SOCIAL STUDIES management to local individuals and institutions’ located

within and outside of government”

SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT • DECONCENTRATION – the process by which the agents of
central government control are relocated and geographically
Unitary System dispersed

• A central government that holds all legitimate power.

• There is little or no sphere of government autonomy to FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
local or component units like the provinces, barangays and
cities in the Philippines. A. MONARCHY
• The central government is given all authority to make all • A government that has a single person who is generally
policies, although it may deputize other governmental considered the ruler by the title and birthright. Titles include:
structures to act on its behalf. Czar, King, Queen, Emperor, Caesar, etc.
• Power is absolute and is either taken through conquest or
• Political power is more centralized (concentrated are on passed down to family members without regard for ability or
central authority) in unitary than federal systems. appropriateness.
• Society is formed around feudal groups or tribes in which
the ruling family delegates power and authority based upon
Unitary System the desires of a single individual.
• Advantage – In this kind of government there is clear a. Absolute Monarchy - The monarch exercises absolute
hierarchical authority. power and wields executive, legislative and judicial powers
(predominated in France).
• Disadvantage – For the reason that the loyalty of the
citizens is focused on the governmental authority, citizens
tend to identify with the country as a whole rather than with b. Limited Monarchy - The monarch delegates powers. For
regional authorities. example, the legislative body, judicial power by the court and
executive power by the King / Queen exercise legislative
power. They rule according to their constitution. (United
Federal State Kingdom, Belgium, the Netherlands, Japan, Spain)

a. Local governmental authorities are set-up by the

constitution and these authorities are given certain political
B. DICTATORSHIP
decisions over which they have a legal monopoly of control.
• A type of government controlled by a single individual and
b. A federal government is one in which government powers giving the people little or no individual freedom.
are divided between the central government and its local
• Typically a person who rules by threat of force.
government units as specified in the constitution of the state.
• People who are loyal to a dictatorship swear allegiance to
c. In contrast to a unitary state, there is an explicit sharing of
the person first and the country second.
power among levels of government in a federation, and no
level has legal power to dominate any other level in policy • Fascism, Theocracies, Monarchies and Communism can all
domains. be dictatorships.
d. The essence of federation is coordination not hierarchy
• A Republic cannot be a dictatorship.
• Advantage – Central or local government is independent in
its sphere of jurisdiction. • This can be applicable during a period of chaos or
discontent when the leader seeks emergency powers to
• Disadvantage – There is a duplication of
implement policies.
offices and personnel in central and local government, and to
• Can also be used by a leader to remain in office and
maintain this would be a heavy financial burden to the
maintain power.
government.
Confederation
1. Authoritarianism – The political actions and decisions of
• This is an association wherein states delegate certain power the ruler are not constrained, while political rights and
to a supranational central government but retain primary freedoms of the citizens are significantly limited.
power.
− Examples: United Nations, European Union, ASEAN, APEC, 2. Totalitarianism – Under this type of regime, government
United Arab Emirates uses ideology to captivate people’s loyalty to the leader-
dictator. The totalitarian dictator wields absolute power. The
Key Terms use of coercion, violence and force is a tool to maintain
• DECENTRALIZATION – the transfer of powers from central obedience from the people
government to lower levels in a politicaladministrative and
territorial hierarchy Characteristics of Totalitarianism
• DEVOLUTION – the transfer of “natural resource
As a form of government the totalitarian dictatorship is built
on an ideological foundation. Government utilizes ideology to
 structure, tying together a large group of officials and
captivate the people’s belief and loyalty to the leader- citizens, provides an avenue by which one part may
dictator. A totalitarian leader wields absolute power. control or communicate with another. It
is this that has made it such a versatile tool of
modern politics.
II. RULED BY THE FEW 4. Interest Groups - is an organized group of citizens
one of whose goals is to ensure that the state
ARISTOCRACY follows. They aim to represent public opinion and
Derived from the Greek etymology “Aristo” which means the having it heard in an organized and effective way to
“best” and “Kratia or Kratos” which means rule. A government authorities
government by the “best members of the community.
Aristocrats are presumably men of the highest intelligence
and integrity. They belong to the elite in society. Their social AUTOCRACY
status, wealth and political power are inherited • A single person holds power.
• Power is usually inherited or kept by force, i.e. dictatorships
OLIGARCHY and monarchies.
This is also a government of a wealthy few but they do not • Government by a single person having unlimited power;
come from nobility like aristocrats. Oligarchs believe that the despotism (domination through threat of punishment and
most important requisites to claim of power are wealth, good violence)
social positions and education; it is unlikely that oligarchy
could serve the interest of the masses since they use their
positions in the government for their personal benefit. They
build economic empires for themselves and their family OLIGARCHY
• A few individuals hold power.
III. RULED BY MANY • Wealth and military power usually influence who the
oligarchs will be
DEMOCRACY
“Demos” derived from the Greek term for people and
“kratos” which means rule. The Constitution guarantees DEMOCRACY
freedom of speech, freedom of association, freedom of • Government is elected by the people.
religion and freedom of expression. • A democracy is determined either directly or through
elected representatives

Two essential features of Democracy:

1. Majority Rule - the majority of citizens choose their ANARCHY
leaders who then have the mandate to govern and make • A situation where there is no government.
public policies. • This can happen after a civil war in a country, when a
2. Minority Rights - This is ensured so long as the minority of government has been destroyed and rival groups are fighting
citizens openly attempts to win majority support for leaders to take its place.
and policies without loss of individual rights just as the • Anarchists are people who believe that government is a bad
majority enjoys these rights. thing in that it stops people organizing their own lives
A democracy is made to work when the following interact:

CAPITALIST
1. Citizens - Active participation of the citizenry is • In a capitalist or free-market country, people can own their
necessary in order to prevent government from own businesses and property.
committing abuses. Citizens can help to balance • People can also buy services for private use, such as
between power and authority of government healthcare.
officials. Citizens should exercise their freedom and • But most capitalist governments also provide their own
rights within the bounds of the Constitution and the education, health and welfare services
law, just as government should exercise its authority
within limits.
2. Suffrage and the Electoral Process - Suffrage is the COMMUNIST
right conferred by law upon a qualified group of
citizens to choose their public officials and to • In a communist country, the government owns property
participate in the determination of proposed policies such as businesses and farms.
whenever these policies are submitted to them for • It provides its people's healthcare, education and welfare
approval. The citizens must use this right to elect
qualified people who can govern competently and
responsibly. REPUBLIC
3. Political Parties - Intertwined with democratic • A republic is a country that has no monarch.
government, this is a group of officials or would-be • The head of the country is usually an elected president
officials who are linked with a sizable group of
citizens into an organization; a chief object of this
organization is to ensure that its officials attain power
or are maintained in power. The party’s nature as a
REVOLUTIONARY indispensable and all the necessary expenses of the
• If a government is overthrown by force, the new ruling government
group is sometimes called a revolutionary government

PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION
PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM
• The executive power is exercised by a single president 1. Enforced - as it involves the mandate of the law so
elected by popular vote. that its imposition is mandatory to those covered by
• S/he holds office for a specific period of time fixed by the it.
constitution of the state.
2. Proportional - tax is proportioned upon a taxpayer’s
• S/he appoints the members of his / her cabinet who are
responsible to the president. Their service is co-terminus with ability to pay.
the presidents.
3. Raise revenue - goes with the very heart of taxation,
• An essential element of this system is the separation of to earn income for the government.
powers of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches,
which is made more effective by checks and balances of the 3 4. Support the expenses of the government - related
branches. to public purpose of the imposition of taxation
• This is the form of government of the United States and the
Philippines TYPES OF TAXATION
1. SPECIFIC TAXES – Fixed amount paid by user per unit
produced. Example: Excise taxes paid on petrol and alcohol
PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM and tobacco.
• Executive power belongs to the Prime Minister and his
Cabinet. They are the leaders of the majority party in the 2. AD VALOREM TAXES – Percentage of value of the product
Parliament and they remain in office as long as they have the is paid in tax by the producer.
confidence and support of the parliamentary majority. • Example: Value Added Taxes

KINDS OF TAXES
• They participate in parliamentary debates and defend their
policies and bills, and see to it that they are approved for the 1. INCOME TAX is a tax on all yearly profits arising from
nations welfare and for their respective constituents, since property, profession, trades or offices or as a tax on a
they are also elected as members of parliament
person’s income, emoluments, profits and the like.

ARTICLE VI. SECTION 28. 1987 CONSTITUTION 2. WITHHOLDING TAX ON COMPENSATION is the tax
• The rule of taxation shall be uniform and equitable. withheld from individuals receiving purely
• The Congress shall evolve a progressive system of taxation. compensation income.

• Charitable institutions shall be exempt from taxation. 3. VALUE ADDED TAX is a business tax imposed and
• No law granting any tax exemption shall be passed without collected from the seller in the course of trade or
the concurrence of a majority of all the Members of the business on every sale of properties (real or personal)
Congress.

PROGRESSIVE & REGRESSIVE TAXATION lease of goods or properties (real or personal) or

vendors of services. It is an indirect tax, thus, it can
• Progressive taxation is a type of tax system that is designed
be passed on to the buyer.
to put the greatest tax burden on those who make the most
money. Hence, the more you earn, the higher your tax rate. COOPERATIVES
• An opposing form of tax is regressive taxation, where those A cooperative is a duly registered association of persons with
who make the least of amount of money pay the highest a common bond of interest, who have voluntarily joined
taxes. Hence, the less you earn, the higher your tax rate. together to achieve a lawful common social or economic end,
making equitable to contribution to the capital required and
PROPORTIONAL TAXES accepting a fair share of the risks and benefits of the
Proportional taxes take the same percentage of everyone's undertaking in accordance with universally accepted
income, wealth or expenditure, but the rich pay a larger cooperative principle.
amount in total.

PRINCIPLES OF COOPERATISM
TAXATION 1. Voluntarism
• The act of levying the tax, i.e., the process or means by
which the sovereign, through its lawmaking body, raises • This means that each member of a cooperative becomes a
income to defray the necessary expenses of the government. member voluntarily and is not restricted by social , political or
religious discrimination . In fact anyone who meets the
• An enforced proportional contribution levied by the law qualifications set by a cooperative's bylaws can be a member
making body of the state to raise revenue to support the if he willingly shoulders their responsibility.
2. Democracy • The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP)was
instituted on June 10, 1988.
• Coops are democratic organizations with officers and
• The centerpiece program of President Corazon Aquino’s
managers elected or appointed in a manner agreed on by
administration, it was considered the most comprehensive of
members. Each member, no matter the amount of his share,
all the redistributive programs established by past
is entitled to one vote.
administrations.

CARP
3. Limitation of share capital interest Its enabling law, Republic Act 6657, aimed not only to grant
land to the tillers, but also to provide them with the
• In the context of cooperativism, interest on a member necessary support services that would ensure the
share capital is limited so that no person- especially those productivity of the landgiven to them under the law.
with money- can have an overwhelming equity in the coop.
LEGAL BASES
• Section 21 of Article II or the Declaration of Principles and
4.Sharing all location of cooperatives surplus or savings. State Policies asserts, "the State shall promote
• At bottom, it mandates distribution of surplus equitably so comprehensive rural development and agrarian reform."
that no member, gains at the expense of another.
• The National Economy and Patrimony Article (XXII), in
Education and training of cooperatives members, officers Section 1, par. 2 reiterates, "the State shall promote
and employees, and of the general public in the principles industrialization and full employment based on sound
and techniques of cooperation. agricultural development and agrarian reform."

• Promotion of cooperation between cooperatives at local, SCOPE

national and international levels. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law covers, regardless
• Concern for community by working for its sustainable of tenurial arrangement and commodity produced, all public
development through policies approved by the cooperative and private agricultural lands as provided in Proclamation No.
members. 131 and Executive Order 229, including other lands of the
KINDS OF COOPERATIVES public domain suitable for agriculture.

1. Credit Cooperative – promotes thrift and savings

among its members and creates funds in order to RETENTION LIMITS
grant loans for productivity. • Under RA 6657, the landowner retains a maximum of five
hectares.
2. Consumer Cooperative – the primary purpose is to
• Three hectares is awarded to each child of the landowner
procure and distribute commodities to member and
provided that he/she is at least fifteen years of age, and that
non-members. he/she is actually tilling the land or directly managing the
farm.
3. Producers Cooperative – undertakes joint production
• The landowner has the right to choose which area to retain.
whether agricultural or industrial.

