HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

What is Development?
Physical
• It is the process by which
organisms grow and change
systematically over the entire life
Moral Cognitive period i.e., from conception until
death. Developmental changes
Human are not only growth or addition
Development
to human organisms, they also
involve decay.
• Development is the total process
of change in which all aspects of
Social Emotional
a person are interrelated and
integrated.
 Developmental Psychology
• Developmental psychology is a scientific approach that aims
to explain growth, change, and consistency throughout the
lifespan. Developmental psychology looks at how thinking,
feeling, and behavior change throughout a person’s life.
•A significant proportion of theories within this discipline
focus on development during childhood, as this is the period
during an individual's lifespan when the most change occurs.
 Continuity vs. Discontinuity
• Normative development is typically viewed as a
continual and cumulative process. The continuity
view says that change is gradual. Children
become more skillful in thinking, talking or
acting much the same way as they get taller.

• The discontinuity view sees development as

more abrupt-a succession of changes that
produce different behaviors in different age-
specific life periods called stages. Biological
changes provide the potential for these changes.
 Nature vs. Nurture
1.Nature (Heredity):
1. The nature perspective asserts that many of our traits, behaviors, and
characteristics are primarily determined by our genetic makeup.
2. It emphasizes the role of inherited genes, which carry instructions for various
aspects of development, such as physical attributes, intelligence, temperament,
and susceptibility to certain diseases.
2.Nurture (Environment):
1. The nurture perspective suggests that our environment and experiences play a
crucial role in shaping who we become.
2. It highlights the impact of upbringing, culture, social interactions, education,
and other environmental factors in molding an individual's personality, behavior,
and abilities.
 Stability vs. Change
• Stabilityimplies personality traits present during infancy
endure throughout the lifespan. In contrast, change theorists
argue that personalities are modified by interactions with
family, experiences at school, and acculturation.
• Thiscapacity for change is called plasticity. For example,
Rutter (1981) discovered that gloomy babies living in
understaffed orphanages often become cheerful and
affectionate when placed in socially stimulating adoptive
homes.
Theories
• Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
• Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
• Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
• Mary Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles
• Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
• Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory
• Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
• Elizabeth Kubler-Ross’ Stages of Grief
 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Prenatal
2. Infancy
3. Childhood
4. Adolescence
5. Early adulthood
6. Middle adulthood
7. Late Adulthood
PRENATAL
 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
• The
development from conception till birth (9 calendar
months)
• Biologically,
it takes about 266 days from conception for a
fetus to become ready for the birth process.
• A period of furious developmental activity.
• It is further divide into three phases.
Prenatal Development
Three phases of prenatal development:
• Germinal period – period from
conception until implantation.
- Conception occurs when a sperm
penetrates the wall of a ripened ovum
forming a zygote.
- In about 8-14 days, the zygote gets
firmly attached to the wall of the
mother’s uterus.
- This is called implantation which
brings the germinal period to end.
 Prenatal Development
• Embryonic Period – the beginning of
the third week to the end of the eight
week. During this time all major organs
are formed and the heart begins to
beat.
- Attached zygote becomes an
embryo.
* embryo – the developing organism
during the first eight weeks after
conception
 Prenatal Development
• Fetal Period – 8-9 weeks after conception
until birth.
- The major organ systems begin to function
and the growth of the organism is quite
rapid.
- In this stage the fetus begins to move
spontaneously and basic reflex begins to
appear.
PRENATAL
Environmental Hazards
• Radiation (chromosomal abnormalities)
• Pollutants and toxic wastes (lead, pesticides, carbon dioxide, mercury
which is dangerous to the fetus)
• Drugs
• Thalidomide – prescribed for morning sickness (1960) can cause
deformed babies.
• Cocaine/heroin (addiction/withdrawal sysmptoms/neurological
defects)
• Alcohol (Fetal alcohol syndrome)
• Smoking (low birth weight, ADHD, premature births, SIDS)
• Marijuana, antibiotics, excessive vitamins, antihistamines, aspirin,
diet pills
 Maternal diseases can cross the placenta barrier
and cause birth defects
• Rubella (German measles) – deafness
• Syphilis – mental retardation, blindness and skin lesions
• Genital Herpes – only ig mother is active during delivery and
baby comes in contact with sores; can cause blindness and
other complications (1/3 die and ¼ brain damage)
• AIDS/HIV+ (1/3 babies born to HIV+ mothers become
infected)
INFANCY
 INFANCY
Neonatal – the period from birth to the 1st month.
Infancy – a period from the 2nd month to the 24th month of
age.
The new born baby has the capacity for all life sustaining
activities such as breathing, sucking and swallowing, and
discharging bodily waste.
• The rate of growth is very rapid during the first two years.
 Infancy
REFLEXES – are involuntary responses to
a particular stimuli
• Root reflex - This reflex begins when the
corner of the baby's mouth is stroked or
touched. The baby will turn his or her head
and open his or her mouth to follow and "root"
in the direction of the stroking
• Suck reflex - When the roof of the baby's
mouth is touched, the baby will begin to suck.
 Infancy
Moro reflex - The Moro reflex is often called a
startle reflex because it usually occurs when a
baby is startled by a loud sound or movement.
Step reflex. This reflex is also called the walking
or dance reflex because a baby appears to take
steps or dance when held upright with his or her
feet touching a solid surface
 Infancy
Grasp reflex. Stroking the palm of a
baby's hand causes the baby to close his
or her fingers in a grasp.

