Technical Writing Process

Just like any other business activity, technical writing can be boiled down to a process – a set of
high-level steps. These five steps are Plan, Structure, Write, Review and Publish. These high-
level steps are the common elements in virtually every technical writing project – really in any
business writing project – big or small.

Of course, I’m not saying that all technical writing jobs are the same… as any practicing writer
will tell you, they certainly aren’t! However, in my experience every writer goes through these
five high-level steps – even if we’re not conscious of it. Sometimes when we’re just muddling
through on a job – or an experienced writer operating on autopilot – we still go through these
steps.
It helps to keep the five steps in mind when you’re writing technical documents, so you can
mentally ‘tick off’ your progress as you go – and understand what’s yet to be done. I’ve provided
a breakdown of each of these five steps below – this is a good place to start if you’re interested in
understanding more about the Technical Writing Process, or just want a ‘quick and dirty’
definition.
In my book, Technical Writing Process, I describe this process in full (together with the more
detailed version of the technical writing process, which you’ll find here) together with a
smorgasbord of other content (templates, tips, insights, etc.) to help you successfully manage
your own technical writing projects.
STEP 1 – PLAN
‘If you fail to plan, you plan to fail.’
All projects need to be planned – at least at some level. Whilst you don’t have to go create a
detailed Gantt chart for every technical writing project, it certainly helps if you answer some of
the following questions before you put pen to paper. The results of this planning may be as
simple as some bullet points jotted down in your notepad – or you may find that simply going
through this as a mental exercise is sufficient.
When you’re planning to write technical documents, you should ask yourself:
Scope – How many documents do I need to write? What are their key characteristics? Am I
going to publish them in multiple formats – if so, are there any production requirements I should
be aware of?
Timing – How long do I need to schedule for review cycles? What’s the final deadline?
Process – What are the high level steps that I need to follow to create the documents?
Along with these basic questions (which apply to almost any project – not just technical writing)
there are some specific writing-related questions that you’ll need to consider in your
documentation project:

Audience – who am I writing for? Do they have a sophisticated command of language? What are
their education levels?
Reviewers / Subject Matter Experts – these are the people who’ll lend their technical expertise in
the creation of the documents and review them for accuracy
Existing information

Style guide / templates

Etc.
If you’re just writing one or two documents, you won’t need to spend much time on detailed
planning. However if you’re creating dozens, hundreds, or (heaven forbid), thousands of
documents, then putting some thought into these questions up-front will save many a wasted
hour later on.
In my book, Technical Writing Process, I’ve provided detailed explanations for activities
described above. I’ve also provided ready-to-use templates to support the steps:
➢ Documentation Plan
➢ Documentation Timeline / Schedule
➢ Deliverables Matrix / Worksheet
➢ Status Tracker
These templates are essential for more complex projects. Even simple projects can benefit from a
simple Status Tracker (in fact, that’s the one essential tool I use on every single project).
STEP 2 – STRUCTURE
A structure is the backbone of your document – the hierarchy of headings that define the logical
order that it will progress. Structure is absolutely essential to successful documents, and it’s
something that you should develop before you start writing. A well-structured document is one
that has had thought go into it beforehand, which means you’re less likely to need to rehash it
later on.
It’s important to understand that structure isn’t a straightjacket – it’ll evolve and change as you
write and review the document. After you publish, you may end up with a very different-looking
document to the one you envisaged – that’s perfectly normal and there’s nothing at all wrong
with it!
There are a number of common structural approaches when it comes to technical documents:
Narrative structure – The traditional approach – intro, body, conclusion

Process-based structure – Common in technical documentation such as procedures and user

guides
Library structure – A collection of articles on a common topic, loosely structured
System-based structure – Describing the components of a system such as an auto manual
Whatever approach you choose, you’ll need to work with your subject matter experts to
understand how the structure you’ve developed will accomplish the purpose you’ve set out to do
– whether it’s explaining how a product works, how to carry out a procedure, presenting
information in a tender or sales document, and so on.
In my book, each of these approaches is explained in detail, and I’ve devoted particular attention
to the process-based approach as it’s the norm – and best practice – in so many technical
documents.
STEP 3 – WRITE
Writing is where you convert your bare-bones table of contents and notes into a series of drafts,
culminating in a draft that’s ready for formal review. Contrary to popular impression, writing is
only about 20-30% of the process in a well-planned document – much of the effort goes into
planning, structuring, and reviewing your work. In fact, the more time you spend planning and
structuring your work, the less time you’re likely to spend on writing.
There are a few time-honoured (as well as some new) techniques that technical writers draw on:
➢ KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid!)
➢ Plain English
➢ Five Ws (and One H)
➢ Inverted pyramid
➢ Verb-noun structure
➢ Active voice
These techniques will help you write better documentation – documentation that your audience
finds useful, engaging and a pleasure to read. Of course, in order to apply these techniques you
need to have a decent grasp of the English language.
(Sidenote: Teaching you to write isn’t what a technical writing process – or my book, Technical
Writing Process – is about. There are plenty of resources available if you want to improve your
writing. The technical writing process is about is how to apply your writing and project
management skills to the task of producing high quality documents in a way that hits the mark,
resonates with your audience and achieves your deadlines.)
Writing well is one thing – but if you want to produce good documents, you’ll need to engage
your subject matter experts. If you’re a professional writer like me, you usually rely on a subject
matter expert – someone who’s an expert in a particular field – to lend their technical expertise to
whatever it is you’re writing about.

At this stage, engaging your subject matter experts means a lot of informal one-on-one
discussions – or even workshop-style if you have a large group of them. At this stage, you should
be asking your experts to contribute raw material, review and / or test what you’ve written and so
on. Remember – at this stage, it’s all fairly loose and informal – the formality comes in the next
step, Review.
The final part of writing is formatting and laying out your draft before you launch into the formal
review process.
In my book, I discuss the Write step in detail, including the techniques described above. I also
include a number of other important aspects such graphic design tips for writers and how to
establish and build good working relationships with your subject matter experts.
STEP 4 – REVIEW

I like to think of review as the polishing stage. It’s where your document gets the trial by fire, so
to speak, of having others formally review it, as well as undergoing another very important task –
editing and proofing.
(Sidenote: Editing and proofing Collaborative writing involves two or more persons working
together to produce a written document. Also called group writing, it is a significant component
of work in the business world, and many forms of business writing and technical writing depend
on the efforts of collaborative writing teams.

Professional interest in collaborative writing, now an important subfield of composition studies,

was spurred by the publication in 1990 of Singular Texts/Plural Authors: Perspectives on
Collaborative Writing by Lisa Ede and Andrea Lunsford.
is in itself the topic of numerous books. In my book Technical Writing Process, I’ve provided a
practical, no-nonsense editing model – The Seven Levels of Editing – that’s suitable for
technical or business documents.)
If you haven’t already done so, you’ll now need to define who’s responsible for reviewing what
(also called a Review Matrix), or validating it if you’ve been proactive and defined it during the
planning step – which you should aim to do.
In the Review step, there are a number of discrete activities going on (depending on the type of
document being written):
➢ Review by subject matter experts
➢ Testing a procedure / instruction to make sure you / a subject matter expert can follow the
steps
➢ Peer review by a colleague
➢ Editing and proofing
The point of all these activities is to apply the appropriate level of quality control to ensure your
document is accurate, useful, usable, and so on – in other words, good enough to publish. It’s not
uncommon for documents to spend most of their time in the review step – and by the end, they
can be completely unrecognisable compared to how they started.
Review also involves an element of writing – documents will be reviewed, then revised. High-
profile documents – the ones where it really pays to put the effort in to making sure they’re
perfect – will be reviewed and revised many times before they’re ready to publish.