4. Service Cooperative – engages in medical, and dental

care, hospitalization, transportation, insurance, REPUBLIC ACT 8532
housing, labor, electric light and power, • RA 8532 amends Section 63 of the CARL and legislates an
communication and other services. additional FIFTY BILLION PESOS for the CARL’s
implementation until 2008.
5. Multi- Purpose Cooperative - combines two (2) or • In addition to the sources of funds identified in Section 20
more of the business activities of these different of EO 229, RA 8532 also appropriates not less than three
types of cooperatives. billion pesos from the General Appropriations Act (GAA)

• However, the Department of Justice Opinion No. 9 of 1997

adds that "the ten-year implementation period should be
KINDS OF MEMBERSHIPS
regarded as directory and not mandatory."
• A regular member is entitled to all the rights
and privileged of membership as stated in the • This means that the period for implementation set under
Cooperative Code and the coops by- laws. both Acts should be regarded as mere target periods within
• An associate member has no right to vote and to which the implementation of the program should be
be voted upon and is entitled to such rights and completed. This does not indicate the end of the program
privileged provided by the cooperatives by laws. itself.
• Fifteen (15) natural persons of legal age who are citizens of REPUBLIC ACT 9700
the Philippines. • An Act Strengthening The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program (CARP), Extending The Acquisition And Distribution
CARP
Of All Agricultural Lands, Instituting Necessary Reforms,
Amending For The Purpose Certain Provisions Of Republic Act
No. 6657, Otherwise Known As The Comprehensive Agrarian 2. How should goods and services be produced? – labour
Reform Law Of 1988, As Amended, And Appropriating Funds intensive, land intensive, capital intensive? Efficiency?
Therefor.
3. Who should get the goods and services produced? – even
• CARPER law which was signed by GMA on August 7, 2009 distribution? more for the rich? for those who work hard
contains an extension of the budget for CARP especially the
Land Acquisition and Distribution (LAD) program for five years
starting July 1, 2009 and the necessary reforms to complete FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
the acquisition and distribution of the remaining One Million
Hectares of private agricultural lands to landless farmers 1. LAND - Natural resources used to produce goods and
services. The return to land is rent.
• CARPER law provides for clarification of policies and its
interpretation by CARP implementation agencies including 2. LABOR - Time and effort that people devote to
the decision of judicial courts. producing goods and services. The return to labor is
wages.
SCOPE

1. All alienable and disposable lands of the public domain 3. CAPITAL - All the equipment, buildings, tools and
devoted to or suitable for agriculture; other manufactured goods used to produce other
goods and services. The return to capital is interest.
2. All lands of the public domain in excess of the specified
limits, as determined by Congress; 4. ENTREPRENEURIAL ABILITY - A special type of human
resource that organizes the other three production
3. All other lands owned by the Government devoted to or
factors, makes business decisions, innovates, and
suitable for agriculture;
bears business risk. Return to entrepreneurship is
4. All private lands devoted to or suitable for agriculture profit.
regardless of the agricultural products raised or that
can be raised thereon.
PRODUCTION POSSIBILITY FRONTIER
EXCLUSION
The boundary between combinations of goods and services
1. Landholdings with an area of five (5) hectares and below that can be produced and those that cannot.
are excluded from coverage.
1. Production efficiency - When it is not possible to
2. A comprehensive inventory system in consonance with the produce more of one good without producing less of
National Land Use Plan in accordance with the Local some other good. Production efficiency occurs only at
Government Code shall be instituted by the DAR within one points on the PPF.
(1) year from the effectivity of the law.
2. Economic growth - Means pushing out the PPF. The
two key factors that influence economic growth are
WHAT IS ECONOMICS? technological progress and capital accumulation.
• Economics is the study of how we use our scarce productive
resources for consumption, now or in future. (Paul
Samuelson) LAW OF DEMAND
• Resources are scarce: Society has limited resources and • Demand curve - the relationship between the quantity
therefore cannot produce all the goods and services people demanded of a good and its price, all other influences on
wish to have. consumers’ planned purchases remaining the same. Other
1. Microeconomics - The study of the decisions of people and things remaining the same, the higher the price of a good, the
businesses and the interaction of those decisions in markets. smaller is the quantity demanded.
The goal of microeconomics is to explain the prices and • Substitution effect - the opportunity cost of a good
quantities of individual goods and services. increases, people buy less of that good and more of its
substitutes.
2. Macroeconomics - The study of the national economy and • Income Effect - Faced with a high price and an unchanged
the global economy and the way that economic aggregates income, the quantities demanded of at least some goods and
grow and fluctuate. The goal of macroeconomics is to explain services must be decreased.
average prices and the total employment, income, and
production.

LAW OF SUPPLY
THE ECONOMIC PROBLEMS • Other things remaining the same, the higher the price of a
1. What goods and services should an economy produce? – good, the greater is the quantity supplied.
should the emphasis be on agriculture, manufacturing or
services, should it be on sport and leisure or housing? • Supply of a good depends on:
1. The price of the good •Monopolistic competition - A market structure in which a
2. The prices of factors of production large number of firms compete with each other by making
3. The price of other goods produced similar but slightly different products.
4. Expected future prices
•Oligopoly - A market structure in which a small number of
5. The number of suppliers
producers compete with each other.
6. Technology
KEY TERMS

•Consumption expenditure - The amount spent on

EQUILIBRIUM
consumption goods and services.
• A situation in which opposing forces balance each other.
•Savings – What remains out of income after consuming.
• Equilibrium in a market occurs when the price is such that
•Capital - The plant, equipment, buildings, and inventories of
the opposing forces of the plans of buyers and sellers balance
raw materials and semi-finished goods that are used to
each other.
produce other goods and services.
• Equilibrium price = the price at of quantity demanded
•Investment - The purchase of new plant, equipment, and
equals the quantity supplied.
buildings and the additions to inventory. Investment
• Equilibrium quantity = the quantity bought and sold at the increases the stock of capital.
equilibrium price.
•Depreciation - the decrease in the stock of capital that
results from wear and tear and the passage of time