Babinski reflex. When the sole of the

foot is firmly stroked, the big toe bends
• Tonic neck reflex – back toward the top of the foot and the
other toes fan out.
When a baby's head is
turned to one side, the
arm on that side
stretches out and the
opposite arm bends up
at the elbow.
 Brain Growth and Development of Infants
- By age 2 the brain is about 75% of its adult
weight, while its body is around 20% of its adult
body weight
- the brain’s development does not only grow in
size rather in density and complexity.
Synaptic pruning – the process of trimming
down unused brain connections, making neurons
available for future development.
 The Role of Experience in Brain
Development of Infants
- The role of experience in the development of neural pathways is
demonstrated clearly by experiments with animals that are
temporarily prevented from using one sensory system or another
in infancy. They become permanently handicapped in that sensory
system
- Caressing a newborn, talking to the newborn, and showing
affection toward a small person can be some of the essential steps
toward developing that person’s full human potential.
 Attachment
- The enduring socioemotional relationship between
a child and a parent or other regular caregiver.
- Attachment theory by John Bowlby, argues that
attachment of infants to its caregiver is a survival
strategy. Bowlby believed that infants who stayed
close with their caregivers would less likely to be
vulnerable to threats of the environment.
Harry Harlow’s experiment
MARY AINSWORTH: ATTACHMENT STYLES
• devised an assessment technique
called the Strange Situation
Classification (SSC) in order to
investigate how attachments might
vary between children.
• Attachment Concepts:
• Secure attachment
• ambivalent-insecure attachment
• avoidant-insecure attachment
1. Secure Attachment – relationship in which
infants have come to trust and depend on their
mothers
• Such children feel confident that the
attachment figure will be available to meet
their needs. They use the attachment figure
as a safe base to explore the environment
and seek the attachment figure in times of
distress (Main, & Cassidy, 1988).
• Securely attached infants are easily soothed by
the attachment figure when upset. Infants
develop a secure attachment when the
caregiver is sensitive to their signals, and
responds appropriately to their needs.
Insecure-ambivalent
attachment –
Here children adopt an
ambivalent behavioral style towards
the attachment figure. The child will
commonly exhibit clingy and
dependent behavior, but will be
rejecting of the attachment figure
when they engage in interaction.
The child fails to develop any feelings of security from the attachment
figure. Accordingly, they exhibit difficulty moving away from the attachment
figure to explore novel surroundings. When distressed they are difficult to
soothe and are not comforted by interaction with the attachment figure. This
behavior results from an inconsistent level of response to their needs from the
primary caregiver.
Insecure avoidant children do not orientate
to their attachment figure while
investigating the environment.
• They are very independent of the
attachment figure both physically and
emotionally (Behrens, Hesse, & Main,
2007).
• They do not seek contact with the
attachment figure when distressed. Such
children are likely to have a caregiver who is
insensitive and rejecting of their needs
(Ainsworth, 1979). The attachment figure
may withdraw from helping during difficult
tasks and is often unavailable during times
of emotional distress.
 ERIK ERIKSON: PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
• ErikErikson maintained that personality develops
in a predetermined order, and builds upon each
previous stage. This is called the epigenetic
principle.
• During each stage, the person experiences a
psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or
negative outcome for personality development.
For Erikson (1963), these crises are of a
psychosocial nature because they involve
psychological needs of the individual conflicting
with the needs of society.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

