 6 V, then find the following quantities:
(a) equivalent resistance of the circuit.
For your information
(b) current passing through each resistance. A circuit diagram is a symbolic
(c) The total current of the circuit. method of describing a real
Solution: (a) As the resistors are connected in parallel, circuit. The electric symbols
equivalent resistance Reof the combination is give by used in circuit diagrams are
standard, so anyone familiar
1 1 1 1 with electricity can interpret a
= + + circuit diagram.
Re R1 R2 R3

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1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 For your information

= + + = + + x
Re 2Ω 3Ω 6Ω 2 3 6 Ω If the values of all the resistors
in a parallel circuit are the
1 6
= same, the overall resistance
Re 6Ω can be determined by
or Re= 1Ω 1 N
This value is smaller than the lowest value of the resistance in =
Re R
the combination which is always the case in parallel circuits. R
(b) In parallel combination, the potential difference across i.e., Re =
N
each of the resistance is same and is equal to the potential of
the battery, which is 6 V. Therefore, where N is the total number of
resistors and R is the resistance
V 6V of each individual resistor.
Current through R1 is I1 = = =3A
R1 2 Ω

V 6V
Current through R2 is I2 = = =2A
R2 3 Ω

V 6V
Current through R3 is I3 = = =1A
R3 6 Ω
(c) Sum of the currents passing through the resistances in For your information
parallel combination is equal to the total current I of the Typical power ratings
circuit. Therefore, total current is 6 A. Power
Appliance
Activity 14.2: Connect a battery to a small 2.5 V light bulb and (watts)
observe the brightness of the bulb. Connect a second light Electric stove 5,000
bulb in parallel with the first and observe the brightness of Electric heater 1,500
Hair dryer 1,000
the bulbs. Now add a third bulb in parallel with the others and
Iron 800
note the brightness of the bulbs. Does the brightness of the
Washing 750
bulbs differs from the bulbs connected in the series with the machine
battery? Explain. Light bulb 100
Small fan 50
Clock radio 10
14.10 ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND JOULE'S LAW

Turbine runs generator to produce electrical energy when

water falls on it from higher gravitational potential to lower
gravitational potential. Similarly, when charge moves from a
higher electric potential to a lower potential, it delivers
electric current. Thus, the process during which charges
continuously move from a higher potential to a lower
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potential, becomes a continuous source of electrical energy. For your information

Energy-saver light bulbs
transform much more of the
Consider two points with a potential difference of V volts. If electrical energy into light and
one coulomb of charge passes between these points; the much less into wasted heat
amount of energy delivered by the charge would be V joule. energy. An energy-saver light
Hence, when Q coulomb of charge flows between these two bulb that uses 11 J of electrical
points, then we will get QV joules of energy. If we represent energy each second gives the
same amount of light as an
this energy by W, then “ordinary” incandescent bulb
Electrical energy supplied by Q charge W = QV joules that uses 60 J of electrical
Now current, when charges Q flow in time t, is defined as: energy each second.
Q
I=
t
or Q = It
So the energy supplied by Q charge in t seconds = W = V x I x t
This electrical energy can be converted into heat and other
forms in the circuit.
From Ohm's law, we have V = IR 2