ELASTICITY • Gross domestic product - GDP is the total of all economic

activity in one country, regardless of who owns the
• Price elasticity of demand – A measure of the
productive assets.
responsiveness of the quantity demanded of a good to a
change in its price, other things remaining the same. • Gross national product - GNP, is the total of incomes
earned by residents of a country, regardless of where the
• Inelastic demand -If the quantity demanded remains
assets are located.
constant when the price changes, then the elasticity of
demand is zero and demand is said to be perfectly inelastic. •Budget deficits (spending exceeds revenues) boost total
demand and output through a net injection into the circular
• Elastic demand - If the quantity demanded is indefinitely
flow of incomes.
responsive to a price change, then the magnitude of the
elasticity of demand is infinity, and demand is said to be •Budget surpluses (revenues exceed expenditure) may be
perfectly elastic. prudent if a government is building up a large surplus on its
social security fund in order to meet an expected increase in
WHEN MARKETS DO NOT WORK
its future pensions bill as the population ages.
• Price ceiling - A regulation that makes it illegal to charge a
•Tighter or looser. Fiscal policy is said to have tightened if a
price higher than a specified level. When a price ceiling is
deficit is reduced or converted into a surplus or if a surplus is
applied to rents in housing markets, it is called a rent ceiling.
increased, after taking into account the effects of the
• Black market - An illegal trading arrangement in which economic cycle. A move in the opposite direction is called a
buyers and sellers do business at a price higher than loosening of fiscal policy.
legally imposed price ceiling.
• Price Floors (minimum prices) - Type of government
• Minimum wage law - A regulation that makes hiring labor intervention is prices deemed too low. Only effective if set
below a specified wage illegal. above equilibrium price. Effect of price floor is to ensure that
surplus is produced.
• Externalities – Social costs, but no private costs.
• Price Ceiling (maximum prices) - A regulation that makes it
illegal to charge a price higher than a specified level. When a
IMPERFECT COMPETITION price ceiling is applied to rents in housing markets, it is called
a rent ceiling.
•Monopoly - An industry that produces a good or service for
which no close substitute exists and in which there is one • Opportunity Cost – the cost expressed in terms of the next
supplier that is protected from competition by a barrier best alternative sacrificed. Helps us view the true cost of
preventing the entry of new firms. decision making.

•Price discrimination - The practice of charging some 4 MAIN TYPES OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
customers a lower price than others for an identical good or 1. Command Economy
of charging an individual customer a lower price on a large 2. Market Economy
purchase than on a small one, even if the cost of servicing all 3. Mixed Economy
customers is the same. 4. Traditional Economy

COMMAND ECONOMY
In a command economy the government answers the three
basic economic questions. ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
1. What? A dictator or a central planning committee decides Material Culture
what products are needed.
• The physical or tangible (see, touch) objects that members
2. How? Since the government owns all means of production
of a society make, use, and share
in a command economy, it decides how goods and services
will be produced. • Raw Materials → Technology → Stuff
3. For whom? The government decides who will get what is
produced in a command economy.
Non-Material Culture
MARKET ECONOMY
In a pure market economy there is no government • The abstract or intangible human creations of society that
involvement in economic decisions. The government lets the influences people’s behavior
market answer the following three basic economic questions: • Language, beliefs, values, rules of behavior, family patterns,
1. What? Consumers decide what should be produced in a political systems
market economy through the purchases they make.
2.How? Production is left entirely up to businesses. Symbols
Businesses must be competitive in and produce quality • Anything that meaningfully represents something else
products at lower prices than their competitors.
3.For whom? In a market economy, the people who have Language
more money are able to buy more goods and services.
• A set of symbols that expresses ideas and enable people to
MIXED ECONOMY think and communicate with one another
•A combination of command and market economic systems.
Values
•All economies in the world today are mixed. There is some
• Collective ideas about what is right or wrong, good or bad,
government involvement in the economy.
and desirable or undesirable in a particular culture
•The government regulates the economy. Its role is to
regulate but not control. Norms
•Market forces control most consumer goods but
• Established rules of behavior or standards of conduct
government directs industry in need areas.
Folkways

• Standards of behavior that are socially approved but not

Example: The United States government is involved in the
morally significant
economy through laws and regulations on businesses, and
provides socialistic programs, like welfare, Medicaid, and Mores
Medicare.
• Norms of morality
TRADITIONAL ECONOMY
Taboos
•An economic system in which economic decisions are made
• Subjects or behaviors absolutely forbidden by a culture
based on customs, beliefs, religion and habits.
Laws
•Advantages – there is little friction among members because
relatively little is disputed. • formal rules enacted by the state
• Disadvantages – It restricts individual initiative and has a
lack of advanced goods, new technology, and growth.
SUBCULTURE

A category of people who share distinguishing attributes,

CULTURE AND SOCIETY beliefs, values, and/or norms that set them apart in some
significant manner from the dominant culture. (form around
SOCIAL PARADIGMS
common ethnic/religious heritage, SES, occupation)
• Theory: a systematic explanation of how two or more
phenomena are related COUNTERCULTURE
• Paradigm: a set of fundamental assumptions that guides
thinking • A group that strongly rejects dominant societal values and
• Sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills) norms and seeks alternative lifestyles.
• Examining personal experiences in the context of the larger • Also a subculture
social structure. WHAT IS DEVIANCE?
STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM • Any behavior, belief, or condition that violates significant
• Focus – balance in societies social norms in the society or group in which it occurs.

• Interestingly – one who is considered “deviant” by one

CULTURE category of people may be seen as “conformist” in another
The knowledge, language, values, customs, and material group.
objects that are passed from person to person and from one
generation to the next in a human group or society
• It depends on the time, place and context in which it • Adaptation – patterns of behavior which enable a culture to
occurs, and on the people who define and apply the norms. cope with its surroundings.

