Chemical Technology for Computing

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The field of spectroscopy deals with the study of absorption or emission of electromagnetic
radiation. We are familiar with the number of different types of electromagnetic radiations such as
cosmic rays, X-rays ,Ultra violet light (UV), visble light ,infra-red radiations ,radio waves radar
waves etc. All the electromagnetic radiations travel with the same velocity i,e. 3x1010 cm/sec but
differ from one another in the wave length of their waves .The arrangement of all types of
electromagnetic radiations in the order of their increasing wavelength or decreasing frequency is
called the electromagnetic spectrum.

Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation- radiant
energy that displays the properties of both particles and waves. Several different
spectrophotometric techniques are used to identify compounds. Each employs a different type of
electromagnetic radiation.

Spectroscopy is based on the interaction between light and matter. Spectroscopy is the
measurement and interpretation of electromagnetic radiation absorbed or emitted when the
molecules or atoms or ions of a sample move from one energy state to another energy state.

UV- Visible spectroscopy is a type of absorption spectroscopy in which light of the ultra-violet and
visible region (200-780 nm) is absorbed by the molecule which results in the excitation of the
electrons from the ground state to a higher energy state. Absorption spectroscopy is a quantitative
chemical analysis method based on the Beer-Lambert Law. According to this law, the absorption
of visible light passing through a certain substance is proportional to the concentration of that
substance.
PRINCIPLE OF UV-VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY

The principle of UV-Visible Spectroscopy is based on the absorption of ultraviolet light or visible
light by chemical compounds, which results in the production of distinct spectra. When the matter
absorbs the light, it undergoes excitation and de-excitation, resulting in the production of a
spectrum.

When matter absorbs ultraviolet radiation, the electrons present in it undergo excitation. This
causes them to jump from a ground state (an energy state with a relatively small amount of energy
associated with it) to an excited state (an energy state with a relatively large amount of energy
associated with it). It is important to note that the difference in the energies of the ground state and
the excited state of the electron is always equal to the amount of ultraviolet radiation or visible
radiation absorbed by it.

There are four possible types of transitions (π–π*, n–π*, σ–σ*, and n–σ*), and they can be ordered
as follows: σ–σ* > n–σ* > π–π* > n–π*. The absorption of ultraviolet light or visible light by a
chemical compound will produce a distinct spectrum that aids in the identification of the
compound.

Instrumentation or Parts of UV Spectroscopy

Main components in a UV-Vis spectrophotometer.

Instrumentation:
A UV-visible spectrophotometer is an analytical instrument that measures the amount of UV and
visible light that is absorbed by a sample. UV-vis spectrophotometer works by passing a beam of
light through the sample and measuring the amount of light that is absorbed at each wavelength.
The amount of light absorbed is proportional to the concentration of the absorbing compound in
the sample.
The basic components of a spectrometer include: light source (UV and visible), monochromator
(wavelength selector), sample holder, detector, amplifier and computer device.

Light Source
Tungsten filament lamps and Hydrogen-Deuterium lamps are the most widely used and suitable
light sources as they cover the whole UV region. Tungsten filament lamp is used as visible light
source. Tungsten filament lamps are rich in red radiations; more specifically they emit the
radiations of 375 nm, while the intensity of Hydrogen-Deuterium lamps falls below 375 nm.

Wavelength selector or Monochromator

Monochromators generally are composed of prisms and slits. The radiation emitted from the
primary source is dispersed with the help of rotating prisms. The various wavelengths of the light
source which are separated by the prism are then selected by the slits such the rotation of the prism
results in a series of continuously increasing wavelengths to pass through the slits for recording
purposes. The beam selected by the slit is monochromatic and further divided into two beams with
the help of another prism.

Sample and reference cells

A spectrophotometer can be either single beam or double beam. In a single beam instrument all of
the light passes through the sample cell. In a double-beam instrument, the light is split into two
beams before it reaches the sample. One of the beams is passed through the sample solution and
the second beam is passes through the reference solution. Both sample and reference solution is
contained in the cells. These cells are made of either silica or quartz. Glass can’t be used for the
cells as it also absorbs light in the UV region.