• During this stage, the infant is uncertain

about the world in which they live. To resolve
these feelings of uncertainty, the infant looks
towards their primary caregiver for stability
and consistency of care.
• If
the care the infant receives is consistent,
predictable and reliable, they will develop a
sense of trust which will carry with them to
other relationships, and they will be able to
feel secure even when threatened.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing
a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise,
there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source
of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the
development of fear.
• For example, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent,
unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant will develop a sense
of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world around them
or in their abilities to influence events.
• Thisinfant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to
other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened
insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around
them.
 URIE BRONFENBRENNER:
Ecological Systems Theory
• developed the ecological systems theory to explain
how everything in a child and the child's environment
affects how a child grows and develops.
• He labeled different aspects or levels of the
environment that influence children's development,
including the:
• Microsystem
• Mesosystem
• Exosystem
• Macrosystem
• Chronosystem
• 1. Microsystem — The micro system's setting is the direct environment we have in our
lives. Your family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have
a direct contact with you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the
setting in which we have direct social interactions with these social agents. The theory
states that we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have when socializing
with these people in the micro system environment, but we are contributing to the
construction of such environment.
• 2.Mesosystem — The mesosytem involves the relationships between the
microsystems in one's life. This means that your family experience may be related to
your school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may
have a low chance of developing positive attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child
may feel awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a
group of classmates.
• 3.Exosystem — The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link
between the context where in the person does not have any active role,
and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a child is more
attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work
for several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the
child's social relationship, or on the other hand, this event may result to a
tighter bond between the mother and the child.
• 4.Macrosystem — The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an
individual. The cultural contexts involve the socioeconomic status of the
person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing
or a third world country. For example, being born to a poor family makes a
person work harder every day.
• 5.Chronosystem – The chronosystem includes the transitions
and shifts in one's lifespan. This may also involve the socio-
historical contexts that may influence a person. One classic
example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may
affect not only the couple's relationship but also their children's
behavior. According to a majority of research, children are
negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The next
years after it would reveal that the interaction within the family
becomes more stable and agreeable.
 DIANA BAUMRIND: PARENTING STYLES
• Her parenting styles were based on two aspects
of parenting that are found to be extremely
important. The first was "Parental
responsiveness", which refers to the degree the
parent responds to the child's needs. The second
was "Parental demandingness" which is the
extent to which the parent expects more mature
and responsible behavior from a child. Using
these two dimensions, she recognizes three
different parenting styles:
• Authoritarian ("Too Hard")
•Maccoby and Martin expanded
• Permissive ("Too Soft") Baumrind's three parenting styles to four:
authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and
• Authoritative ("Just Right") neglectful.
CHILDHOOD
 Cognitive Development Theory

- proponent: Jean Piaget

- Believes that each individual

undergoes distinctive revolutions in
their thought processes, producing
four discrete stages that emerged as
they move through childhood and
adolescence
JEAN PIAGET
 Cognitive Development Theory
Key concepts
• Schemas – refers to mental structure or
program that guides a developing child’s
thought
• Assimilation – mental processes that
incorporates new information into
existing schemas
• Accommodation – a mental process that
modifies schemas in order to include new
information
1. The sensorimotor stage (Birth-2 yrs)
- Piaget’s term for the infant’s approach to the
world, relying on relatively simple physical motor
responses to sensory experience with very little
cognition (intelligence) involved.
• The main achievement during this stage is object
permanence - knowing that an object still exists,
even if it is hidden.
• It requires the ability to form a mental
representation (i.e., a schema) of the object.
– this stage is marked by well
developed mental presentation
and use of language. 2. Preoperational Stage
• During this stage, young children (2-7 years)
can think about things
symbolically. This is the ability to
make one thing - a word or an
object - stand for something other
than itself.
• Thinking is still egocentric , and
the infant has difficulty taking the
viewpoint of others.
• Animistic thinking – attribute life
to inanimate objects (imaginary
friends/ active imagination)
• 3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years)
Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's
cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical
or operational thought. This means the child can work things out internally in
their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world).
• Childrencan conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9).
Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in
quantity even though its appearance changes.
 LEV VYGOTSKY: ZPD and SCAFFOLDING
• The Zone of Proximal Development refers to the
difference between what a learner can do without help and
what he or she can achieve with guidance and
encouragement from a skilled partner. Thus, the term
“proximal” refers those skills that the learner is “close” to
mastering.
• Scaffolding (Guided Learning) consists of the activities
provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to
support the student as he or she is led through the zone of
proximal development. Support is tapered off (i.e.
withdrawn) as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold
is removed from a building during construction. The
student will then be able to complete the task again on his
own.
ERIKSON: Psychosocial Development

•Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (2 to 3 y/o)

•Initiative vs Guilt (4 to 6 y/o)
•Industry vs Inferiority ( 7 to 12 y/o)
• Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
(2 to 3 y/o) – The child is developing
physically and becoming more
mobile, and discovering that he or she
has many skills and abilities, such as
putting on clothes and shoes, playing
with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the
child's growing sense of
independence and autonomy. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported
in their increased independence, they become more
• For example, during this stage confident and secure in their own ability to survive in
children begin to assert their the world.
If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given
independence, by walking away from the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel
their mother, picking which toy to inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then
become overly dependent upon others, lack self-
play with, and making choices about esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their
what they like to wear, to eat, etc. abilities
Initiative vs Guilt (4-6 yrs old) Children begin to plan activities,
– Central to this stage is play, make up games, and initiate activities
as it provides children with the with others. If given this opportunity,
opportunity to explore their children develop a sense of initiative
interpersonal skills through and feel secure in their ability to lead
initiating activities. others and make decisions.

Conversely, if this tendency is

squelched, either through criticism or
control, children develop a sense of
guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to
others and will, therefore, remain
followers, lacking in self-initiative.
• A healthy balance between initiative and guilt
is important. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of purpose.
• Industry vs Inferiority (5-12 yrs old) –
Teachers begin to take an important role
in the child’s life as they teach the child
specific skills.
• The child now feels the need to win
approval by demonstrating specific
competencies that are valued by society
and begin to develop a sense of pride in
their accomplishments. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is
restricted by parents or teacher, then the
• If children are encouraged and reinforced child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own
for their initiative, they begin to feel abilities and therefore may not reach his or
her potential.
industrious (competent) and feel Some failure may be necessary so that the
confident in their ability to achieve goals. child can develop some modesty.
ADOLESCENCE
 ADOLESCENCE (12-20 years old)
Puberty – is a period of rapid growth and sexual maturation that
ends childhood and begins adolescents, producing a person of adult
size, shape and sexual potential. Puberty is triggered by chain of
hormonal effects that bring on visible physical changes.
 PHYSICAL CHANGES
Girls Boys
1. Ovaries increase production of 1. Testes increase production of
estrogen and progesterone testosterone and
2. Uterus and vagina begin to grow 2. Increase of size of testes and penis
larger 3. Appearance of pubic hair
3. Weight and height spurt 4. Weight spurts begins
4. Muscle and organ growth 5. Peak height spurts
5. Menarche (the first menstrual 6. Peak muscle and organ growth
period) 7. Voice lowers
6. First ovulation 8. Appearance of facial hair
7. Breast growth
 PIAGET: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
4. Formal operational stage –
The formal operational stage begins at
approximately age eleven and lasts into
adulthood. During this time, people develop the
ability:
a. Abstract Thought – concepts such as love,
justice, harmony
b. Hypothetical Reasoning – can generate
alternative solutions to problems
c. Critical thinking develops e. Adolescent Egocentrism:
d. Dialectical Reasoning develops – ability to *personal fable/pseudostupidity – belief that they are
integrate multiple perspectives into invincible and nothing bad will happen to them
problem solving. *imaginary audience – everyone is preoccupied with
him or her
 ERIKSON: PSCYHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Identity vs role confusion -
adolescents search for a sense of self
and personal identity, through an
intense exploration of personal values,
beliefs, and goals.
• Erikson claims that the adolescent
may feel uncomfortable about their
body for a while until they can adapt
and “grow into” the changes. Success
in this stage will lead to the virtue
of fidelity.
• Fidelity involves being able to commit
one's self to others on the basis of
accepting others, even when there
may be ideological differences.
 LAWRENCE KOHLBERG:
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• Kohlberg believed and was able to
demonstrate through studies that
people progressed in their moral
reasoning (i.e., in their bases for ethical
behavior) through a series of stages. He
believed that there were six identifiable
stages which could be more generally
classified into three levels.
HEINZ DILEMMA
• Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new
drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and
the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten
times the money it cost to make the drug, and this was much more than
the Heinz could afford.
• Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and
friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he
could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.
• The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was
going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife,
so later that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.
 LEVEL STAGES DEFINITION
Pre-conventional – we don’t have a personal The child/individual is good in order to avoid being
Obedience and Punishment
code of morality. Instead, our moral code is punished. If a person is punished, they must have done
Orientation
shaped by the standards of adults and the wrong.
consequences of following or breaking their Behaviour is determined again by consequences. The
rules. individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying
Authority is outside the individual and reasoning Individualism and Purpose personal needs.
is based on the physical consequences of
actions.
Conventional – we begin to internalize the The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a
Good Interpersonal
moral standards of valued adult role models. good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the
Relationships
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and approval of others.
reasoning is based on the norms of the group to The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of
which the person belongs. Maintaining the Social Order society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order
to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
Post-conventional – Individual judgment is The child/individual becomes aware that while