• Assimilation – when one ethnic group absorbs another, so

SOCIAL STRUCTURE that the cultural traits of the assimilated group become
Micro level indistinguishable. (minority incorporated into the majority.
• Role conflict – occurs when one is pulled in different
• Attitudes – data that describe how people think, believe,
directions from different statuses
and feel.
• Role strain – incompatible demands are built into a single
status • Bilingual education – teaching a second language by relying
heavily on the native language of the speaker. The theory is
that maintaining a strong sense of one's one culture and
Macro level – Social institutions
language is necessary to acquire another language and
• Widely accepted, relatively stable clusters of roles, statuses
culture.
and groups that are designed to satisfy the basic needs of a
society • Bureaucracy – government based on a specialized set of
offices usually hierarchically organized
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
• The division of society into layers, or strata of people who • Caste system – the ranking of members in a society by
have unequal amounts of scarce but desirable resources occupational status and degree of purity or pollution as
determined by their birth.
• Refers to inequality among groups of people, not
individuals
• Social mobility – The movement of people from one social • Cultural transmission – how culture is passed on through
position to another. learning from one generation to another. Also referred to as
enculturation or socialization.
TYPES OF STRATIFICATION
• Discrimination – the act of disqualifying or mistreating
Caste System
people on grounds rationally irrelevant to the situation.
• social stratification based on ascribed status.
• Division of labor – the division of tasks in a society between
• India and South Africa
women and men, old and young, ability, knowledge,
Class System
experience.
• social stratification based on achieved status.
• Economic development – the institutional changes made to
ETHNOCENTRISM
promote economic betterment. It is the social organizational
• The practice of judging all other cultures by one’s own
changes made to promote growth in an economy.
culture
• Economic growth – the overall growth in an economy.
• Based on the assumption that one’s own way of life is
Gross national product and gross domestic product are the
superior to all others
usual measures of economic growth.
• Can be positive or negative.
• Enculturation – the process of learning one's own culture,
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
also called socialization.
The belief that the behaviors and customs of any culture
must be viewed and analyzed by the culture’s own standards • Equality – a measure of how similar people are to one
or within the context of a particular society’s responses to another. It can be measured quantitatively with such
problems and opportunities. measures as wealth concentration, coefficients, and
percentiles.
GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE
• Multilateral agreement established under US leadership in • Equity – the institutional arrangements to promote
1948 equality. Equity is not quantitatively measured; it is
• Objective is to liberalize trade by eliminating tariffs, determined by people agreeing that their institutions are fair.
subsidies, & import quotas
• Ethics – the principles of conduct governing an individual or
• 19 original members grew to 120. group; concerns for what is right or wrong, good or bad.
WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION • Extended family – a composite family composed of other
relatives besides the nuclear families.
The WTO was created during the Uruguay Round of GATT to
police and enforce GATT rules • Family of orientation – nuclear family consisting of oneself
• “deals with the rules of trade between nations at a global or and one’s father, mother and siblings.
near-global level”.
• Family of procreation – nuclear family consisting of oneself
and one’s spouse and children.
KEY TERMS
• Acculturation – culture change resulting from contact • Gender – socially agreed-upon traits of men and women.
between cultures. A process of external culture change.
• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - a measure of an economy's 4. Begging the Question
economic performance. It is the market value of all goods and 5. Complex Question
services produced within the boundaries of a country.
ACCIDENT
• Gross National product (GNP) - a measure of an economy's The fallacy of accident begins with the statement of some
economic performance. It is the market value of all goods and principle that is true as a general rule, but then errs by
services produced by the residents of a particular country. It applying this principle to a specific case that is unusual or
includes the income of those residents earned bY atypical in some way.
corporations owned overseas and from working abroad.
CONVERSE ACCIDENT
• Hidden curriculum – set of unwritten rules of behavior that The fallacy of converse accident begins with a specific case
are taught in schools. that is unusual or atypical in some way, and then errs by
deriving from this case the truth of a general rule.
• Legitimacy – the right to hold and use power, usually based
on the consent of the governed FALSE CAUSE
The fallacy of false cause infers the presence of a causal
• Multiculturalism - stressing the importance of different
connection simply because events appear to occur in
cultures, races, and ethnicities.
correlation or (in the post hoc, ergo propter hoc variety)
• Matriarchy - where a mother figure and women have temporal succession.
authority.
BEGGING THE QUESTION
• Patriarchy - where a father figure and males have authority. Begging the question is the fallacy of using the conclusion of
an argument as one of the premises offered in its own
• Polygamy – an individual who has more than one spouse. support. Although this often happens in an implicit or
• Polygyny – a man has more than one wife. disguised fashion, an explicit version would look like this:
• Prejudice – categorical like or dislike of a group of people COMPLEX QUESTION
based on real or imagined characteristics The fallacy of complex question presupposes the truth of its
• Religion – set of beliefs and practices that pertain to sacred own conclusion by including it implicitly in the statement of
things among a community of believers. (Durkheim: elements the issue to be considered: Have you tried to stop watching
– sacred objects, beliefs, rituals and community. too much television? If so, then you admit that you do watch
too much television.
• Qualitative methods – rich descriptions of cultural
situations obtained from interviewing, participant FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY
observation, and collection of oral and textual materials. 1. Ambiguous Langauge
Ethnographies are reports from qualitative research. 2. Equivocation
3. Amphiboly
• Quantitative methods - numerical tabulations and statistical 4. Accent
comparisons made possible by systematic surveys, 5. Composition
observations, or analysis of records. Data are used to test 6. Division
hypotheses and identify the strength of patterns observed 7. Avoiding Fallacies
using qualitative methods.
AMBIGUOUS LANGUAGE
• Sex – the biological differentiation of male and female. In addition to the fallacies of relevance and presumption we
examined in our previous lessons, there are several patterns
of incorrect reasoning that arise from the imprecise use of
FALLACIES language. An ambiguous word, phrase, or sentence is one
1. Fallacies of Relevance that has two or more distinct meanings. The inferential
2. Fallacies of Presumption relationship between the propositions included in a single
3. Fallacies of Ambiguity argument will be sure to hold only if we are careful to employ
exactly the same meaning in each of them. The fallacies of
ambiguity all involve a confusion of two or more different
FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE senses.
1. ad baculum – Appeal to Force
EQUIVOCATION
2. ad misericordiam – Appeal to Pity
An equivocation trades upon the use of an ambiguous word
3. ad populum – Appeal to Emotion
or phrase in one of its meanings in one of the propositions of