So the energy supplied by Q charge is W = I 2 Rt = V t

This equation is called Joule's law, stated as: R

The amount of heat generated in a resistance due to flow of

charges is equal to the product of square of current I, For Your Understanding
resistance R and the time duration t. All electrical appliances have
power rating, given in watts or
This energy can be utilized for different useful purposes. For kilowatts. An appliance with a
example, bulb converts this energy into light and heat, heater power rating of 1W transfers
and iron into heat, and fans into mechanical energy. Usually, 1 joule of electrical energy
each second. So a 60 W light
this energy appears as heat in the resistance. This is the reason bulb converts 60 J of electrical
that we get heat when current passes through a heater. energy each second into light
energy and heat energy. To
Example 14.6: If a current of 0.5 A passes through a bulb find out the total energy an
connected across a battery of 6 V for 20 seconds, then find appliance transfers from the
the rate of energy transferred to the bulb. Also find the mains, we need to know the
resistance of the bulb. number of joules transferred
each second and the number
Solution: Given that, I = 0.5 A, V=6 V, t = 20 s of seconds for which the
Now using the formula, appliance is ON.
Energy W = VIt
we get, Energy = 6 V × 0.5 A × 20 s = 60 J
So the rate of energy transferred must be 60 J in 20 s or 3 J s-1
or 3 watt.
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2
Now using, Energy = W = I Rt Electrical grounding
We get resistance as The Earth is a fairly good
2 electrical conductor. Hence, if
3 = (0.5) × R × 20 a charged object is connected
R = 3 ×1/20 × 1/0.25 = 3/5 = 0.6 Ω with the Earth by a piece of
metal, the charge is conducted
14.11 ELECTRIC POWER away from the object to the
Earth. This convenient method
of removing the charge from
The amount of energy supplied by current in unit time is an object is called grounding
known as electric power. the object. As a safety
measure, the metal shells of
Hence power P can be determined by the formula electrical appliances are
grounded through special
Electric power P = electrical energy/time = W/t wires that give electric charges
where W is the electrical energy given by in the shells paths to the Earth.
W = QV The round post in the familiar
Therefore, above equation becomes three-prong electric plug is the
ground connection.
Electric power P = QV = IV = I 2R
t
Remembering power formula
When current I is passing through a resistor R, the electric
power that generates heat in the resistance is given by I2R.
The unit of electric power is watt which is equal to one joule
-1
per second (1 Js ). It is represented by the symbol W. Electric
bulbs commonly used in houses consume 25 W, 40 W, 60 W,
75 W and 100 W of electric power. I

P
Example 14.7: The resistance of an electric bulb is 500 Ω. Find cover V to find V =
I
the power consumed by the bulb when a potential difference
of 250 V is applied across its ends.

Solution: Given that, R = 500 Ω, V = 250 V Do you know?

Using the formula, I = V/R Although the light intensity
I = 250 V/ 500 Ω= 0.5 A from a 60 W incandescent light
2 2 bulb appears to be constant,
and Power P = I R = (0.5 A) × 500 Ω = 125 W
the current in the bulb
Kilowatt-Hour fluctuates 50 times each
second between -0.71 A and
Electric energy is commonly consumed in very large quantity 0.71 A. The light appears to be
steady because the
for the measurement of which joule is a very small unit. fluctuations are too rapid for
Hence, a very large unit of electric energy is needed which is our eyes to perceive.
called kilowatt-hour. It is defined as
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The amount of energy delivered by a power of one kilowatt in

one hour is called kilowatt-hour.
Self Assessment
One kilowatt-hour1 kWh= 1000 W ×1 hour
A light bulb is switched on for
=1000 W × (3600 s) 40 s. If the electrical energy
5
= 36 × 10 J=3.6 M J consumed by the bulb during
The energy in kilowatt-hour can be obtained by the following this time is 2400 J, find the
formula: power of the bulb.
The amount of energy in kilowatt-hour
watt x time of use in hours Remember
=
1000 To work out the energy
The electric meter installed in our houses measures the transferred, the time must be
consumption of electric energy in the units of kilowatt-hour in seconds and the power in
watts.
according to which we pay our electricity bills. If the cost of
To work out the cost, the
one kilowatt-hour i.e., one unit is known, we can calculate power must be in kilowatts and
the amount of electricity bill by the following formula: the time must be in hours.
Cost of electricity = number of units consumed × cost of one unit
= watt x time of use in hours x cost of one unit
1000
Example 14.8: Calculate the one month cost of using 50 W
energy saver for 8 hours daily in your study room. Assume +2
that the price of a unit is Rs. 12.
Voltage

+1
Solution: Given that, Power = 50 W = 0.05 kW, time = 8 hours 0
Number of units consumed = 8 × 30 × 0.05 =12 units -1
-2
Therefore, total cost = 12 × 12 = Rs. 144 Time

Fig.14.14: variation of
14.12 DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING voltage with time.
CURRENT

The current derived from a cell or a battery is direct current

(d.c.) - since it is unidirectional. The positive and negative
terminals of d.c sources have fixed polarity, therefore, level of +200
Voltage (V)