Detector
Generally, two photocells serve the purpose of the detector in UV spectroscopy. One of the
photocells receives the beam from the sample cell and the second detector receives the beam from
the reference. This results in the generation of alternating currents in the photocells. After the light
has passed through the sample, a detector is used to convert the light into a readable electronic
 signal. Generally, detectors are based on photoelectric coatings or semiconductors.

Amplifier
The alternating current generated in the photocells is transferred to the amplifier. The main
purpose of the amplifier is to amplify the signals many times so we can get clear and recordable
signals.

Recording devices
Most of the time amplifier is coupled to a pen recorder which is connected to the computer. The
computer stores all the data generated and produces the spectrum of the desired compound.

V-Vis spectroscopy information can be presented as a graph of absorbance, on the vertical y axis
and wavelength on the horizontal x axis. This graph is typically referred to as an absorption
spectrum an example is shown in the Figure.

Advantages of UV-Visible spectroscopy

 Speed and Efficiency: UV-Vis Spectroscopy facilitates rapid measurements.
 User-Friendly Instruments
 Simplified Data Analysis: The data procured from UV-Vis Spectroscopy typically requires
minimal processing.
 Cost-Effectiveness

Disadvantages of UV-Visible spectroscopy

 Limited to measuring solutions and cannot be applied to solid or gaseous samples.
 The region must be cleared of any visible light, electronic noise, or other external pollutants that
could interfere with the spectrometer’s reading.

Applications of UV Spectroscopy

Detection of Impurities

1. It is one of the best methods for the determination of impurities in organic molecules.
2. Additional peaks can be observed due to impurities in the sample and it can be compared with that
of standard raw material.
3. By also measuring the absorbance at a specific wavelength, the impurities can be detected.

Structure elucidation of organic compounds

1. It is useful in the structure elucidation of organic molecules, such as in detecting the presence or
absence of unsaturation, the presence of heteroatoms.
2. UV absorption spectroscopy can be used for the quantitative determination of compounds that
absorb UV radiation.
3. UV absorption spectroscopy can characterize those types of compounds that absorb UV radiation
thus used in the qualitative determination of compounds. Identification is done by comparing the
absorption spectrum with the spectra of known compounds.
4. This technique is used to detect the presence or absence of a functional group in the compound.
The absence of a band at a particular wavelength is regarded as evidence for the absence of
particular group.
5. Kinetics of reaction can also be studied using UV spectroscopy. The UV radiation is passed
through the reaction cell and the absorbance changes can be observed.
6. Molecular weights of compounds can be measured spectrophotometrically by preparing the
suitable derivatives of these compounds.
7. UV spectrophotometer may be used as a detector for HPLC.

FLAME PHOTOMETRY

Introduction
During 1980s Bowling Barnes, David Richardson, John Berry and Robert Hood developed an
instrument to measure the low concentrations of sodium and potassium in a solution. They named
this instrument as Flame photometer. The principle of flame photometer is based on the
measurement of the emitted light intensity when a metal is introduced into the flame. The
wavelength of the colour gives information about the element and the colour of the flame gives
information about the amount of the element present in the sample. It is also known as flame
emission spectroscopy. Flame photometer can be used to determine the concentration of certain
metal ions like sodium, potassium, lithium, calcium and cesium etc.

Principle of Flame photometer

The compounds of the alkali and alkaline earth metals (Group II) dissociate into atoms when
introduced into the flame. Some of these atoms further get excited to even higher levels. But these
atoms are not stable at higher levels. Hence, these atoms emit radiations when returning back to the
ground state. These radiations generally lie in the visible region of the spectrum. Each of the alkali
and alkaline earth metals has a specific wavelength.