The final – and most crucial – aspect of review is sign off. This is the point where both you – as
the writer – and your reviewers are satisfied that your document is in a fit state to be published to
the world at large – whether that’s your team, company intranet, or the entire world!
Review was my favourite chapter to write in my book Technical Writing Process, because this is
where so much of the ‘goodness’ gets added to documents. In my book, the Review chapter
features the following:
Levels of Editing diagram – Defining the different levels of review such as proofreading, copy
editing, structural editing, and so on
Editing Checklist – A checklist that guides you through the different levels of editing
Editing Sheet – A document that professional editors use when editing a large and complex
document
Review Log – To track the feedback received and actions taken to close each item out
A sample Message to Review Team
I’ve also covered topics such as peer review and testing, as well as explaining in detail how to
conduct – and get the most out of – the review process, including final sign off.
STEP 5 – PUBLISH
Publishing can be a complicated process – or it can be extremely easy. Publication is where
writers manufacture and launch the final product. This might be as straightforward as emailing
an approved document to your manager, or uploading it to a content management system or
intranet. On the other hand, it might involve some fairly complicated logistics.
I’ve been involved in projects where production involved graphic design, translation into 40+
languages, production of multiple regional variations of the documentation, preparing

‘docupacks’ for shipping to multiple regions worldwide… this sort of thing is a real logistical
feat, and it’s something you should consider early on in the process – preferably whilst you’re
still planning a document. Steps such as graphic design, translation and print production can
involve substantial time, effort and cost.

In my book, I discuss publication, covering many common tasks such as performing final
checks, communicating with stakeholders, and establishing a version control system that’s
suitable for the majority of technical documents. It also includes discussion of more advanced
scenarios such as print production and translation.
 Forms of Discourse
Discourse refers to the use of language beyond single sentences. Discourse is an important study
for the English language because it allows individuals to express their ideas and thoughts
effectively, understand and interpret the perspectives and opinions of others, and build
relationships through effective communication. Discourse analysis is also critical for language
teachers and researchers to better understand language use and development.

Most of what we know of discourse today is thanks to the French philosopher, writer and literary
critic Michel Foucault, who developed and popularised the concept of discourse. You can read
about his use of the term in The Archeology of Knowledge and Discourse on Language (1969).
forms of discourse
Discourse may be classified into descriptive, narrative, expository, and argumentative.

1. Descriptive Discourse
A descriptive discourse often takes two forms; it can be in static form, or the form called process
description.
The static description draws a verbal picture using words that appeal to the senses, while the
process description tends to explain the various degrees or levels of advancement involved in
carrying out a task.
Example: 'Beautiful, functional, versatile and sustainable.
At 17 oz / 500ml it's the only bottle you'll ever need, using double-wall stainless steel which will
keep your drinks cold for 24 hours or piping hot for 12. It's tough, light and dishwasher safe.'
2. Narrative Discourse
A narrative discourse is that which in its description, portrays causally related incidents; here the
occurred incidents are often arranged one after another in an order of chronology.
Example: 'Two households, both alike in dignity,
In fair Verona, where we lay our scene,
From ancient grudge break to new mutiny,
Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean.

From forth the fatal loins of these two foes

A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life;
Whose misadventured piteous overthrows
Do with their death bury their parents' strife.'¹
3. Expository Discourse
An expository discourse consists in giving definitive explanation and clarification by means of
examples and illustrations, details, comparison and contrastOpens in new window, definition,
and other rhetorical devices of like nature.
Example: Michael Jackson is one of the most famous artists in the world. His 1982 album
'Thriller' is actually the best-selling album of all time - it has sold more than 120 million copies
worldwide.

4. Argumentative Discourse
The argumentative discourse is used with the sole purpose of persuading the audience (hearers or
readers) to either accept or reject opinions. As a primary prerequisite, argumentative discourse
only takes effect where there is a contentious or controversial topic.
Example: 'I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its
creed: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal. (...). This will be
the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning: My country, 'tis of
thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. Land where my fathers died, land of the pilgrims' pride,
from every mountainside, let freedom ring. And if America is to be a great nation, this must
become true.

Types of discourse Purpose for the type of discourse

Description Helps the audience visualize the item or subject by relying on the five senses.

Aims to tell a story through a narrator, who usually gives an account of an

Narration
event.

Exposition Conveys background information to the audience in a relatively neutral way.

Writing Drafts and Revising

Out of all of the cycles within the writing process, the Drafting and Revising Cycle is the most
important and time consuming. In this cycle, a document is both created and polished, until
something usable a final product is obtained.
Drafting
Drafting is the part of the writing process when the words are put onto the page. Following
the pre-write, drafting is the process of turning the outline into a fully fledged
document.Therefore, it is imperative not to get slowed down by inadvertently revising while
writing a first draft.
he process of drafting a piece of writing begins with an analysis of the prewriting. The author
must use his prewriting notes to determine a focus for the piece. This may involve narrowing the
focus of the topic and perhaps identifying a purpose for the piece.
For example, an author may decide to write an essay about dogs. He could have developed his
prewriting notes with information about three topics relating to dogs: Show dogs, working dogs,
and dog racing. These are all topics that could stand alone in an essay. During drafting, the
author should choose just one of these topics for his piece of writing.

Once he has chosen a topic, he should identify a purpose for the essay. For instance, if the
writing was meant to be informational, he might choose to write about working dogs, his purpose
being to impart information. On the other hand, if he chose to write a persuasive essay, perhaps
he would choose to write about dog racing, arguing for or against this controversial topic. After
determining a purpose for a piece of writing, it is easy to begin drafting. Any information that is
unrelated to the topic and its purpose should be eliminated from the prewriting.
The author begins writing by composing an introduction to the piece. The purpose of the
introduction is not only to state the topic of the piece, but it should also draw the reader in to the
piece of writing. For young children, the introduction may be one sentence stating the
topic. More sophisticated writers will create an introductory paragraph that identifies the topic,
sets the purpose for the writing, and suggests how the topic will be developed throughout the
piece. The introduction to a piece of writing should be interesting. The tone of the introduction
will vary according to the topic. If an author is writing a personal narrative, he might decide to
begin with a creative quote about his experience. When writing an informational essay, the tone
of the introduction must follow suit. It should be focused and informative.
A solid, interesting introduction sets the stage for the rest of the rough draft. An author should
begin drafting the piece by organizing his notes in a sequence that will make sense to the
reader. The focus should be on logical connections between topics. A young writer will
compose the body of a piece of writing by including detail sentences related to the topic
sentence. An older author should organize his writing in to paragraphs. Each paragraph should
include its own topic sentence. Smooth transitions between paragraphs are important in creating
a cohesive piece of writing, no matter the subject. A writer should refer back to his prewriting to
keep him on track and ensure that the piece of writing maintains its focus.
A writer should complete a rough draft by composing a conclusion. The purpose of a conclusion
is to wrap up the piece of writing by connecting all of the related thoughts and ideas. The best
conclusions are creative, engaging, and leave few questions unanswered in the mind of the
reader. Younger students can conclude a piece of writing with a simple sentence. Advanced
writers should include a conclusion paragraph.
Tips For Writing First Drafts
When writing a first draft, it is recommended to:
Start with the easiest parts first, typically the topics you feel most familiar with and are most
comfortable writing about.
➢ Write as fast as possible.
➢ Don't stop. Just keep on writing!.