based on self-chosen principles, and moral Social Contract and Individual rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest
reasoning is based on individual rights and Rights number, there are times when they will work against the
interest of particular individuals.
justice.
People at this stage have developed their own set of
Universal Principles moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The
principles apply to everyone.
Stage one (obedience): Heinz should not steal the medicine because he will consequently be put in prison which will mean he is
a bad person.
Or: Heinz should steal the medicine because it is only worth $200 and not how much the druggist wanted for it; Heinz had even
offered to pay for it and was not stealing anything else.
Stage two (self-interest): Heinz should steal the medicine because he will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will
have to serve a prison sentence.
Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine because prison is an awful place, and he would more likely languish in a jail cell than
over his wife's death.
Stage three (conformity): Heinz should steal the medicine because his wife expects it; he wants to be a good husband.
Or: Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is bad and he is not a criminal; he has tried to do everything he can without
breaking the law, you cannot blame him.
Stage four (law-and-order): Heinz should not steal the medicine because the law prohibits stealing, making it illegal.
Or: Heinz should steal the drug for his wife but also take the prescribed punishment for the crime as well as paying the druggist
what he is owed. Criminals cannot just run around without regard for the law; actions have consequences.
Stage five (human rights): Heinz should steal the medicine because everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law.
Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine because the scientist has a right to fair compensation. Even if his wife is sick, it does not
make his actions right.
Stage six (universal human ethics): Heinz should steal the medicine, because saving a human life is a more fundamental value
than the property rights of another person.
Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine, because others may need the medicine just as badly, and their lives are equally
significant.
EARLY ADULTHOOD
 EARLY ADULTHOOD
• Approximately from 20-35 years of age.
• Period in which social roles and relationships are materialised.
• The young adult becomes a fully functioning social being
assuming the role of a married family person and developing
intimate social and sexual relationships.
• Although most of the physical growth is over by the end of the
teen age, some development do occur during the early
adulthood. Physical change is less dramatic and slow during this
stage of life.
Intimacy vs Isolation – During this period, ERIKSON:
the major conflict centers on forming intimate,
loving relationships with other people. PSCYHOSOCIAL
• During this period, we begin to share ourselves DEVELOPMENT
more intimately with others. We explore
relationships leading toward longer-term
commitments with someone other than a
family member.
• Successful completion of this stage can result in
happy relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a
relationship.
• Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and
relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness,
and sometimes depression. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of love.
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
• From age 35 to 60 years of age.
• People become aware of their declining physiological functions.
• Characterised by some dramatic changes in the functioning of
reproductive system and sexual activity. Such changes are called
climacteric.
• MEN – reduction in sex hormones and reduced functioning of the
prostrate gland (reduced sexual drive)
• WOMEN – menopause in the late forties or early fifties.
• Changes in intelligence are minimal, but they are compensated for by
increase in wisdom and creativity. Midlife adults become more
proficient in solving real life problems.
• Generativity vs Stagnation - People
experience a need to create or nurture things that
will outlast them, often having mentees or
creating positive changes that will benefit other
PSYCHOSOCIAL
people. DEVELOPMENT
• Through generativity we develop a sense of being
a part of the bigger picture. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while
failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
• By failing to find a way to contribute, we become
stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals
may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their
community and with society as a whole. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue ofcare.
 LATE
ADULTHOOD
 PHYSICAL CHANGES
• People typically reach the peak of their physical strength
and endurance during their twenties and then gradually
decline. In later adulthood, a variety of physiological
changes may occur, including some degree of atrophy of
the brain and a decrease in the rate of neural processes.
• The respiratory and circulatory systems are less efficient,
and changes in the gastrointestinal tract may lead to
increased constipation.
• Bone mass diminishes, especially among women,
leading to bone density disorders such as
osteoporosis.
• Muscles become weaker unless exercise programs are
followed. The skin dries and becomes less flexible. Hair
loss occurs in both sexes.
• There is also decreased sensitivity in all of the sensory
modalities, including olfaction, taste, touch, hearing,
and vision
 COGNITIVE CHANGES
The study of cognitive changes in the older
population is complex. Response speeds (neural
and motor) have been reported to decline; some
researchers believe that age‐related decrease in
working memory is the crucial factor underlying
poorer performance by the elderly on cognitive
tasks.
• Intellectual changes in late adulthood do not always
result in reduction of ability. While fluid
intelligence (the ability to see and to use patterns and
relationships to solve problems) does decline in later
years, crystallized intelligence (the ability to use
accumulated information to solve problems and make
decisions) has been shown to rise slightly over the
entire life span.
• Integrity vs Despair – if we see our lives as PSYCHOSOCIAL
unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel
that we did not accomplish our life goals, we DEVELOPMENT
become dissatisfied with life and develop
despair, often leading to depression and
hopelessness.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look
back on their life with a sense of closure and
completeness, and also accept death without
fear.
• Wise people are not characterized by a
continuous state of ego integrity, but they
experience both ego integrity and despair.
Thus, late life is characterized by both
integrity and despair as alternating states that
need to be balanced.
“THERE IS NO SINGLE WAY TO AGE SUCCESSFULLY.”