Instrumentation
A simple flame photometer consists of the following basic components:
Source of flame: A Burner in the flame photometer is the source of flame. It can be maintained in
at a constant temperature. The temperature of the flame is one of the critical factors in flame
photometry.
Atomizer: It is used to send homogeneous solution into the flame at a balanced rate.
Optical system: The optical system consists of convex mirror and convex lens. The convex mirror
transmits the light emitted from the atoms. Convex mirror also helps to focus the emissions to the
lens. The lens helps to focus the light on a point or slit.
Colour filters: The reflections from the mirror pass through the slit and reach the filters. Filters
will isolate the wavelength to be measured from that of irrelevant emissions.
Photo-detector: The intensity of radiation emitted by the flame is measured by photo detector.
Here the emitted radiation is converted to an electrical signal with the help of photo detector. These
electrical signals are directly proportional to the intensity of light.

Procedure for the detection of sodium in a sample

Transfer 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 cm3 of standard sodium solution into different 50 cm3 volumetric flasks
from the burette. Make up all the solutions using distilled water. Stopper the flasks and shake well
to get uniform concentration. To the test solution also add distilled water up to the mark and shake
well. Switch on the instrument, turn the gas supply on and light the gas at the burner. Adjust the air
supply from the compressor to 10 psi, using the pressure regulator knob. Place the sodium filter
(589 nm) in position. Now dip the capillary tube in a cell containing distilled water. The stream of
air atomized as a fine mist draws up the liquid. Regulate the gas supply so that the colour of the
flame completely turns to blue. Adjust the flame photometer to zero by means of the zero control
knob. Now feed the 100 ppm sodium ion solution and adjust the reading to hundred. Repeat the
process to confirm the accuracy of the calibration.
 Feed the various sodium solutions prepared through the flame by spraying with atomizer one by
one including the test solution. Note down the flame photometer readings. Plot a graph of flame
photometer reading against volume of the solution to form the calibration curve. Using the curve
obtained find out the volume of the test solution containing sodium ions and calculate the amount
of sodium ions in it.

Result:
Volume of the test solution = ......................... ml
Amount of Sodium ion in the given test solution = ......................... mg.

Advantages of flame photometer

 The method of analysis is very simple and economical.
 It is quick, convenient, selective and sensitive analysis.
 It is both and qualitative and quantitative in nature.
 Even very low concentrations (parts per million/ppm to parts per billion/ppb range) of metals in
the sample can be determined.
 This method compensates for any unexpected interfering material present in the sample solution.

Disadvantages of flame photometer

 The accurate concentration of the metal ion in the solution cannot be measured.
 It cannot directly detect and determine the presence of inert gases.
 Only liquid samples may be used. Also sample preparation becomes lengthy in some cases.
 The elements such as carbon, hydrogen and halides cannot be detected due to their non-radiating
nature.

Applications of flame photometer

 Flame photometer can be applied both for quantitative and qualitative analysis of elements. The
radiations emitted by the flame photometer are characteristic to particular metal. Hence with the
help of Flame photometer we can detect the presence of any specific element in the given sample.
 The presence of some group II elements is critical for soil health. We can determine the presence
of various alkali and alkaline earth metals in soil sample by conducting flame test and then the soil
can be supplied with specific fertilizer.
 The concentrations of Na+ and K+ ions are very important in the human body for conducting
various metabolic functions. Their concentrations can be determined by diluting and aspirating
blood serum sample into the flame.
 Soft drinks, fruit juices and alcoholic beverages can also be analyzed by using flame photometry to
determine the concentrations of various metals and elements.

POTENTIOMETRY
Electrochemistry is a part of chemistry, which determines electrochemical properties of
substances. Potentiometry is the method to find the concentration of solute in a given solution by
measuring the potential between two electrodes. It involves the measurement of the potential of the
indicator electrode and reference electrode. It gives more accurate and precise results than other
titrations in which different reagents are used as indicators.