Revising

Revising is the process of looking at a previously written draft and checking its efficacy. After a
draft has been revised, a good writer will go back to their draft to add new sections or take
away/improve old ones until satisfied. When revising there are three main points to pay attention
to in order to ensure effectiveness. These three points are audience, purpose and subject.
Audience

Understanding the audience is key to writing a good document. Sometimes while writing, it is
easy to forget who one is writing to. That is why, when revising, it is important for the writer
mimic the mindset of his audience. A good question to keep in mind is "how does this document
make my audience feel"? This exercise will also help a writer understand their audience better,
which should be reflected in the next draft.
Purpose

At the same time, it is important to consider whether or not the document is achieving its
intended purpose. It is important for the purpose of the document to be clear both to the writer
and to the person reading it. In severe cases, muddled wording can end up proving exactly the
opposite of what was intended! However, if a document is clear and concise, but ends up proving
a point that you are arguing against, it is likely time to for the writer to reconsider her purpose. In
fact, through revising, it is common for a writers understanding of their purpose to change, which
should be reflected in the next draft.
Subject
When revising, a good writer will be able to identify for whether her writing matches her scope.
For example, she should be able to see where the document has too much information and where
there is not enough detail. Things that may seem obvious to the writer will not necessarily be so
obvious to the writer's audience. At the same time, people do not like being bogged down by
details, so it is important to have a sense of how much is enough. During revision, it is important
to keep in mind how large you want the scope of the document to be. If the writer's aim is
different from what is on the page, the discrepancy should be reflected in the next draft.
Seeking Help from Others

Revision can be done either by the writer or by someone else. Often it is advantageous to have a
subject-matter expert (SME) review the paper. While researching for a draft, a writer could also
interview one or a group of SMEs. Additionally, when writing for another culture, it is
imperative to have a representative from that culture review the document. Otherwise, the
document may be interpreted in unexpected ways.

Editing
Editing is the process of ensuring that the document flows well mechanically and is free other
unintentional errors (typos). Because the Drafting and Revising Cycle entails so much
production of new material, it is wise to wait to edit until the writer is satisfactorily finished with
the revision process. That being said, it is important to edit any document that you plan on
having another person read, even during the revision cycle; it is rude to submit a document with
many errors.

Collaborative Writing

Collaborative writing involves two or more persons working together to produce a written
document. Also called group writing, it is a significant component of work in the business world,
and many forms of business writing and technical writing depend on the efforts of collaborative
writing teams.
Professional interest in collaborative writing, now an important subfield of composition studies,
was spurred by the publication in 1990 of Singular Texts/Plural Authors: Perspectives on
Collaborative Writing by Lisa Ede and Andrea Lunsford.
Observation
"Collaboration not only draws on the expertise and energy of different people but can also create
an outcome that is greater than the sum of its parts." -Rise B. Axelrod and Charles R. Cooper
Guidelines for Successful Collaborative Writing
Following are the guidelines below will increase your chances of success when you write in a
group.
1) Know the individuals in your group. Establish rapport with your team.
2) Do not regard one person on the team as more important than another.
3) Set up a preliminary meeting to establish guidelines.
4) Agree on the group's organization.
5) Identify each member's responsibilities, but allow for individual talents and skills.
 6) Establish the time, places, and length of group meetings.
7) Follow an agreed-on timetable, but leave room for flexibility.
8) Provide clear and precise feedback to members.
9) Be an active listener.
10) Use a standard reference guide for matters of style, documentation, and format.
11) Quality assurance
12) Continuous improvement
13) Innovation
14) Division of labor
15) Many proofreaders

Disadvantages of Collaborative Writing:

1. Work area conflict:
There would definitely be working style conflict of individuals when different people are
grouped together for collaborative writing. This is a disadvantage, as progress is being held up
for completing the task.
2. Many faux leaders:
There would be many people who try to be the leader of the group in collaborative writing. Such
kind of ill will can disturb other areas of the work environment and cause tension amongst other
writers.
3. Variation in writing style:
There may be an unwanted difference in writing style in a collaborative writing project if not
properly edited. The writers in the team would have a varied writing style.
Some would be pragmatists who get it done and others may be a perfectionist who procrastinates
work.
4. Work delay:
When parallel collaboration is considered, anyone writer delaying the work may hold the
complete project.
In the same manner, when a sequential collaboration is considered, the work is influenced by one
previous writer. There will be a tough time if the writer does not get the work done on time as it
makes the subsequent writer to initiate the work later.
At times when writer number 1 and 2 delay their work than the expected time, then there would
be a delay in work. Since they are the initial writers their delay would provide very less time for
others to complete their work.

5. More chances to get rejected:

When guidelines and styles are not followed by any one of the writers, the complete project
would not be accepted for its quality and the complete project would get rejected.
6. Acknowledging writers is tough:

When a collaborative work set up is considered providing acknowledgment to the appropriate

writers is mandatory.
Individuals and contributors who contributed to the project must be appreciated in a team. But in
a collaborative writing team, acknowledging and identifying the contributors can be a complex
process.

Collaborative Writing - Lowry's Theory

According to Paul Benjamin Lowry, a common vocabulary must be conceptualized that different
people working in a team or teams, can use to communicate in Collaborative Writing.
He says that in the absence of this common vocabulary, teams put into collaborative
processes and left to them to get the work done will make a heavy waste of resources like time,
efforts and money. Keeping these factors in mind, he propounded five collaborative writing
strategies, which are −
➢ Single Author Writing
➢ Sequential Single Writing
➢ Parallel Writing
➢ Reactive Writing
➢ Mixed Mode Writing

Creating indexes
Indexing is a system used to represent information from a document so that those conducting
searches can retrieve the information easily. “An index can be viewed as an alphabetized list of
items that direct the searcher to further information.”
Indexing can be seen as a funnel. The funnel takes the information from the documents and
comprises it into neat alphabetized lists that facilitate a searcher in retrieving the information.

Types of Indexing:

Intellectual part of indexing refers to the creation of controlled vocabulary, keywords or natural
language used to create a retrieval system.
Mechanical Computers perform the mechanical activities, which are to alphabetize and format
index entries.

What is Automatic Indexing? Automatic indexing occurs when computers do both the
mechanical and intellectual parts of indexing.
What is Automated Indexing? Automated indexing is when computers are used for the
mechanical operations and humans deal with the intellectual portion.

Meaning of Indexing in Technical writing or sense

Indexing is the process of organizing data according to a specific plan or framework. The
indexing of data can have a variety of different uses in finance and economics, and it typically
involves using a common point of reference or benchmark for the purposes of comparison.
An index establishes parameters for the data, as well as a time frame for the comparison. Over
time, it allows businesspeople and economists to observe a variety of different trends and better
understand the relevance of the data. Indexes can also calculate the relative value of an economic
concept, such as a nation's currency.
Some indexes allow for the comparison of data, even if the magnitude of that data varies greatly.
For example, if you want to compare data between a city with eight million people and a city
with one million people, an index can help you account for the differences in scale between the
two cities. By creating an index, you can determine which city is experiencing the most growth
over time. You might format the index in the following way:

Year Big city’s data Small city’s data Indexed big city Indexed small city

2005 10,000 1,000 100 100

2010 12,500 1,300 125 130

2015 14,000 2,500 140 250

2020 14,500 3,000 145 300

 Key Differences between Table of Contents and Index
➢ Upcoming points will discuss the differences between table of contents and index:
➢ A table of contents is nothing but a systematic itemization of the chapters and sections,
often accompanied by a page number, in which they exist. Conversely, an index can be
understood as the alphabetically arranged list of keywords (names, places or topics) with
their associated page numbers.
➢ Table of Contents includes the title of the first level topics, listing the contents of the
document on the basis of their title. Further, the arrangement in the table of contents is in
chronological order, whereas in the case of an index, there is an alphabetical arrangement
of the words, in the list, so as to ease navigation.
➢ In Table of Contents, the chapters and section titles are arranged as per their page
number. Conversely, in an index, the topics covered or keywords are given along with
their page number.
➢ While the table of contents is found at the beginning of the book, an index is usually
placed at the end of the book or document.
➢ The aim of the table of contents is to show the titles included in the document or paper at
a quick glance. In contrast, the index is included in the document/book to help the reader
find the topics within the main matter.
➢ One significant difference between the two list pages is that while in a table of contents,
you can find a reference to the additional pages along with the main content, such as
foreword, preface, bibliography, annexure, appendix, so on and so forth. However, in an
index, you will never find a reference to
such additional pages, as it covers
keywords present in the main content.
Conclusion
So far we have understood how
resourceful the two pages are. In the absence
of these two, it would be really hard for the
readers to go through each page so as to find a
specific topic.
With Table of Contents, it is way easier to
navigate, as it clearly shows up the page
number on which subject matter is explained or
discussed. In the same way, an index
acts as a map to locate a particular
topic in a book