4. ad verecundiam – Appeal to Authority
an argument but also in another of its meanings in a second
5. ad hominem – Mirror-image: appeal to authority
proposition.
6. ad ignoratium – Appeal to Ignorance
7. ignoratio elenchi – Irrelevant Conclusion Really exciting novels are rare. But rare books are expensive.
Therefore, really exciting novels are expensive.
FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION
AMPHIBOLY
1. Accident
An amphiboly can occur even when every term in an
2. Converse Accident argument is univocal, if the grammatical construction of a
3. False Cause sentence creates its own ambiguity.
A reckless motorist Thursday struck and injured a student law, participation in governmental affairs, social and political
who was jogging through the campus in his pickup truck. freedom and representation in the Spanish Cortes.
Therefore, it is unsafe to jog in your pickup truck.
• 1892, Jul 3. In Ilaya St, Tondo, Rizal founds La Liga Filipina to
give the people a chance for direct involvement in the reform
movement. Andres Bonifacio (Nov 30, 1863 - May 10, 1897) is
one of Rizal's partners.
SPANISH COLONIZATION
• 1894, Jul 8. Andres Bonifacio forms the Katipunan. Its
• 1521, Mar 16. A Spanish expedition, sailing across the
members come from the lower and the middle class. The
Pacific Ocean from east to west, and led by the Portuguese
organization wants to awaken nationalism and free the
Ferdinand Magellan (died Apr 27, 1521) lands on Homonhon
Filipino people from Spanish oppression and friar despotism.
Island east of Samar with three small ships, named the
The organization believes that reforms can only be obtained
Concepcion, Trinidad and Victoria. Magellan calls the place
by means of a revolution.
San Lazaro Island since March 16 is Saint Lazarus day.
• 1521, Mar 31. The first mass on Philippine soil is celebrated • 1896, Aug 19. Spanish authorities discover the Katipunan
on Limasawa. when one of its members, Teodoro Paterno, betrays the
• 1521, Apr 27. Magellan dies in a battle with Lapu-Lapu, organization to an Agustinian priest, Fr. Mariano Gil. All those
chieftain of Mactan, an island near Cebu. implicated are ordered arrested but many Katipuneros evade
arrest and flee to the hills of Balintawak.
• 1543, Feb 2. The leader of the most successful Spanish
• 1896, Aug 23. A revolution is proclaimed by Bonifacio. The
expedition after Magellan, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos (died Apr
event is marked in history as the Cry of Balintawak. In this
4, 1546) arrives in the archipelago. He names the islands the
instance, Filipinos tear up their cedulas (I.D. cards) issued by
Philippines in honor of the son of King Charles I, Philip II
the Spanish government and thereby mark the beginning of
(1556-1598) of Spain.
the uprising against the Spaniards.
• 1565, Feb 13. With four ships and 380 men, Miguel Lopez
de Legaspi arrives in the Philippines. • 1896, Oct 31. A new group of the Katipunan is formed in
Cavite; it discards the leadership of Andres Bonifacioand is
• 1589. The Spaniards establish the first school in the
headed by Emilio Aguinaldo (Mar 22, 1869 - Feb 6, 1964).
Philippines, the College of San Ignacio.
• 1896, Nov 13. Rizal arrives in Manila and is immediately
• 1600. The Galleon trade between Manila and Acapulco,
imprisoned at Fort Santiago.
Mexico begins. But Manila serves merely as a transshipment
• 1896, Dec 20. Rizal is sentenced to death by a Spanish court
port for the exchange of goods between Spain and Mexico on
martial. Governor Camilo Polavieja orders his execution.
the one side and China on the other.
• 1896, Dec 30. The Spaniards execute Jose Rizal in
• 1603. Chinese insurrection in Manila.
Bagumbayan (today's Rizal Park).
• 1762, Sep 22. In a side encounter of the European Seven • 1897, Mar 22. The Katipunan holds its election. Aguinaldo is
Years War, the British attack Manila with 13 vessels and 6,830 elected as president while Bonifacio is elected only as
men under the command of General William Draper and director of war. Bonifacio is insulted by the election results
Admiral Samuel Corning. The British win the battle and and refuses to recognize the new leadership.
occupy the city. • 1897, Apr 29. Katipuneros arrest Andres Bonifacio and his
• 1812, Mar 19. The Spanish Cortes promulgates the Cadiz brothers Procopio and Ciriaco on orders of Aguinaldo, who
Constitution. It is a liberal constitution, vesting sovereignty in considers the former a threat. The Bonifacios are charged
the people, recognizing the equality of men and the with sedition and treasonbefore a military court of the
individual liberty of the citizen, and granting suffrage, but Katipunan.
providing for a hereditary monarchy and for Catholicism as
• 1897, May 8. The Katipunan court finds the Bonifacios
the state religion.
guilty. They are sentenced to death.
• 1863. The educational system in the archipelago is • 1897, May 10. Andres Bonifacio and his brothers are
reformed, allowing the natives higher levels of training. executed at Mt. Buntis, Maragondon, Cavite.
Wealthier native families start sending their children to study
• 1897, May 31. Aguinaldo establishes a Philippine republican
in Spain.
government in Biak-na-Bato, San Miguel, Bulacan.
• 1872, Feb 17. Three martyr priests are publicly garroted as
alleged leaders of the Cavite Conspiracy, a movement for
secularization and nationalism, which is distasteful to the • 1897, Aug 10. Aguinaldo begins negotiating with the
Spanish friars. They are Jose Burgos(born Feb 9, 1837), Spaniards, represented by Pedro Paterno.
Mariano Gomez (born Aug 2, 1799) and Jacinto Zamora (born
• 1897, Dec 14. The Pact of Biak-na-Bato between the
Aug 14, 1835).
Spanish and Aguinaldo is signed. Aguinaldo agrees to
• 1882, Mar 3. A talented offspring of the native elite, Jose
surrender all arms and to go with his companions into exile in
Protacio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda (Jun 19, 1861 - Dec
Hong Kong upon payment of 800,000 pesos and an additional
30, 1896) leaves Manila for Barcelona to continue his studies
900,000 pesos for the noncombatants who suffered losses
in medicine.
because of the war.
• 1888, Dec 13. Filipinos in Barcelona establish the
organization La Solidaridad. It demands for the Philippines
freedom of press, speech and assembly, equality before the • 1898, Feb 8. The Katipunan is revived by Emilio Jacinto (Dec
15, 1875 - Apr 16, 1899) and Feliciano Jocson.
• 1898, May 19. Aguinaldo and his companions return to the • 1916, Oct 16. The Jones Law, sponsored by US
Philippines. Congressman William Atkinson Jones, is enacted. It promises
• 1898, May 24. Aguinaldo proclaims a dictatorial independence upon the establishment of a stable
government and issues two decrees which show his trust and government.
reliance in US protection. • 1934, Mar 24. The Tydings-McDuffie Law, known as the
Philippine Independence Law, is approved by US President
• 1898, Jun 12. The Philippines is proclaimed independent
Roosevelt. It provides for a ten year transition period of the
from Spain in Kawit, Cavite. For the first time, the Philippine
Commonwealth of the Philippines under a constitution to be
flag is officially raised and the Philippine National Anthem is
drafted by a Constitutional Convention, the members of
publicly played. The proclamation places the US in the special
which are to be elected by the people.
position of protector of Philippine independence.
• 1934, Jul 10. Election by the Filipino people of the 202
• 1898, Jun 23. Through the advice of Apolinario Mabini (Jul
delegates to the Constitutional Convention is held in
23, 1864 - May 13, 1903), a paralytic but nevertheless the
fulfillment of the Tydings-McDuffie Law.
"brains of the Katipunan", the Philippine dictatorial
• 1934, Jul 30. The Philippine Constitutional Convention is
government is changed to a revolutionary government, and
inaugurated. The officers are: Claro M. Recto (Feb 8, 1890 -
in Malolos, Bulacan the Malolos Republic is institutionalized.
Oct 2, 1960), President; Ruperto Manansala and Teodorico
The Malolos republican government is geared to fight for
Sandico, Vice Presidents; Narciso Pimentel, Secretary; and
Philippine independence until it is recognized by the free
Jose Diokno, Sergeant-at-arms.
nations of the world.