Potentiometry Principle

The principle involved in the potentiometry is when the pair of electrodes (reference electrode and
indicator electrode) is placed in the analyte (sample solution) it shows the potential difference by
the addition of the titrant or by the change in the concentration of the ions. The indicator electrode
measures this potential difference. The reference electrode has a potential value and remains stable
when dipped into the sample solution. The salt bridge is used to prevent the interference of the
analyte solution with that of reference solution. Here analyte solution is the solution whose
 potential is to be measured. The electromotive force of the complete cell is given by the following
equation-
Ecell = E reference + E indicator + E junction

Where, Ereference is the electrode potential of the reference electrode, Eindicator is electrode potential
of indicator electrode, E junction is the electrode potential at the junction of the liquid.

Types of Potentiometric titrations

1. Acid-base titration: This type of potentiometric titration is used to determine the concentration of
a given acid/base by neutralizing it exactly using a standard solution of base/acid whose
concentration is known. Where glass/calomel electrodes used for determination of pH. Ex:
Titration of HCl with NaOH, titration of CH3COOH with NaOH.
2. Redox titration: This type of potentiometric titration involves an analyte and titrant that undergo a
redox reaction. Where platinum electrodes are used. For example: Titration of Mohr’s salt solution
with K2Cr2O7 solution (Reaction of Fe3+/ Fe2+).
3. Complexometric titration: In this method, a coloured complex is formed, indicating the end point
of the titration. This is used to determine a mixture of metal ions in a given solution.
4. Precipitation titration: This type of titration involves a reaction between the given analyte and
the titrant wherein an insoluble precipitate is formed. Where membrane electrodes used for the
determination of the halogens using silver nitrate reagent. Ex: Titration of mixture of Cl- & Br- & I-
with AgNO3.

Instrumentation of potentiometer
Potentiometer consists of two electrodes, whose reduction potential varies when it is inserted in a
test solution. The voltmeter is connected to the electrodes to measure the potential difference
between them. It involves the measurement of potential of a suitable indicator electrode as a
function of the volume of titrant added. The equivalence point of the titration is detected by rapid
changes in cell emf.

For determination of potential of given solution two electrodes are used.

1. Reference electrode - The potential is known and is constant. The potential is independent of
analyte composition. There are two type of reference electrode namely,

a) Primary electrode: Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)

b) Secondary electrode: Saturated calomel electrode, silver- silver chloride electrode, Mercury-
mercury sulphate etc.
2. Indicator electrode - Which determines the potential of the solution under investigation, and as
its potential varies based on the ions in the solution. There are two types of indicator electrodes
namely,
a) Metal indicator electrodes: These develop electric potential in response to redox reaction on
the metal surface. They are composed of the metal rod immersed in its metal solution. Ex: silver
electrode dipped in the silver nitrate solution. Other types of indicator electrodes are also known as
inert electrodes and redox electrodes. Ex: Pt-H2 electrode.
b) Ion-selective electrodes: They are also known as a specific ion electrode (SIE) converts the
activity of a specific ion dissolved in a solution into an electrical potential. Example: Glass
membrane electrode (the most common application of glass electrodes is for the measurement of
pH). Fluoride selective electrode (it is sensitive to the concentration of the fluoride ion and hence
used in the measurement of fluoride content in drinking water, food and beverages, dental tooth
paste etc)

Theory of Potentiometry
The electrode potential is developed and given by Nernst equation whenever metal ion immersed
in a solution containing its own ions Mn+.
 The value of E can be established by linking the calomel electrode and measuring the EMF of the
resultant cell. Where, E is the potential of the solution; E₀ is the standard electrode potential; n is
the valency of the ions; c is the concentration of the sample solution; 0.0591 is the value obtained
from the RT/F; where R is the gas constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin, F is the Faradays
constant; [Mn+] is the concentration of metal ions present around the electrode.

General procedure of Potentiometric titration

A suitable reference and an indicator electrode are required. The solution to be titrated is contained
in a beaker and a titrant is added from the burette into a titration vessel. Till end point the amount of
titrant is added successively to the container containing the solution. The potential is noted after
each addition. After each addition a sufficient time should be allowed to reach constant potential
before the next increment. The value of potential or emf is measured by the pH meter or with an
automated recording device. Sudden change in potential in the plots of emf against volume of
titrating solution reveals the end point. A typical potentiometric curve is represented as below:

Advantages of Potentiometry
 It requires less quantity of substances and is an inexpensive method.
 Turbid, coloured solutions can be titrated.
 Mixture of solutions or very dilute solutions can be titrated.
 The results are more accurate and reproducible.
 Titrations can be carried out without indicators.