Technical writing style and

language
As you draft and edit, it is helpful to keep in
mind the effective ways to present
sentences and paragraphs.
When you revise your drafts, check the
language and remove any area of possible
confusion. If you have repeated any
word, see whether you can change the
sentence. The following passages
will help you to be aware of any difficult
construction of sentences, so that you
can modify the same and ensure reader’s
comfort.
➢ Write Clear Sentences
➢ Follow these guidelines for writing
sentences which will be clear to
the readers.
➢ Keep the main idea on top.
➢ Use active voice.
➢ Employ parallelism.
➢ Repeat for emphasis.
➢ Write sentences of 15 to 25 words.
➢ Provide transitions.
➢ Avoid wordiness.
➢ Avoid redundancy.
➢ Keep the Main Idea on Top
This is the key principle in writing so that your sentences are easy to understand. Place the
sentence’s main idea, the subject, first. The subject makes the rest of the sentence accessible.
Readers therefore orient themselves and they are able to interact with the subsequent discussion.
See this example from a popular newspaper.
“Doubts persist over World Cup 2007.” (Note how the interest of the reader is immediately
captured.)
(Now the details follow.)”Clouds are gathering over the West Indies, and they are more than
rain-bearing masses of cumulous. With eight months and a few days to go for the 2007 World
Cup, doubts are increasingly being aired about the ability of the region to host a venture of such
and complexity.” Thus readers are informed about the crux of the problem so that they are
interested to read on.
 ➢ Use Normal Word Order
The normal word order in English is subject-verb-object. This order makes it easier to read as it
reveals the topic first and the structures the idea. This order produces sentences which are clear
to the readers and do not cause any confusion.
Read the following sentence. “Finance Minister on Tuesday backed the Central Bank’s decision
to increase interest rates, stating that the move was aimed at containing inflation.” The sentence
is clear, though a little long (23 words) and follows natural flow.
➢ Use Active Voice

Active voice emphasizes performer of the function and not the receiver. Active voice helps the
reader follow the meaning quickly as it is sticking to subject-verb-object pattern. When the
subject acts, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject is acted upon, the verb is in the
passive voice. Use passive voice sparingly and when it is absolutely required.
Examples:
I completed the work in time (active voice as the subject acts here.)
My mobile was stolen (passive voice as the subject is acted upon.)
➢ Go through the following example.
Manufacturers add preservatives to food products to increase their shelf-life (emphasis is on
manufacturers, which is not correct.)
Preservatives are added to food products to increase their shelf-life (emphasis is on preservatives,
which is correct. In such cases, passive voice should be used.)
➢ Use Parallelism
➢ Use similar structures for similar elements.
➢ The vendors promise that they will replace the old machine and to attend to the new order
(wrong).
➢ The vendors promise that they will replace the old machine and will attend to the new
order.(correct)
➢ Repeat for Emphasis
Repeat key words for emphasis so that the reader has better recall. Read the following example.
The doctrine of “No work, no pay” is a fundamental axioms in industrial relations. The
philosophy is very simple. When a person is employed, he is expected to carry out the work
assigned to him. When he does not do so, he is not eligible for payment of any salary. Even when
a general strike disrupts public transport systems, and consequently employees are unable to
reach their work places, the same principle prevails. Of course corporate may permit their staff to
avail themselves of any leave to their credit. Even die-hard trade union leaders respect this
principle. “No work, no pay” lays a strong foundation to industrial peace and harmony in the
long run.
➢ Provide Transitions
➢ Connect sentences by using words that signal a sequence or pattern.
➢ Sequence: first, second, next.
 ➢ Addition: and, further.
➢ Contrast: but, however, nevertheless.
➢ Avoid Wordiness

Generally, concise expressions are more effective than verbosity. Eliminate all repetitions,
subordinate clauses etc. to make the writing compact and pointed.

Examples of Wordiness Came to the conclusion

Examples of compactness Concluded Use
Utilization of Make Revisions Make an
Revise Amend
amendment to

➢ Avoid Redundancy
Redundancies are words that say the same content. Conciseness is achieved by saying anything
only once. In the following examples, what is bracketed may be omitted for conciseness.
During (the year) of 2006
(Needless to say)
(New) innovation
The (other) alternative is
Choose a Tone
Now you can prepare clear, effective documents. Your documents are easy to read. However, we
are assuming that the writer and reader are equal and unemotional. In practice, it may not be so.
Hence it is important to control ‘tone’. The ‘tone’ can communicate as much as the content of the
message. Consider some possible ‘tones’ depending on the situation.
➢ forceful
➢ passive
➢ personal
➢ impersonal

The forceful tone implies that the writer is in command. This is appropriate when the writer
addresses subordinates. While writing forcefully,
➢ Use the active voice.
➢ Use imperatives.
➢ Clearly indicate that you are responsible.

For example:
I have decided to introduce Performance Appraisal System forthwith in our organization.
When the reader has more power than the writer, use passive voice.
For example:
The instructions to implement the new Evaluation System has been complied with

The personal tone implies that reader and writer are equal.
For example:
David thanks for your suggestion about maintenance routine. It has given good results.
The impersonal tone is employed when the writer is not important and the situation is neutral.
For example:
A proposal to introduce quality circle has been made.

Use Positive Words and Verbs

A sure way to involve your audience is to sprinkle positive words and positive verbs throughout
your text. Positive words and verbs convince the reader the benefits of your subject matter.
Positive Words
Advantage effective satisfied value favorable success
Benefit asset profitable

Positive Verbs
Positive verbs motivate your readers. Some of the verbs that motivate your readers into action
are here.

Accomplish plan achieve produce implement

Prepare organize assess promote exceed
Tune to the Audience
➢ Tuning to the audience is the key for effectiveness of your document with the reader.
Remember the following points.
➢ Not all your readers will understand acronyms and abbreviations.
➢ Readers need glossaries.
➢ Provide extended definitions for technical terms.
➢ As multiple audiences have different levels of technical knowledge, choose carefully the
amount of technical content in your document.
➢ Show your reader how he or she will benefit from your document.
➢ Basics of grammar
➢ Types of Nouns
➢ Nouns can be broadly classified into:

Parts of Speech
Proper Nouns: Nouns that are used to name a person, place or thing specifically are called a
proper noun. Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter.
Examples: My name is Rose. (Name of a particular person)
Common nouns: Common nouns are those nouns that refer to a generic item, group or place.
This means that, unlike proper nouns, they are not used to identify specific people, places or
objects. Common nouns are not capitalised unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence.
Examples: I bought a pen yesterday. (Common object)
Countable nouns are those nouns that can be counted or measured.
Examples: Tom brought ten packets of lays for the trip. (specific number – ten)
Uncountable nouns are those nouns that cannot be counted. This category of nouns includes
both concrete and abstract nouns.
Examples: I have a lot of homework to do. (Not specific)
Collective Nouns: A collective noun is a naming word that is used to denote a group of objects,
animals or people.
Examples: Collective nouns for groups of animals

➢ A pride of lions
➢ A flock of sheep
➢ A swarm of bees
➢ A herd of elephants
Concrete Nouns: A concrete noun refers to objects that are material and can be perceived by the
human senses.
Examples: The book is on the table.
Abstract Nouns: Any entity that cannot be perceived by the five senses of the human body are
called an abstract noun.
Examples: Love is a strong emotion.

Forms of Adjectives – Degrees of Comparison

Did you know that adjectives can be used to compare similar qualities of different subjects that
perform the same action. There are three forms of adjectives or rather three degrees of
comparison. The are:
Positive or Absolute Form
Comparative Form

Superlative Form
Possessive Adjectives:
These adjectives, like possessive pronouns, are used to show or represent possession of a quality.
For example: my, your, his, her, their, its, whose, etc.
Interrogative Adjectives:

An adjective that is used to modify a noun or a pronoun by asking a question is called an

interrogative adjective. There are only a few adjectives that can be termed as interrogative
adjectives. They are whose, what and which.
Demonstrative Adjectives:
Demonstrative adjectives are mainly used to describe the position of a subject (a noun or
pronoun) in space or time. This, that, these and those are the demonstrative adjectives in English.