• 1898, Aug 14. The Spanish in Manila surrender to the US

after a pre-arranged mock battle. A US military government is JAPANESE COLONIZATION
established by General Meritt. • 1941, Dec 8. Immediately after the bombing of Pearl
Harbor, Japanese fighter planes attack the Philippines as an
• 1899, Feb 6. The US Senate ratifies the Treaty of Paris with
ally of the US, shocking the unprepared US and Filipino
Spain and gives the US military a free hand to subdue the
troops. Douglas MacArthur, the Commander of the US Armed
Philippines.
Forces in the Far East, decides to retreat to the Bataan
peninsula.

AMERICAN COLONIZATION • 1942, Apr 9. Bataan, under US commander General Edward

King, is the last province that surrenders to the Japanese
• 1901, Mar 2. The Army Appropriation Act, also known as armies. The infamous Death March follows, the painful trek
the Spooner Amendment, is passed by the US Senate. It of 36,000 US and Filipino soldiers and guerillas without food
provides that the US President governs the Philippines by the and water. Prisoners of war are bayonetted or brutally
authority of Congress and not as Commander-in-Chief of the beaten to death by their guards. Those who reach San
Armed Forces, thereby formally ending the US military Fernando, Pampanga, are taken to a concentration camp at
regime in the archipelago. Capaz, Tarlac.
• 1901, Mar 23. Aguinaldo is captured by US authorities.
• 1901, Apr 1. Aguinaldo takes an oath of allegiance to the • 1943, Jun 20. Japanese Premier Hideki Tojo nominates an
US. all Filipino 20 member Preparatory Commission for Philippine
Independence.
• 1902. The Cooper Act, otherwise known as the Philippine
Bill of 1902, is passed by a US Senate committee, establishing • 1943, Sep 4. The Commission drafts a new Constitution
the Philippine Assembly as the lower chamber of a bicameral which provides for a unicameral national assembly.
legislature. The Philippine Commission makes up the upper
• 1943, Sep 20. The 108 delegates to the National Assembly
house. The Cooper Act also provides for a bill of rights.
are chosen by the members of the Preparatory Commission
• 1916, Oct 16. The Jones Law, sponsored by US
for Philippine Independence.
Congressman William Atkinson Jones, is enacted. It promises
• 1943, Sep 15. The members of the National Assembly elect
independence upon the establishment of a stable
Jose P. Laurel as the President of the Philippines.
government.
• 1945, Aug 9. The Americans drop an atomic bomb over
•1934, Mar 24. The Tydings-McDuffie Law, known as the
Nagasaki, Japan.
Philippine Independence Law, is approved by US President
• 1945, Aug 15. Japan accepts defeat.
Roosevelt. It provides for a ten year transition period of the
• 1946, Jul 4. The US declares the Independence of the
Commonwealth of the Philippines under a constitution to be
Philippines.
drafted by a Constitutional Convention, the members of
which are to be elected by the people. DEFECT OF SPANISH COLONIAL RULE
• Frequent changes in the government of Spain brought also
political instability in the Philippines
•1902. The Cooper Act, otherwise known as the Philippine
• From 1837-1897, the Philippines was ruled y 50 Spanish
Bill of 1902, is passed by a US Senate committee, establishing
governor generals, each serving an average of 1 year and 3
the Philippine Assembly as the lower chamber of a bicameral
months in office.Flipinos were not given a voice in their own
legislature. The Philippine Commissionmakes up the upper
government.
house. The Cooper Act also provides for a bill of rights.
• Their previous representation in the Spanish Cortes (law
making body in Spain) from 1810-1837, was not restored.
• Only minor government offices were opened to the • Pedro Serrano Laktaw founded the first Filipino Masonic
Filipinos Lodge in Manila called Lodge Nilad
• Ventura de los Reyes the only Filipino who became part of
the Spanish Cortes in 1812.Defective administration of Justice
ASSOCIACION HISPANO-FILIPINO
• Courts were really courts of injustice.
• Founded by Filipino Propagandists and their Spanish friends
• Spanish judges were ignorant and dishonest
in Madrid on January 12, 1869.
• Judicial trials were slow and expensive.No equality before
Officers include:
the law
• Miguel Morayta President
• Spaniards were given more rights and privilege that
• General Felipe de la Corte Vice-President
Filipinos
• Dr. Dominador Gomez - Secretary
• Justice was for the rich and influential and not for the poor.

LA LIGA FILIPINA
RISE OF PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT
• The Philippine League
• The Propaganda Movement was a peaceful crusade for
• July 3, 1892 established by Rizal in a house at Ilaya St.
reforms but not a revolutionary movement.
Tondo, Manila
• It began in 1872 ended in 1892, after GOMBURZA 's
• Its constitution was written in Hongkong
execution and when Rizal was exiled to Dapitan.
• Ambrosio Salvador President
AIMS OF PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT • Agustin de la Rosa Fiscal
• Equality of Filipinos and Spaniards before the law. • Bonifacio Arevalo Treasurer
• Assimilation of the Philippines as a regular province of • Deodato Arellano – Secretary
Spain.
• Motto: Unus Instar Omnium (One Like All)
• Restoration of Philippine representation in the Spanish
• The Constitution was written by Rizal in Hong Kong.
Cortes.
• This Constitution provided for the creation of a Provincial
• Filipinization of the parishes Council for every province, and a Popular Council for every
• Granting of individual liberties to Filipinos such as: Freedom town.
of Speech, Freedom of the press, Freedom of assembly, • Every Filipino who loves the Philippines is qualified to be a
Freedom to petition for grievances. member.