Disadvantages of Potentiometry
 Calibration should be done on a regular basis.
 Sensitive in ionic strength.
 Contamination during electrolyte preparation may cause deflection from actual results.

Applications of Potentiometry

 It is used in clinical chemistry for the analysis of metals.

 Potentiometry can be used to check the soil’s and water’s quality.

 It is used for the analysis of cyanide, ammonia etc., in water or wastewater.

 It is used in agriculture for the detection of different elements in soils, fertilizers etc.

 Paper manufacturing: Atmospheric emissions from the pulp and paper manufacturing industry
can be determined by the potentiometric measurements.
 Pharmaceutical industry: To determine the pH of given chemical agents and also in the
detection of end point in potentiometry titration of certain drugs like amoxicillin, propranolol.
 Determination of pH of blood for diagnosis of acidosis or alkalosis.
 Determination of NO3, NO2 in meat preservatives.
 To determine the NaCl content in meat, fish, dairy products and fruit juice.
 To determine the Ca content in dairy products, wines and brewing solutions.

CONDUCTOMETRY

DEFINITION: Conductometry is an electrochemical method of analysis used for the

measurement of the electrical conductance of an aqueous electrolyte solution by means of a
conductometer.
Electric conductivity of an electrolyte solution depends on
 Conductivity of Ions: Conductivity of a solution depends on the number of ions in it. When an
electric field is applied, ions move, creating a current.
 Mobility of Ions: The speed of ion movement, or mobility, matters. It relies on ion size, charge,
and solvent viscosity.
 Ionic Strength: Ionic strength is the total ion concentration. It directly affects conductivity. More
ions mean higher conductivity.
 Temperature: The conductivity of a solution is temperature dependent. It increases by increase
of temperature.

Principle
The electrical conductance is in accordance with the ohm′s law which states the strength of current
passing through a conductor (in this case electrolyte solution) is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied across the electrodes and inversely proportional to the resistance
offered by the conductor.
i.e., i=V/R
Where, i= current; V= potential difference; R= resistance (ohms Ω).
During a titration process, one ion is replaced with another and the difference in the ionic
conductivities of these ions directly impacts the overall electrolytic conductivity of the solution.
It can also be observed that the ionic conductance values vary between cations and anions. Finally,
the conductivity is also dependent upon the occurrence of a chemical reaction in the electrolytic
solution.

Instrumentation of Conductometry

It consists of conductivity cell having two platinum electrodes placed at 1 cm apart and each
having a unit area of cross section. The measurement of conductivity is done by using an
instrument called a conductometer. This instrument also measures the resistance of a solution to
the flow of electrical current. The conductivity of a solution is calculated by taking the inverse of
the resistance.
The instrumentation used in conductometry includes the following components:
 1. Conductivity Cell: The conductivity cell is a device that measures the conductivity of a
solution. It comprises two electrodes immersed in the solution. The distance between the
electrodes and the area of the electrodes are important factors that affect the accuracy of the
measurement.
2. Conductometer: It is an instrument that measures the conductivity of a solution. It applies a
voltage across the electrodes and measures the current that flows through the solution. The
conductometer also measures the temperature of the solution because the conductivity of a
solution is temperature dependent.