Compound Adjectives:
Compound adjectives consist of two or more adjectives that are combined together to form an
adjective that can be used to modify the subject. Some examples of compound adjectives are
cotton-tailed, curly-haired, absent-minded, happy-go-lucky, etc.
Types of Adverbs

Adverbs are categorised into different types according to their functions when used in a sentence.
Given below are the different types of adverbs.
➢ Adverbs of Manner
➢ Adverbs of Time
➢ Adverbs of Place
➢ Adverbs of Frequency
➢ Adverbs of Degree
➢ Conjunctive Adverbs
Types of Pronouns with Examples
Pronouns can be classified into different types based on their functions. Given below are the
various types of pronouns. Go through the examples carefully to have a clear understanding of
each type of pronoun and its function.
Relative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to relate one part of the sentence to another. Some
examples of relative pronouns are that, which, where, when, why, what, whom and whose.
Possessive Pronouns are pronouns that are used to show possession. Some examples of
possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, theirs and its.
Reflexive Pronouns are pronouns that are used to refer back to the subject in the sentence. Some
examples of reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, herself, himself, oneself, itself, ourselves,
themselves and yourselves.

Demonstrative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to point to specific objects. Some examples
of demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these and those.
Interrogative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to ask questions. Some examples of
interrogative pronouns are who, what, when, why and where.
Indefinite Pronouns are pronouns that do not refer to any particular person, place or thing. Some
examples of indefinite pronouns are someone, somebody, somewhere, something, anyone,
anybody, anywhere, anything, no one, nobody, nowhere, everyone, everybody, everywhere,
everything, each, none, few, and many.
Personal Pronouns are simple pronouns that are used to substitute proper names. Some examples
of personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, we, they, him, her, he, she, us and them.
Subject Pronouns are pronouns that perform the action in a sentence. Some examples of subject
pronouns are I, you, we, he, she, it, they and one.
Object Pronouns are pronouns that receive the action in a sentence. Some examples of object
pronouns are me, us, him, her and them.
Reciprocal Pronouns are pronouns that are used to express a mutual relationship. Some examples
of reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another.

Intensive Pronouns are the same as reflexive pronouns, with the only difference being that you
can remove the intensive pronoun from the sentence, and the sentence would still make sense.
The Various Types of Verbs with Examples
Auxiliary Verbs/Helping Verbs
Examples of auxiliary verbs are as follows:

• Am
• Is
• Are
• Was
• Were
• Have
• Has
• Do
• Will
• Can
• Modal Verbs
Examples of modal verbs are as follows:
• Can
• Could
• Will
• Would
• May
• Might
• Should
• Must
• Ought to
• Phrasal Verbs
Some examples of phrasal verbs are as follows:
• Go by
• Lay off
 • Log in
• Get off
• Run out
• Go all out
• Think through
• Fed up
• Taken aback
• Act on
• Back away
• Back up
• Look up
• Mix up
• Opt out
• Pop in

Transitive Verbs and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive and intransitive forms of verbs are used to denote how a verb acts when used with a
direct object and an indirect object. Let us look at a few examples.
Vincent gave a box of chocolates to his brother. (Indirect object – his brother, Direct object – a
box of chocolates)

Garry passed the water bottle to Kevin, who was sitting in the first row. (Indirect object – Kevin,
Direct object – the water bottle)
The little girl ran around the park for two hours.
Francey walked to school every day.
My mom cleaned the house today. (Direct object – the house)

Seena did not like the movie. (Direct object – the movie)
Root Verb
Some examples of root verbs are as follows:
• Eat
• Sit
• Stir
• Type
• Read
• Fry
• Tick
• Shift
• Trick
• Sing
Present Participle
The present participle is used in the continuous form of tenses to indicate an action that is
continuing or in progress at that particular moment or sometime in the past or in the future.
Simple Past

There is a change in the spelling of the root verb when it is used to indicate the simple past
tense form of the verb.
For example:
The doctor asked me to take tablets for ten days. (The rook verb here is ‘ask’)
Past participle

The past participle form of the verb is used to denote the perfect tense forms in a sentence. In
some cases, the past tense and the past participle remain the same, but there are a number of
verbs that have different spellings when used as a simple past tense verb and a past participle.
Gerunds
Any verb can be transformed into a gerund by adding ‘ing’ to the root verb. Gerunds, when it
stands by themselves, can be used as nouns. A gerund can be used as a verb when used with an
auxiliary verb to indicate an action that is continuing at a particular period of time.
For example: He is eating an apple.
Infinitives
Infinitives, like gerunds, can be used to turn verbs into nouns by adding a preposition ‘to’ in
front of the root verb.
For example: Would you like to have something?
Types of Prepositions
Based on the different uses and functions of prepositions, they can be divided into four main
types. They are as follows:
Prepositions of Time – used to show when something is happening.

For example: We will be meeting on Friday.

Prepositions of Place – indicate the place or position of something.
For example: I have kept the book I borrowed from you on the table.
Prepositions of Direction – used to denote the direction in which something travels or moves.
For example: The girl ran toward her father the moment she saw him.

Prepositions of Location – employed to denote the location of a particular object.

For example: Kenny would be staying at his cousin’s place for the weekend.
Prepositions of Spatial Relationship – used to denote an object’s movement away from the
source and towards a source.
For example: Navya sat leaning against the wall.

Prepositional Phrase – a combination of a preposition and a noun(the object it is affecting).

For example: See to it that you reach the venue on time.
Conjunction
A conjunction is a word that is used to connect words, phrases, and clauses. There are many
conjunctions in the English language, but some common ones
include and, or, but, because, for, if, and when.
There are three basic types of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating, and correlative.
Because the popstar caught a terrible cold, her upcoming performances in Boston and Chicago
were indefinitely postponed. The tour organizers provided neither rescheduled dates nor refunds
for the tickets, causing much discontent among the fans.

Interjection
An interjection, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is defined as “a short sound, word
or phrase spoken suddenly to express an emotion.” The Cambridge Dictionary defines an
interjection as “a word that is used to show a short sudden expression of emotion.
Examples of Interjections

Here are some examples of interjections to show you how they can be used in sentences
effectively.
➢ Hurray! We won the match.
➢ Ouch! That really hurt badly.
➢ Wow! That is a beautiful dress indeed.
➢ Oh my God! That was unexpected.
➢ Whoa! That guy is unbelievably huge.

Examples of Interjections
Interjection Purpose Example
Alas To express sadness or pity Alas! That was so unfortunate.
Ah To express realisation or surprise Ah, the magic show at the end was a
total surprise!
Eh To enquire or ask for something Eh! I didn’t quite get it. Can you please
to be repeated repeat it?
Dear To express pity or surprise Oh dear! I feel really bad for what
happened to you.
Hey To express surprise or call for Hey! Look out for the car.
attention
Hurray To express joy Hurray! We finally cleared the test.
 Oh To express pain or surprise Oh! I have a really bad headache.
Ouch To express pain Ouch! You stepped on my toes.
Phew To express relief, exhaustion, Phew! That was an extremely long
disgust presentation.
Uh To express hesitation Uh! I don’t think I want to be a part of
this.
Well To introduce a remark Well, what you just did was wonderful.
Wow To express your admiration for Wow! Your new bike is amazing.
something
Yippee To express joy Yippee! Tomorrow is a holiday.
Identify the Part of Speech
Go through the following sentences and identify the part of speech of the underlined words.
1) Namitha is not coming today.
2) My mom will be leaving to Bangalore tomorrow.
3) The teacher asked the students to stand.
4) He is my brother.
5) There is a cat under the table.
6) The clothes did not dry as it was raining all night.
7) Sheena and her sister dance well.
8) I am wearing a green dress for the party.
9) Oh! That is really sad.
10) She is coming with me.