+100
d.c remains constant with time (Fig.14.14). On the contrary,
0
there is also a current which changes its polarity again and -100
again. -200
0 0.02 0.04 0.06
Time (s)
Such a current that changes direction after equal intervals of
time is called alternating current or a.c (Fig.14.15). This type of Fig. 14.15: Variation of voltage
with time.
current is produced by AC generators.
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The time interval after which the a.c voltage or current

repeats its value is known as its time period.
The change in the values of voltage and current corresponds to
the frequency of the source. In Pakistan, alternating current
oscillates 50 times every second. Thus, its frequency is 50 Hz
Alternating current has advantages that make it more Colour coding
practical for use in transferring electrical energy. For this Livewire (L): Red or brown
reason, the current supplied to our homes by power Neutralwire (N): Black or blue
companies is alternating current rather than direct Earthwire (E): Green/yellow
current.

Supply to a House
The electric power enters our house through three
wires. One is called earthwire or ground wire (E). This
carries no electricity. The earthwire is connected to a
large metal plate buried deep in the ground near the
house. The other wire is maintained at zero potential by
connecting it to the Earth at the power station itself and
is called neutral wire (N). This wire provides the return
path for the current. The third wire is at a high potential Effect of electric
and is called livewire (L). The potential difference currents on the body
between the livewire and the neutral wire is 220V. Current Effect
Our body is a good conductor of electricity through 0.001 A Can be felt
which current can easily pass. Therefore, if a person 0.005 A Is painful
holds livewire, current will start flowing to the ground 0.010 A Causes involuntary
muscle contractions
while passing through his body which may prove fatal for
(spasms)
the person. All electrical appliances are connected 0.015 A Causes loss of muscle
across the neutral and the livewires. The same potential control
difference is therefore applied to all of them and hence 0.070 A Goes through the
these are connected in parallel to the power source. heart; causes serious
disruption; probably
fatal if current lasts
House Wiring for more than 1 s.
Figure 14.16 shows the system of house wiring. The wires
coming from the mains are connected to electricity meter
installed in the house. The output power from the electric
meter is taken to the main distribution board and then to the
domestic electric circuit.
The main box contains fuses of rating about 30 A. A
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separate connection is taken from the livewire of each

appliance. The terminal of the appliance is connected to
the livewire through a separate fuse and a switch. If the
fuse of one appliance burns out, it does not affect the
other appliances.
L
N
E
To one room
L
N
To other room E

L N N N
N S
E E E E
Electric meter Distribution board L L R
S S
L (Live) _____ E (Earth) – - –

N (Neutral — — – F – Fuse Fan

Socket
outlet Bulb
Fig.14.16: Wiring system of household electricity
In house wiring, all appliances are connected in parallel with each
other. This means they all get the full mains voltage and one can
turn ON any appliance without having to turn ON another.

14.13 HAZARDS OF ELECTRICITY

While electricity has become part and parcel of our lives, care For your information
should be taken to save ourselves from its hazardous effects. Livewire
Earthwire
Voltage of 50 V and current of 50 mA can be fatal. Major dangers Fuse
Neutral
of electricity are electric shock and fire. Here we discuss some Wire
faults in electrical circuits that may cause electricity hazards.
Outer
Insulation Damage insulation Cable grip
This is the correct way of wiring
All electrical wires are well insulated with some plastic cover of a three pin main plug. Put
for the purpose of safety. But when electrical current exceeds everything in proper place.
the rated current carrying capacity of the conductor, it can Fuse is placed for safety
purpose. In case of excess
produce excess current that can damage insulation due to current, it will burn out and will
overheating of cables. This results into a short circuit which break the circuit.

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can severely damage electrical devices or persons. Precautionary Symbols

A short circuit occurs when a circuit with a very low resistance
is formed. The low resistance causes the current to be very
large. When appliances are connected in parallel, each
additional appliance placed in circuit reduces the equivalent
resistance in the circuit and increases the current through the
wires. This additional current might produce enough thermal
energy to melt the wiring's insulation which causes a short
circuit, or even starts a fire.
Short circuit can also occur when the livewire and the neutral
Do not expose to water
wires come in direct contact (Fig.14.17).