The end-point of the titration process can be determined by means of conductivity measurement.
For a neutralization reaction between an acid and a base, the addition of the base would lower the
conductivity of the solution initially. This is because the H+ ions would be replaced by the cationic
part of the base.
After the equivalence point is reached, the concentration of the ionic entities will increase. This, in
turn, increases the conductance of the solution. Therefore, two straight lines with opposite slopes
will be obtained when the conductance values are plotted graphically. The point where these two
lines intersect is the equivalence point (end point).
Advantages of conductometric titration

 This process is very useful in the titrations of very dilute solutions and weak acids.
 The end-point of this method of titration is very sharp and accurate when compared to a few other
titration processes.
 This type of titration is applicable for solutions that are coloured or turbid.
 Conductometric titration has numerous applications in acid-base titrations, redox titrations,
precipitation titrations, and complex titrations.
Disadvantages of conductometric titration

 Only a few specific redox titrations can be done with the help of this process. This is because the
conductivity of the solution is masked by relatively high hydronium ion concentration.
 The accuracy of conductometric titration is low when the concentrations of the electrolyte are
high, making the titration process unsatisfactory.
Application of conductometry
 Quality control in chemical and pharmaceutical manufacturing.
 Monitoring water quality and wastewater treatment.
 Analyzing acids, bases, and salts in research.
 Real-time tracking of chemical reactions.
 Measuring ion concentrations in food and drinks.
 Diagnosing medical conditions using body fluids.
 Studying biomolecule behavior, like proteins and DNA.
 Analyzing geological samples for composition.
 Determining solution acidity or alkalinity.

SENSORS
Introduction
 Sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing of a physical
phenomenon. This signal must be produced by some type of energy, such as heat, light, motion, or
chemical reaction.

 Once a sensor detects one or more of these signals (an input), it converts it into an analog or digital
representation of the input signal that is readable.
 Each sensor is based on a transduction principle - conversion of energy from one form to another.
A Typical example is mercury used in a glass thermometer that measures the temperature and
converts it into the expansion of a liquid.

A good sensor obeys the following rules

a. It is sensitive to the measured property.

b. It is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application, and

c. It does not influence the measured property.

How does a sensor work?

All sensors operate on the basic principle of taking an input and producing a related output. The
steps involved are:

Receptors: The receptor section senses the input phenomena such as temperature, light, or
motion.

Transduction: The input is converted into another form of energy via transduction. For e.g,
thermal energy is converted into electrical energy.

Signal Conditioning: The transduced signal is amplified and processed via filtering and digital
conversion circuits.

Output: The conditioned signal is converted into a human-readable output format like voltage,
current, frequency, digital code, etc.

Feedback: Some sensors also incorporate feedback loops to improve accuracy and compensate
for environmental changes.

In essence, a sensor detects an input phenomenon, transduces it, and generates an output signal
quantifying the input amount or change.

Sensing Principles

Sensors operate on different physical principles depending on the type of input and required
application. Some key sensing principles include:
 Mechanical
Sensors using deflection, stress, strain gauge, and changes in frequency or resistance of materials
detect mechanical quantities.

Thermal
Thermal sensors rely on temperature-dependent characteristics of materials to sense heat or cold.
Examples are thermistor and thermocouples.

Electrical

Electric and electrochemical sensors use electrical properties and interactions to detect electric
field, voltage, current, charge, and conductivity changes.

Magnetic

Sensors like magneto resistors, Hall Effect sensors, and compass utilize the magnetic field and
flux density near magnetic materials.

Radiant

Light, infrared, and radiation sensing are based on photoconductivity, photoemission, and
bolometric effects of materials on radiation exposure.

Chemical

Chemical sensors use electrochemical reactions, selective membrane properties, or catalytic

reactions for chemical detection. Ion-selective electrodes are a common example.

a. THERMAL SENSORS OR TEMPERATURE SENSORS

A temperature sensor is a device specifically designed to measure temperature, typically by

generating an electrical signal proportional to the temperature being measured.

Temperature sensor measures temperature changes using thermistor, RTDs, or thermocouples.

This is more commonly used in industrial processes, home appliances, and medical devices.