Test yourself
https://www.englishgrammar.org/parts-speech-exercise-4/
https://www.myenglishpages.com/english/grammar-exercise-parts-of-speech.php
https://www.javatpoint.com/parts-of-speech-exercises
https://www.usinggrammar.com/exercises-english/exercise-1-parts-of-speech.php

Active & passive exercise

Test yourself
https://www.javatpoint.com/active-and-passive-voice-exercises
https://www.englishgrammar.org/active-passive-voice-exercise-3/

Direct & Indirect Narration exercise

Test yourself
https://www.wallstreetenglish.com/exercises/direct-and-indirect-speech-exercises
https://www.adda247.com/school/direct-and-indirect-speech-examples/
https://www.approachenglish.com/direct-and-indirect-speech-exercises-and-answers/

ADVANCE GRAMMAR
Advanced grammar is the study of composition rules and techniques beyond the basic level. It
helps you achieve success in your writing and beyond. It helps you gain a broader understanding
of the structures and functions of all levels of the English language.
This includes the study of:

Types of sentences
Types of Phrases
Types of Claus

Sentence Structure
Types of Sentence
1. Declarative
A declarative sentence makes a declaration or a statement. It can also express an opinion. This
sentence ends in a period. Here's a list of examples:

The article contains at least 1,000 words.

2. Interrogative
An interrogative sentence asks a question. This sentence might begin with words, such as who,
what, where, when or why. It ends with a question mark. Examples include:
What website do you use to edit your photographs?

3. Imperative
An imperative sentence issues a command or a request to the reader directly. This sentence can
end in a period or an exclamation point. Here's a list of examples:

Lock the door when you leave the house.

4. Exclamatory
An exclamatory sentence illustrates great emotion, such as surprise, excitement and anger. It
ends with an exclamation point. Examples include:

I received a job offer that doubles my salary!

Exercises and meaning of simple, complex and compound senyences

https://byjus.com/english/simple-compound-complex-sentences-exercises/
http://www.citycollegekolkata.org/online_course_materials/20210214_Sentence_Types.pdf\

What Is a Phrase?
A phrase is a group of words that forms a grammatical component. It can be used to
communicate something. It is a part of a sentence and cannot stand on its own. Phrases provide
more information about whatever the sentence is speaking about.
Types of Phrases with Examples

In English grammar, there are five main types of phrases. They are,
Noun phrase Optional Modifier(s) + Noun + Optional Modifier(s)
Example: My brother’s friend had come to visit him. (Used as a subject)
Adjective phrase Example: Annu has silky, smooth hair.
Adverb phrase Example: We are planning to finish our group project by the end of May.
Verb phrase Auxiliary Verb(s) + Main Verb + Verb Ending If Necessary

Example: Students are practising hard in order to participate in the state tournament.
Prepositional phrase Preposition + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause
Preposition + Modifier(s) + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause
Example: It was too hard for me to concentrate with the kids jumping around.
Infinitive Phrase Infinitive + Object(s) and/or Modifier(s)

Example: To slurp spaghetti

Participle Phrase Participle + Object(s) and/or Modifier(s)
Example: Flexing his muscles in front of the bathroom mirror
Gerund Phrase Gerund + Object(s) and/or Modifier(s)

Example: Washing our dog Gizmo requires strong arms to keep the squirming, unhappy puppy
in the tub. Washing our dog Gizmo = subject of the verb requires.
Absolute Phrase Noun + Participle + Optional Modifier(s) and/or Object(s)
Example: His brow knitted in frustration Brow = noun; knitted = participle; his, in frustration =
modifiers.

What is a Clause
A clause is comprised of a group of words that include a subject and a finite verb. It contains
only one subject and one verb. The subject of a clause can be mentioned or hidden, but the verb
must be apparent and distinguishable.

A clause is “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a

member of a complex or compound sentence.” – Merriam-Webster
Example: I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)
Independent Clause
It functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much like a regular sentence.

In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by the coordinators: and, but, so, or,
nor, for*, yet*.
Example: He is a wise man.
I like him.
Dependent Clause
It cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought unfinished. It is also called a
subordinate clause. These help the independent clauses complete the sentence.
Example:
When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.
I know the man who stole the watch.
Dependent Clauses are divided into three types and they are –

1. Adjective Clause
It is a Dependent Clause that modifies a Noun. Basically, Adjective Clauses have similar
qualities as Adjectives that are of modifying Nouns and hence the name, Adjective Clause.
Examples:

I’m looking for the red book that went missing last week.
2. Noun Clause
Dependent Clauses acting as Nouns in sentences are called Noun Clauses or Nominal Clauses.
These often start with “how,” “that,” other WH-words (What, Who, Where, When, Why, Which,
Whose and Whom), if, whether etc.

Examples:
I like what I hear.
3. Adverbial Clause
By definition, these are Dependent Clauses acting as Adverbs. It means that these clauses have
the power to modify Verbs, Adjectives and other Adverbs.

Examples:
Alice did the dishes till her legs gave up.
Principal Clause
These have a Subject (Noun/Pronoun), Finite Verb and an Object and make full sentences that
can stand alone or act as the main part of any Complex or Compound Sentence. Independent and
Principal Clauses are functionally the same but named from different perspectives.
Examples: I know that boy.
He can jog every morning.
Coordinate Clause
Two or more similarly important Independent Clauses joined by Coordinating
Conjunctions (and, or, but etc.) in terms of Compound Sentences are called Coordinate Clauses.

Examples:
I like taking photos and he loves posing for them.
Non-finite Clause
They contain a Participle or an Infinitive Verb that makes the Subject and Verb evident even
though hidden. In terms of a Participle, the Participial Phrase takes place of the Subject or Object
of the sentence.
Examples:
He saw the boy (who was) staring out of the window.
Exercises of phrase and clause
Test yourself

https://byjus.com/english/clauses-exercises/
https://www.javatpoint.com/phrases-and-clauses-exercises
https://www.grammarwiz.com/phrases-and-clauses-quiz.html
https://www.studocu.com/in/document/shri-dharmasthala-manjunatheshwara-institute-for-
management-development/masters-in-business-administration/phrases-and-clauses/46384863

https://www.learngrammar.net/practice/29/clause-and-phrase-exercise-practice-with-explanation
https://irsc-asc.weebly.com/uploads/3/1/8/1/31813909/packet_4_phrases_and_clauses.pdf

Editing strategies to achieve appropriate technical style

Overview of Technical Editing

You may find that technical editing is very different from what you expect. When people hear
the word "edit," they think of rewriting an author's words; working with authors on issues such
as character plot, and storyline; suggesting the most appropriate word in order to make a
manuscript "sing." That's not technical editing.
General Procedure for Editing

1) Analyze the materials' purpose, audience, format, and uses.

2) Evaluate the materials to see if they fit. In particular, consider the materials'
• contents — completeness; appropriateness
• organization — order of contents; signals about order
• visual design — text; lists; tables; aesthetic appearance
• navigability — findable, working hyperlinks; section breaks
• style — writing style; authorial persona; sentence structures; cultural biases; grammar;
mechanics
• illustrations — type; construction; placement
• accessibility — ADA compliance
1) Set up objectives and plan your project's sequence.
2) Review the plan with the author.
3) Edit the materials.
4) Evaluate the outcome.