Neutral wire (N)

Ground

Direct contact of
wires (short circuit)

Livewire (L) Low resistance here

Fig. 14.17: Short circuit

In order to avoid such situations, the wires carrying electricity Do not use electrical
should never be naked. Rather they should be covered with equipment near inflameable
materials
good insulator. Such an insulation covered wire is called
cable. Constant friction may also remove the insulation from
the wire whereas too much moisture also damages the
insulation. In such a situation, it is advisable to use a cable
with two layers of insulation. For your information

Damp Conditions
Dry human skin has a resistance of 100, 000 ohms or
more! But under damp conditions (wet environment)
resistance of human skin is reduced drastically to few
hundred ohms. Therefore, never operate any electrical
appliance with wet hands. Also keep switches, plugs,
sockets and wires dry. Do not fly kites near electricity
lines. It may cause some fatal
accident.
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14.14 SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY IN HOMES Identifying Circuit

Components
In order to protect persons, devices and property from the
Wires crossed
hazards of electricity there is a need of extensive safety not joined
measures in household electricity. Take much care to use Wires crossed
fuses and circuit breakers in an electric circuit as safety at a junction
devices. They prevent circuit overloads that can occur when Variable
nesistor
too many appliances are turned ON at the same time or when
Fixed resistor
a short circuit occurs in one appliance.
Diode
Fuse
A fuse is a safety device that is connected in series with the Earth or
ground
livewire in the circuit to protect the equipments when excess
current flows. It is short and thin piece of metal wire that Battery or
DC supply
melts when large current passes through it. If a large, unsafe
current passes through the circuit, the fuse melts and breaks Capacitor
the circuit before the wires become very hot and cause fire. Time-varying or
Fuses are normally rated as 5 A, 10 A, 13 A,30 A, etc. Different AC supply
types of fuses are shown in Fig.14.18. Ammeter
Following safety measures should be taken while using fuses
Voltmeter
in household electrical circuits:
Ohmmeter
(i) Fuses to be used should have slightly more rating than the
current which the electrical appliance will draw under Thermister or
temperature-
normal conditions. For example, for a lightning circuit choose dependent resistor
a 5 A fuse as the current drawn by each lamp is very small
Switch
(about 0.4 A for a 100 W lamp). In such circuit, 10 lamps of
100 W can be safely used as the total current drawn is only 4 A Lamp/bulb
which can be calculated using the formula P = VI.

Fig. 14 .18: Different types of fuses

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(ii) Fuses should be connected in the livewire so that the

appliance will not operate after the fuse has blown.
(iii) Switch OFF the main before changing any fuse.

Circuit Breaker

The circuit breaker (Fig. 14.19) acts as a safety device in the

same way as a fuse. It disconnects the supply automatically if
current exceeds the normal value. When the normal current
Fig. 14.19: Circuit Breaker
passes through the livewire the electromagnet is not strong
enough to separate the contacts. If something goes wrong
with the appliance and large current flows through the
livewire, the electromagnet will attract the iron strip to
separate the contacts and break the circuit (Fig. 14.20). The Contacts
spring then keeps the contacts apart. After the fault is
repaired, the contacts can then be pushed back together by
Pivot
pressing a button on the outside of the circuit breaker box.
Livewire
Earthwire Spring

Sometimes, even the fuse cannot capture the high currents Fig. 14.20: Working principle
coming from the livewire into the household appliance. of circuit breaker
Earthing further protects the user from electric shock by
connecting the metal casing of the appliance to Earth (a wired
connection to the bare ground). Many electrical appliances
have metal cases, including cookers, washing machines and
refrigerators. The Earthwire provides a safe route for the
current to flow through, if the livewire touches the casing
(Fig.14.21). We will get an electric shock if the livewire inside an
appliance comes loose and touches the metal casing.

Switch Insulated cable

Fuse Livewire

Neutral wire

Earthwire
Fig. 14.21
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However, the earth terminal is connected to the metal casing,

so the current goes through the Earthwire instead of passing
through our body and causing an electric shock. A strong
current passes through the Earthwire because it has a very
low resistance. This breaks the fuse and disconnects the
appliance.