Types of Temperature Sensors

 There are several types of temperature sensors; each one has its own working principle and
applications:

1. Thermocouples: Thermocouples consist of two different metal wires joined at one end. When
there is a temperature difference between the junction and the other end, it generates a voltage
proportional to the temperature difference. Thermocouples are robust, versatile, and suitable for
high-temperature applications.
2. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs): RTDs are temperature sensors made of pure metals
or metal alloys whose resistance changes predictably with temperature. The most common RTD
material is platinum, known for its stable and linear resistance-temperature characteristics.
3. Thermistors: Thermistors are temperature-sensitive resistors made from semiconductor
materials. Their resistance decreases exponentially with increasing temperature (NTC
thermistors) or increases exponentially with increasing temperature (PTC thermistors).
Thermistors are highly sensitive and suitable for precise temperature measurement in a limited
temperature range.
4. IC Temperature Sensors: Integrated circuit (IC) temperature sensors utilize the temperature-
dependent voltage or current characteristics of semiconductor devices to measure temperature.
They are compact, low-cost, and suitable for applications where space is limited.

Applications of Temperature Sensors

 HVAC Systems: Temperature sensors are crucial components in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems for maintaining comfortable indoor temperatures.
 Industrial Processes: They are used in industrial processes such as manufacturing, chemical
processing, and food production to monitor and control temperature for quality control and
process optimization.
 Medical Devices: Temperature sensors are employed in medical devices such as thermometers,
incubators, and medical imaging equipment for patient monitoring and diagnosis.
 Automotive: In vehicles, temperature sensors are utilized for engine temperature monitoring,
climate control systems, and cabin comfort control.

b. OPTOELECTRONIC SENSORS

Optoelectronics is the communication between optics and electronics which includes the study,
design and manufacture of a hardware device that converts electrical energy into light and light
into energy through semiconductors. This device is made from solid crystalline materials which
are lighter than metals and heavier than insulators. Optoelectronics device is basically an
electronic device involving light. This device can be found in many optoelectronics applications
like military services, telecommunications, automatic access control systems and medical
equipments.

Types of Optoelectronics Devices

Optoelectronics are classified into different types such as

1. Photodiode
2. Solar Cells
3. Light Emitting Diodes
4. Optical Fiber
5. Laser Diodes

Applications of Optoelectronics Devices

1. LEDs could become the next generation of lighting and used anywhere like in indication lights,
computer components, medical devices, watches, instrument panels, switches, fiber-optic
 communication, consumer electronics, household appliances, traffic signals, automobile brake
lights, 7 segment displays and inactive displays.
2. The solar cells are applicable in rural electrification, telecommunication systems, ocean
navigation aids, and electric power generation in space and remote monitoring and control
systems.
3. Photodiodes are used in many types of circuits and different applications such as cameras,
medical instruments, safety equipments, industries, communication devices and industrial
equipments.
4. Optical fibers are used in telecommunications, sensors, fiber lasers, bio-medicals and in many
other industries.
5. The laser diodes are used in fiber optic communication, optical memories, military applications,
CD players, surgical procedures, Local Area Networks etc.

c. Piezoelectric Sensor
Piezoelectric sensors are electronic components that are able to convert a mechanical or thermal
input into an electrical signal. They use the piezoelectric effect to measure the electrical potential
caused by applying mechanical force to a piezoelectric material. They are based on the principle of
electromechanical energy conversion and primarily measure force, as well as other quantities such
as pressure, acceleration, temperature, and strain by converting the acquired data to an electrical
charge.

Piezoelectric sensors can be found in both analog and digital forms. Analog sensors produce a
continuous signal that varies with the force applied, while digital sensors convert this signal into
readable data for easy analysis.

The piezoelectric sensor can be classified into four types: piezoelectric force sensor, piezoelectric
pressure sensor, piezoelectric acceleration sensor, and polymer pressure sensor.

Piezoelectric sensors finds many applications, from musical instruments like electric guitars to
industrial machines, medical devices, and everyday items like microwave ovens, where they help
detect touch or vibration.

Applications of Piezoelectric Sensors

 Used to reduce vibration and noise

 Used for structural damage monitoring
 Used for vehicle weighing
 Used for aviation and navigation
 Piezoelectric alarm
 Piezoelectric speakers
 Electronic toothbrushes
 Ultrasound imaging
 Piezoelectric humidifiers
 Inkjet printers
 Micro robotics, Piezoelectric igniters etc.
d. ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSORS

An electrochemical sensors can be defined as a device capable of measuring the concentration of a

given molecule or compound that is present in the environment.