Top editing techniques/strategies

➢ Come back to your text with fresh eyes
➢ Read your text aloud
 ➢ Edit long sentences
➢ Review your word lengths
➢ Check your style guide
➢ Check for passive voice
➢ Improve visual readability
➢ Check the whole document backwards
➢ Proofread for spelling and grammar
➢ Final read to ensure a good flow
➢ Develop a mastery of the English language
➢ Know the purpose of the work you are editing
➢ Familiarize yourself with the necessary style
➢ Have the confidence to spot and fix errors
➢ Give yourself time to do the job right
➢ Read it through once for comprehension
➢ Re-read each sentence individually, making corrections as needed
➢ Run an electronic spell check

Introduction to advanced technical communication

Advanced Technical Communication covers how to effectively gather information through
interviews, surveys, and secondary research, and how to organize that information for maximum
impact. In this class, students will learn how to
➢ Obtain, process, and organize information for written and verbal communication
➢ Create and/or edit reports
➢ Analyze quantitative and qualitative data
➢ Work collaboratively and as a member of a team
Examples of technology that may be used in this course include
Word processing software, such as Microsoft Word
Advanced technical communication is also a book by Kavita Tyagi and Padma Mishra, here is
the Google Book link : -
https://books.google.co.in/books?id=GsIbGCG7a2kC&printsec=frontcover&redir_esc=y#v=one
page&q&f=false

Usability
Usability has many natural ties to the field of technical communication and the information life
cycle. As the primary user advocates within the development organization, technical
communicators are uniquely positioned to add their usability-related expertise through the
product design, development and testing cycles.
Usability is a strange word but an increasingly influential idea. Any product designed for a
specific purpose (such as tools, home appliances, or computer software) can be judged for
success by its usability.
Usability Testing
A key role of technical communication is to serve as the primary user advocate within
development organizations. If audience researches exist, then technical communicators should
use and maintain it. If it does not exist, technical communicators should employ their specialized
skills to develop research methods that are within the scope and budget of their organizations.
Such research should be used rigorously throughout both the product and information design and
development cycles.
Usability testing comes in all shapes and sizes, and technical communicators should be familiar
with the full range of testing options. Technical communicators should be able to:
➢ Design, develop, and perform usability tests for information products.
➢ Serve as SMEs (Subject-matter experts) for usability testing of products and software.

Human factors
Technical communicators should understand the basic tenets of human factors research, thereby
acknowledging physical or physiological limitations of their audience. As with user research and
analysis, technical communicators should be considered the primary user advocate within the
organization, and thus be able to:
➢ Effectively disseminate human factors research.
➢ Act as human factors subject matter experts (SMEs) on development teams for
user interface and product design.
User-Centered Design
Technical communicators should be familiar with a wide range of user-centered design
issues. They should be able to implement user-centered design strategies in the development of
online and print-based information.

➢ Serve as subject matter experts (SMEs) for product teams engaging in user-centered
design methodologies.
➢ Become user-centered design advocates within their organizations.

Managing Technical Communication Projects

Project management is the art of precisely planning and managing certain tasks and resources in
order to reach a desired goal. It takes strong business and organizational skills to be a successful
project manager.
Map out A Project Organization: Never underestimate the communication power of
diagrams. Before you get started, it’s crucial to set a project structure and map it out for the team.
You can organize your program or project structure in a couple different ways: by function (e.g.
requirements, development, training/communication), or by domain (e.g. departments, products,
or services impacted). Any way you slice it, defining the engagement and work streams will help
everyone remain on the same page once the project gets moving and becomes more complex.
Communicate this program structure to business and technology groups affected by the project,
and then leverage the structure to develop a communications plan and a work breakdown
structure (WBS) that can convert into a project plan. Some useful tools to help define your
project organization are Enterprise Data, Business Process and/or IT Architecture Documents.
Use these tools to identify inter-connections between data, business process and technology—
they enable visualization of potentially impacted areas. Leverage your technical SMEs for
explanations and details.
Identify Your Stakeholders
This step is all about asking questions and talking to people. Investigate within the
organization and set your scope by finding out:
➢ What groups of customers and/or employees does the project impact? (i.e. who will
experience change)?
➢ What business processes are impacted? What departments own or touch those processes?
➢ What technology is impacted? Hardware and/or applications? What departments own or
touch the technology?
➢ What other projects are in the pipeline or active that could be impacted or that may be a
dependency for your project or that your project may depend on?
Once you’ve identified all the impacted areas, request representation on the project team
from them, using the level of impact to guide time commitment expectations.

Make Sure the Team Gets R&R

Although rest and relaxation are important, I’m referring to “Roles and Responsibilities”
here. Managing role and responsibility expectations may be the secret to any successful business
relationship. Once you’ve established the roles and responsibilities of the executive sponsor,
business owner, the project manager, and other members of the project team, designate specific
times for team meetings and/or working sessions. Determine the need and establish, if necessary,
a Steering Committee.
The most useful tool for defining R&R’s is the RACI, a matrix defining the roles and
responsibilities of each individual involved in a process along four dimensions:
➢ Responsible: Those who handle or support the work required to complete the activity,
deliverable or function.
➢ Accountable: Those who ultimately own the activity, deliverable or function and are
responsible for ensuring it has been completed.
➢ Consulted: Those whose inputs are sought and with whom there is two-way
communication.
➢ Informed: Those who are kept up-to-date on progress of the activity, deliverable or task
and with whom there is generally one-way communication.
Create Communication Plans
Depending on the type and size of project you are running, you may need to develop and
execute several different communication plans. For the overall Project Communications, think
about who needs to know what, when, and how about the project. This plan should include
communications to all key stakeholders (usually by group), throughout the project lifecycle (i.e.
project status reports, stakeholder or steering committee meetings, etc.).
Your Launch Communications plan should look a little different: think about who needs
to know what, when and how about the product, process, service, etc. that the project will
implement. This plan is typically customer and/or employee focused, and includes training and
other forms of communication to prepare those impacted by the project for its launch.
Prepare Project Status Reports: Just Do It!
This is a key communication vehicle for any project or program, even if it’s not required.
There are various formats you can try, but if possible, leverage your PPM tool (MS Project
Server, HP PPM, Plan view, etc.).
For project status reporting, conciseness is key. Avoid unnecessary detail by using short
phrases and bullet points. Clearly articulate issues, followed by plans to resolve and return the
project to “green” status. Spell out acronyms (unless widely known across the company), and
avoid jargon (technical or non-technical). And lastly, avoid calling out people by name; using
departments or roles instead.

Time Estimation
The term “time estimation” refers to the assessment of the number of hours needed to complete a
task or a series of tasks. The deeper your understanding of work specifics and nuances is, the
more accurate time estimates you can receive. Therefore, to evaluate the volume of time for a
project as a whole, you should do the following:
➢ Identify the amount of work – develop a detailed work breakdown structure and create a
list of tasks for achieving significant project milestones and deliverables;
➢ Assess how many hours, days or weeks each of the project activities may take and sum
up individual estimates to get the grand total of time necessary to complete the project.
There are many sites and resources available, but it is difficult to say what is the exact method,
probably that’s why it is an estimation. End of the day, it will be your experience which will
make you the guru of this gyan.
➢ Pre Kick-off meeting preparation time
➢ Know what you have to estimate before estimating you should be familiar with what you
are giving estimation
➢ Guestimate time for actual work-After understanding the complexity of the project and
knowing the real number of windows and menu option make a high-level view of topics
now you can guesstimate the actual time you will take to write.
➢ Revision
➢ Buffer
➢ Extraneous Hours-This time is important when you have a very demanding client who
needs you to revolve around them answering call writing emails remember all these takes
time

Single sourcing
One of the biggest challenges technical writers face is having to produce large amounts of
documentation within often very tight deadlines.
A lot of that documentation is repetitive and references the same set of information over and over
again, so writing it manually is rather inefficient and, at times, even frustrating.
Fortunately, there is a smarter way of creating documentation. It involves writing pieces of
content in one place (a single source) and then reusing that content across different contexts and
in different formats.
This approach to documentation is called single sourcing.