SUMMARY
 The time rate of flow of electric charge through any cross section is called electric
current.
 The current due to flow of positive charge which is equivalent to current due to flow
of negative charge in opposite direction is known as conventional current.
 Ampere is the SI unit of current.
 e.m.f. is the total amount of energy supplied by the battery or the cell in moving a
one coulomb of positive charge from the -ve to the +ve terminal of the battery.
 Ohm's law states that the current I passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference V applied across its ends provided the
temperature and physical state of the conductor do not change.
 Resistance R is a measure of opposition to the flow of current through a conductor.
Its SI unit is ohm. It is denoted by the symbol Ω. When a potential difference of one
volt is applied across the ends of a conductor and one ampere of current passes
through it, then its resistance will be one ohm.
 Materials in which electrons can freely move so as to pass electricity are called
conductors while in insulators no free electrons are available for the conduction of
electricity.
 The equivalent resistance Reof a series combination of ‘n’ resistances is given by
Re = R1 + R2 + R3 +.......+ Rn

 The equivalent resistance Reof a parallel combination of ‘n’ resistances is given by

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +.......+
Re R1 R2 R3 Rn
 Galvanometer is a sensitive instrument which detects current in a circuit. It is always
connected in series with the circuit.
 Ammeter is an electrical instrument which measures larger current. It is always
connected in series in a circuit.
 Voltmeter is an electrical instrument used to measure potential difference between
two points in a circuit. It is always connected parallel to a circuit component.

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 The amount of heat energy generated in a resistance due to flow of electric current
is equal to the product of the square of current, resistance and the time interval ( W
= I2Rt). This is called Joule's law.
 kilowatt-hour is the amount of energy obtained from a source of one kilowatt in one
hour. It is equal to 3.6 mega joule.
 The current which does not change its direction of flow is known as direct current or
d.c.
 The current which changes its direction of flow after regular intervals of time is
known as alternating current or a.c.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the correct answer from the following choices:
i. An electric current in conductors is due to the flow of
(a) positive ions (b) negative ions
(c) positive charges (d) free electrons
ii. What is the voltage across a 6 Ω resistor when 3 A of current passes through it?
(a) 2V (b) 9V
(c) 18 V (d) 36 V
iii. What happens to the intensity or the brightness of the lamps connected in series
as more and more lamps are added?
(a) increases (b) decreases
(c) remains the same (d) cannot be predicted
iv. Why should household appliances be connected in parallel with the voltage source?
(a) to increase the resistance of the circuit
(b) to decrease the resistance of the circuit
(c) to provide each appliance the same voltage as the power source
(d) to provide each appliance the same current as the power source
v. Electric potential and e.m.f
(a) are the same terms (b) are the different terms
(c) have different units (d) both (b) and (c)
vi. When we double the voltage in a simple electric circuit, we double the
(a) current (b) power
(c) resistance (d) both (a) and (b)
vii. If we double both the current and the voltage in a circuit while keeping its resistance
constant, the power
(a) remains unchanged (b) halves
(c) doubles (d) quadruples

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viii. What is the power rating of a lamp connected to a 12 V source when it carries 2.5 A?
(a) 4.8 W (b) 14.5 W
(c) 30 W (d) 60 W
ix. The combined resistance of two identical resistors, connected in series is 8 Ω. Their
combined resistance in a parallel arrangement will be
(a) 2Ω (b) 4Ω
(c) 8Ω (d) 12 Ω
REVIEW QUESTIONS
14.1. Define and explain the term electric current.
14.2. What is the difference between electronic current and conventional current?
14.3. What do we mean by the term e.m.f? Is it really a force? Explain.
14.4. How can we differentiate between e.m.f. and potential difference?
14.5. Explain Ohm's law. What are its limitations?
14.6. Define resistance and its units.
14.7. What is the difference between conductors and insulators?
14.8. Explain the energy dissipation in a resistance. What is Joule's law?
14.9. What is difference between D.C and A.C?
14.10. Discuss the main features of parallel combination of resistors.
14.11. Determine the equivalent resistance of series combination of resistors.
14.12. Describe briefly the hazards of household electricity.
14.13. Describe four safety measures that should be taken in connection with the
household circuit.
14.14. Design a circuit diagram for a study room that needs the following equipments in parallel:
(a) One 100 W lamp operated by one switch.
(b) One reading lamp fitted with a 40 W bulb which can be switched ON and OFF
from two points.
(c) What is the advantage of connecting the equipments in parallel instead of
series?
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
14.1. Why in conductors charge is transferred by free electrons rather than by positive
charges?
14.2. What is the difference between a cell and a battery?
14.3. Can current flow in a circuit without potential difference?
14.4. Two points on an object are at different electric potentials. Does charge necessarily
flow between them?
14.5. In order to measure current in a circuit why ammeter is always connected in series?
14.6. In order to measure voltage in a circuit voltmeter is always connected in parallel.
Discuss.
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14.7. How many watt-hours are there in 1000 joules?