Electrochemical sensors work by reacting with the gas of interest and producing an electrical
signal proportional to the gas concentration. Consisting of two electrodes (a working electrode and
a counter electrode), the sensor operates by allowing charged molecules to pass through a thin
layer of electrolyte. The electrode will either oxidize or reduce the analyte of interest. The current
that is produced from the reaction is monitored and used to calculate important data such as
concentrations from the sample.

They are divided into several types

1. Potentiometric (measure voltage)

2. Amperometric (measure current)
3. Conductometric (measure conductivity)

Applications of Electrochemical Sensors

 Environmental monitoring of air quality

 Detection of explosive gases and toxic vapours
 Oxygen monitoring in the medical sector
 Food quality control

e. BIOSENSORS

Definition: A Biosensor is an analytical device which uses enzymes, antibody, tissues that
converts biological response into electrical, thermal or optical signals.

Biosensor consists of two components: Sensing element and transducers. Sensing element may be
either enzymes, antibodies, DNA, tissues or whole cells which then transduces the biochemical
reaction into electrical signals.

Types of Biosensors
The different types of biosensors are classified based on the sensor device as well as the biological
material

1. Electrochemical Biosensor

2. Thermal/Calorimetric Biosensor

3. Magnetic Biosensor

4. Optical Biosensor

5. Piezo-electric Biosensor

6. Resonance Biosensor

Applications of Biosensors

 Glucose monitoring in diabetes patients ←historical market driver

 Environmental applications e.g. the detection of pesticides and river water contaminants such as
heavy metal ions.
 Remote sensing of airborne bacteria e.g. in counter-bioterrorist activities Detection of pathogens.
 Determining levels of toxic substances before and after bioremediation.
 Detection and determining of organophosphate.
 Routine analytical measurement of folic acid, biotin, vitamin B12 and pantothenic acid as an
alternative to microbiological assay.
 Determination of drug residues in food, such as antibiotics and growth promoters, particularly
meat and honey.
 Drug discovery and evaluation of biological activity of new compounds. Protein engineering in
biosensors.
 Detection of toxic metabolites such as mycotoxins.

f. GAS SENSORS
Gas sensors are electronic devices that detect and identify different types of gasses. They are
commonly used to detect toxic or explosive gasses and measure gas concentration. Gas sensors are
employed in factories and manufacturing facilities to identify gas leaks, and to detect smoke and
carbon monoxide in homes.

Gas sensors also require a sample and receptor to acquire and analyze measurements; in
semiconductor gas sensors, gas interacts with the metal oxide surface and the subsequent analysis
is made on the basis of whether that gas is reduced or oxidized.

Figure: Electrochemical Gas Sensor for monitoring air pollution.

CO gas electrochemical sensors monitoring the oxidation or reduction of a gas on an electrode

surface. It works as an amperometry cell with two electrodes, the working electrode and the
counter electrode which are placed in between a layer of electrolyte (H+).

Types of Gas Sensors

1. Semiconductor/Metal Oxide-based Gas Sensors

2. Electrochemical Gas Sensors
3. Infrared Gas Sensors
4. Catalytic Gas Sensors
5. Photoionisation Detectors
6. Thermal Conductivity Gas Sensors
7. Capacitance-based Gas Sensors
8. Acoustic-based Gas Sensors
9. Calorimetric Gas Sensors
10. Magnetic Gas Sensors

Applications of Gas Sensors

 Used in industries to monitor the concentration of toxic gases.
 Used in households to detect emergency incidents.
 Used at oil rig locations to monitor the concentration of the gases that is released.
 Used at hotels to prevent customers from smoking.
 Used in air quality checks at offices.
 Used in air conditioners to monitor the CO2 levels.
 Used in detecting fire.
 Used to check the concentration of gases in mines.
 Breathe analyser.