•The disengagement theory states that as people

age, their withdrawal from society is normal and
desirable as it relieves them of responsibilities and
roles that have become difficult. This process also
opens up opportunities for younger people; society
benefits as more‐energetic young people fill the
vacated positions
•The activity theory contends that activity is
necessary to maintain a “life of quality,” that is,
that one must “use it or lose it” no matter what
one's age and that people who remain active in all
respects—physically, mentally, and socially—adjust
better to the aging process. Proponents of this
theory believe that activities of earlier years should
be maintained as long as possible.
 RETIREMENT
Retirement at age 65 is the conventional choice for
many people, although some work until much later.
People have been found to be happier in retirement if
they are not forced to retire before they are ready and if
they have enough income to maintain an adequate
living standard. Chronic health problems such as
arthritis, rheumatism, and hypertension increasingly
interfere with the quality of life of most individuals as
they age.
 WIDOWHOOD
Women tend to marry men older than they are
and, on average, live 5 to 7 years longer than men.
One study found ten times as many widows as
widowers. Widowhood is particularly stressful if the
death of the spouse occurs early in life; close
support of friends, particularly other widows, can
be very helpful.
 DEATH and DYING
Death and dying has been studied extensively by Elisabeth
Kübler‐Ross, who suggested that terminally ill patients display
the following five basic reactions.
• Denial
• Anger
• Bargaining
• Depression
• Acceptance
• Denial, an attempt to deny the reality and to isolate oneself from
the event, is frequently the first reaction.
• Anger frequently follows, as the person envies the living and
asks, “Why should I be the one to die?”
• Bargaining may occur; the person pleads to God or others for
more time.
• As the end nears, recognition that death is inevitable and that
separation from family will occur leads to feelings of exhaustion,
futility, and deep depression.
• Acceptance often follows if death is not sudden, and the person
finds peace with the inevitable