14.8. From your experience in watching cars on the roads at night, are automobile
headlamps connected in series or in parallel.
14.9. A certain flash-light can use a 10 ohm bulb or a 5 ohm bulb. Which bulb should be
used to get the brighter light? Which bulb will discharge the battery first?
14.10. It is impracticable to connect an electric bulb and an electric heater in series. Why?
14.11. Does a fuse in a circuit control the potential difference or the current?
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
14.1. A current of 3 mA is flowing through a wire for 1 minute. What is the charge flowing
through the wire? Ans. (180
-3
× 10 C)
14.2. At 100,000 Ω, how much current flows through your body if you touch the terminals of
a 12 V battery? If your skin is wet, so that your resistance is only 1000 Ω, how
much current would you receive from the same battery? Ans.(1.2 × 10-4 A, 1.2
-2
× 10 A)
14.3. The resistance of a conductor wire is 10 MΩ. If a potential difference of 100 volts is
applied across its ends, then find the value of current passing through it in mA.
Ans. ( 0.01 mA)
14.4. By applying a potential difference of 10 V across a conductor, a current of 1.5 A passes
through it. How much energy would be obtained from the current in 2 minutes?
Ans.(1800 J)
14.5. Two resistances of 2 kΩ and 8 kΩ are joined in series, if a 10 V battery is connected
across the ends of this combination, find the following quantities:
(a) The equivalent resistance of the series combination.
(b) Current passing through each of the resistances.
(c) The potential difference across each resistance.
Ans. [(a) 10 kΩ (b) 1 mA (c) 2 V, 8 V]
14.6. Two resistances of 6 kΩ and 12 kΩ are connected in parallel. A 6 V battery is
connected across its ends, find the values of the following quantities:
(a) Equivalent resistance of the parallel combination.
(b) Current passing through each of the resistances.
(c) Potential difference across each of the resistance.
Ans. [(a) 4 kΩ, (b) 1 mA,0.5 mA (c) 6 V]
14.7. An electric bulb is marked with 220 V, 100 W. Find the resistance of the filament of
the bulb. If the bulb is used 5 hours daily, find the energy in kilowatt-hour
consumed by the bulb in one month (30 days). Ans. (484 Ω, 15
kWh)
14.8. An incandescent light bulb with an operating resistance of 95 Ω is labelled “150 W.”

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Is this bulb designed for use in a 120 V circuit or a 220 V circuit?

Ans. (It has been designed for 120 V)

14.9. A house is installed with

(a) 10 bulbs of 60 W each of which are used 5 hours daily.
(b) 4 fans of 75 W each of which run 10 hours daily.
(c) One T.V. of 100 W which is used for 5 hours daily.
(d) One electric iron of 1000 W which is used for 2 hours daily.
If the cost of one unit of electricity is Rs.4. Find the monthly expenditure of
electricity (one month =30 days). Ans. (Rs.
1020/-)
14.10. A 100 W lamp bulb and a 4 kW water heater are connected to a 250 V supply.
Calculate (a) the current which flows in each appliance (b) the resistance of each
appliance when in use. Ans. [(a) 0.4 A, 16 A (b) 625 Ω, 15.62 Ω]
14.11. A resistor of resistance 5.6 Ω is connected across a battery of 3.0 V by means of a
wire of negligible resistance. A current of 0.5 A passes through the resistor.
Calculate
(a) Power dissipated in the resistor.
(b) Total power produced by the battery.
(c) Give the reason of difference between these two quantities.
Ans. [(a) 1.4 W (b) 1.5 W
(c) some power is lost by the internal resistance of the battery]

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