SUPPORTERS OF PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT • 3 days after its establishment, Gov. Gen. Eulogio Despujol
• Ferdinand Blumentritt in Ateneo de Leitmeritz, Austria ordered the arrest and exile of Rizal in Dapitan.
• Miguel Morayta Central de Madrid • Andres Bonifacio exerted efforts to organize chapters in
• Francisco Pi y Margall former president of the First Spanish various districts of Manila.
Republic •Liga split into two groups:
• Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla leader of the Republican Party of Spain
• Don Juan de Atayde Spanish writer.
1.Cuerpo de Compromisarios pledged to continue supporting
LA SOLIDARIDAD the La Solidaridad
• Founded by Graciano Lopez Jaena in Barcelona on February 2. Katipunan radicals headed by Bonifacio
15, 1889.
Aims:
• To work peacefully for reforms
• To portray the sad conditions of the Philippines so that
Spain might remedy them.
• To promote liberal ideas and progress SOME REFORMS GRANTED BY SPAIN
• To champion Filipino aspirations for democracy and • Abolition of the tobacco monopoly in 1882.
happiness. • Abolition of the hated tribute in 1885.
• Creation of the office of civil governor for every regular
LA SOLIDARIDAD province and making the alcalde mayor as judge of the court
• Mariano Ponce Naning, Kalipulako, Tikbalang of first instance.
• Antonio Luna Taga-Ilog •Extension of the Spanish Penal Code to the Philippines in
• Jose Maria Panganiban Jomapa ,JMP 1887.
• Jose Rizal Dimas-Alang, Laong-Laan • Establishment of city government in Cebu, Iloilo, Jaro,
• Dominador Gomez Ramiro Franco Batangas, Albay, Naga and Vigan.
FREEMASONRY LAWS HONORING/COMMEMORATING FILIPINO HISTORICAL
• Graciano Lopez-Jaena established the first Filipino Masonic FIGURES FOR DR.RIZAL
Lodge in Barcelona known as Revolucion. A. Decree of December 20, 1898, issued by General Emilio
• Marcelo H. Del Pilar established the Lodge Solidaridad Aguinaldo, declared December 30 of every year a day of
which was recognized by the Grande Oriente Español national mourning in honor of Dr. Jose Rizal and other victims
• Jose Rizal joined Lodge Acacia, his first Masonic Lodge. of the Philippine Revolution.
B. Act No. 137, which organized the politico-military district
of Morong into the Province of Rizal, was the first official step National Anthem.
taken by the Taft Commission to honor our greatest hero and • Lakandola - Chief of Tondo, Friendly to the Spaniards.
martyr. • Rajah Soliman - The Last Rajah of Manila

WHAT IS THE RIZAL LAW OR RA 1425? • Leonor Rivera - Cousin and Fiancee of Jose Rizal.
An Act to Include in the Curricula of All Public and Private • Marcela Agoncillo - Maker of the First Filipino Flag.
Schools, Colleges and Universities courses on the Life Works • Galicano Apacible - One of the Founders of Katipunan.
and Writings of JOSE RIZAL, particularly his novels • Jose Ma. Panganiban - Bicolandia's Greatest Contribution to
NOLI ME TANGERE and EL FILIBUSTERISMO POEMS the Historic Campaign for Reforms.
• Mi Ultimo Adios (Ang Huling Paalam/My Last Farewell) - • Diego Silang - Leader of the Ilocano Revolt
written at his death cell in Fort Santiago on the eve of his
• Maria Josefa Gabriela Silang - Continued the Fight After her
execution.
Husband's Death.
• Sa Aking Mga Kabata (To My Fellow Children) - first poem, • Lapu-Lapu - Chieftain of Mactan Who Killed Magellan. First
written when he was eight years old, urging love of native Filipino Hero.
language. • Francisco Dagohoy - Leader of the Longest Revolt in Bohol.
• Mi Retiro (My Retreat) – written by Rizal in a response to a • Epifanio delos Santos - A Man of Many Talents; the Former
request from his mother. Highway 54 is Now Named After him (EDSA).
• Mi Primera Inspiraccion (My First Inspiration) – written in • Francisco Baltazar - Prince of Tagalog Poets
Ateneo, dedicated to his mother.
• Teresa Magbanua – First Woman Fighter in Panay. Visayan
• A La Juventud Filipina (Sa Kabataang Pilipino/To the Filipino
Joan of Arc.
Youth) - won first prize, written age 18 when he was in UST.
• Trinidad Tecson - Mother of Biak-na-Bato.
• A Las Flores de Heidelberg – written when Rizal attended
• Agueda Esteban - Wife of Artemio Ricarte Who Carried
lecture courses in the University of Heidelberg. The ancient
Secret Messages About Spanish Troops.
city of Heidelberg is a scenic attraction in Europe.
• Marina Dizon - Daughter of One of the Trece Martirez.
FILIPINO HEROES • General Francisco Makabulos - Leader of the Revolt in
Tarlac.
• Dr. Jose Rizal - The National Hero.
• Julian Felipe - Composer of the Philippine National Anthem
• Andres Bonifacio - The Great Plebian and Father of the
Katipunan.
• General Gregorio del Pilar - Hero of the Battle of Tirad Pass.
• General Emilio Aguinaldo - President of the First Philippine
Republic.
• Apolinario Mabini – Sublime Paralytic and Brains of the
Revolution

• GOMBURZA - Martyred Priests of 1872.

• Trece Martirez - 13 Martyrs from Cavite.

• Emilio Jacinto - Brains of the Katipunan.
• General Antonio Luna - Cofounder of La Independencia.

• Melchora Aquino ( Tandang Sora ) - Mother of Balintawak.

• Graciano Lopez-Jaena - Greatest Filipino Orator of the

Propaganda Movement.
• Panday Pira - First Filipino Cannon-maker.
• Mariano Ponce - Propagandist, Historian,
Diplomat and Managing Editor of La Solidaridad.
• Gregoria de Jesus – Lakambini of Katipunan and Wife of
Andres Bonifacio.
• Fernando Ma. Guerrero – Poet of the Revolution

• Felipe Agoncillo – Outstanding Diplomat of the First

Philippine Republic.
• Rafael Palma - Cofounder of La Independencia and First UP
president .
• Juan Luna - Greatest Filipino Painter.
• Marcelo H. Del Pilar – Greatest Journalist and Moving Spirit
of the Propaganda Movement.
• Leona Florentino - First Filipino Poetess (from Ilocos Sur).

• Pedro Paterno - Peacemaker of the Revolution.

• Isabelo delos Reyes – Founder of Philippine Socialism.
• Artemio Ricarte – Revolutionary General, known as Viborra.
• Jose Palma - Wrote the Spanish Lyrics of the Philippine