Source: help.adobe
With single sourcing, technical writers are able to “write once, publish everywhere” because
pieces of information are treated as building blocks that can be fitted into different documents to
produce meaningful content for end-users.
Single sourcing is a documentation technique that primarily focuses on helping writers, editors,
and translators do their jobs more efficiently without sacrificing any quality for end-users.
How does it do that?
Well, it reduces the workload of technical writers by making content reusable, which means that
it also reduces the amount of editing and document maintenance editors need to do.
Similarly, translators have an easier job because they have a unified source of materials for
translation, so they don’t have to worry about discrepancies popping up during the translation
process.
Single sourcing is a win-win situation for everyone involved in the documentation process. In the
following section, we’ll see what its practical applications are.
When Is Single Sourcing Used
Single sourcing is particularly useful to organizations that produce massive amounts of
documentation or have a large line of products that are similar to each other.
These kinds of projects usually need to repeat the same information in different places within the
same knowledge base (or a printed user manual if the product in question is hardware.)
With a single sourcing approach, technical writers are able to write the information once, save it
to a single space, and then reuse it whenever they need to.

For example, let’s imagine a software product that has usage instructions for novice users,
advanced users, and developers.

Source: Customer.io
Each of these audiences would have its own set of documentation needs, but the information
would overlap in the definitions, procedural steps, and warnings that are the same for all users.
Those overlapping sections can be turned into blocks of information that are simply inserted into
the documents instead of written out or copied and pasted every time.
The other use for single sourcing documentation that we mentioned is creating documentation
for a series of products that are very similar to each other.
So let’s see a basic example with washing machines:

Source: Bosch
All of these machines work in roughly the same way and can be operated using one set of
instructions.
However, each one of them is different because the number of features it has differs compared to
the others (for instance, it has the EcoSilence Drive or the AutoStain feature).

The single sourcing method to create documentation for these washing machines would be to
write a basic set of instructions that’s applicable to all versions of the product (the single source)
and then customize that set with the variables that differentiate the machines.

Source: Manualzz

As you can see, single sourcing in technical documentation is widely used in large-scale
documentation efforts.
However, startups and SaaS companies can also utilize it, especially if they plan on expanding
their technical documentation.
That being said, single sourcing is an extremely efficient way to write documentation, so it’s a
good idea to learn its principles and apply them in your own technical writing.
Principles of Single Sourcing in Technical Writing
In the following subsections, we’ll talk about the five basic principles of single sourcing in
technical writing.
Even if you’re working on projects that aren’t perfectly suited for single sourcing, these
principles should give you a couple of ideas on advancing your technical writing practices and
making them more efficient.
Let’s dive right in.
Reuse Principle
According to this principle, every bit of information that can be reused multiple times across
multiple contexts is an opportunity to save time and effort.
To reuse content, simply create a space where you can collect bits of information that need to be
included in multiple documents across your knowledge base.
Technology can help you with that.
For example, if you’re using advanced documentation software, such as Archbee, you can create
and save “content snippets” that can be easily inserted into the document.
Here’s how the process works.

Source: Archbee on YouTube

The neat thing about this is that by changing the content snippet, technical writers can change the
information across every document that holds that snippet.
That’s infinitely more efficient than going into every document separately and updating it by
hand.

By reusing prewritten snippets of content, technical writers are able to write more efficiently and
maintain the accuracy of their information, which is what single sourcing is all about.
Simplicity Principle
In order to make your content reusable, you’re going to need to boil it down to its simplest form
because that’s the only way you’ll be able to use it in different documents without changing a
single word.
This minimalist approach to documentation can be achieved by removing the elements that
don’t help users achieve their goals, such as storytelling or embellishments, and just sticking to
basic instructions.
For example, take a look at this Sign-In procedure for an IBM product:

Source: IBM
As you can see, this is a bare-bones way to write out the procedure.
There are no descriptions of the environment from which to sign in (the sign-in page) or an
explanation of what happens if the sign-in is successful, for example.
That way, this same procedure can be transplanted into any other document about any other IBM
product that uses the same procedure and still work.
Simplifying your instructions won’t take away from the user experience, but it will help you
make every piece of content more reusable because it will fit into a greater number of contexts.
Single Purpose Principle
According to this rule, every block of content you create should have just one, single use because
that makes the information much easier to fit into multiple contexts.
For example, if you write a piece of content that’s meant to help users with a known issue, then
that piece of content can be reused every time you explain to users how to tackle that specific
problem, across different products or different versions of your product.
However, if that same piece of content contains, for instance, an installation guide, it might not
be reusable in contexts where the aforementioned issue is present, but the installation procedure
is different.

You’ll see this principle in all sorts of technical documentation. For instance, here it is in an
article about connectivity issues in Slack.

Source: Slack
This article contains instructions for managing connection issues specifically written for network
administrators.
It doesn’t contain a list of common connection issues and their explanations because that would
be a second purpose for the article (providing a rundown of connection issues and instructing the
user on how to manage them).
However, since those two purposes are connected, a link is given that takes the user to another
article about common connection issues, should the user need it.
By focusing on just one purpose per article, writers are able to safely reuse their instructions
without worrying that a part of the article will give the reader the wrong information.
Users are well served as well because they’re getting exactly the information they were looking
for and nothing else.
Generalization Principle

If you’re going to reuse a single piece of content over and over again, it would be a good idea to
make it as generic as possible while keeping the information valid and useful to anyone
accessing the content.
In technical documentation, this usually means omitting all specific information, such as product
names and version numbers, from the documentation so that the information from the document
can be applied to multiple products or product versions.
For example, IBM has different products that can be installed using IBM’s installation manager.
So instead of writing out the instructions for every specific product, a generic installation guide
was created and then inserted into the documentation for every product it applies to.
As you can see, there’s no mention of the name or version number for the product.
It’s referenced generically, only as “the product,” which makes it easier for the technical writing
team to insert this part of the text into the instructions for every product that follows the same
procedure.

Dependency Principle
In a previous section, we talked about how every piece of content should have only one purpose
to make it easier to reuse.
We said that instead of packing too much information into one article, it might be a better idea to
provide a link to a second article with more information.

This is a good practice to follow, but a word of caution is in order.

Interlinking pieces of information within a knowledge base creates relations of dependency
between those articles that may make the content less reusable.
Why?
Well, because if understanding the information in the article depends on the reader following the
link, then that link to a second article needs to be present every time the content piece is reused.
If the link is omitted, the article might not make sense anymore.
Therefore, it’s relatively safe to interlink articles within a single knowledge base for a software
product, like in Mailchimp’s example below:
However, if you need to reproduce your knowledge base in a different format (a printed manual,
perhaps), then it might be impossible to keep those links in working order.
And if understanding the content depends on the links working, you might not be able to reuse
your content but will have to rebuild it from scratch.
So, as a rule of thumb, it’s a good idea to use links in your knowledge articles sparingly—unless
you’re sure you’ll be able to keep those links intact every time you reuse the content.
Benefits of Single Sourcing
Making the shift to single sourcing in your technical writing practices is definitely not without its
challenges.
This approach to documentation takes practice and is not as simple as sitting down and just
writing out everything you know about a feature or issue of the product.
That being said, single sourcing comes with great benefits that can be very valuable to your
writers and the company as a whole.
Let’s see what they are.
Improved Consistency
It only stands to reason that if you keep reusing a block of prewritten content instead of writing
the information from scratch every time, your documentation will be more consistent.
But you might be wondering what the value is in more consistent documentation.

More consistency in documentation means that your users will be much less likely to get
confused when reading your documentation and will have a much easier job spotting patterns
and understanding how one piece of information fits in with everything else they know about the
product.
A good example of this can be found in naming conventions.

Since the same concept can be referred to in several different terms, users can get confused and
fail to realize they are reading about a single concept that is named differently in different parts
of the knowledge base.
In fact, technical writers often have to use style guides and technical glossaries to prevent this
from happening:

However, if the concept is only named once while writing the information block and then reused
throughout the knowledge base, inconsistencies like this are highly unlikely to happen.
Therefore, we can conclude that consistency brings order to your documentation and improves
the overall user experience.
The best part is that improved consistency is an unintended consequence of single sourcing
which helps users as much as it does writers.
Reduced Repetition
As we said before, the work of a technical writer includes a lot of repetition.
Key concepts and common instructions need to be written out again and again because technical
documentation is never read in a linear way.
Instead, users will only access the documents pertinent to their immediate needs, meaning they
need every bit of information that will help them achieve their goal, regardless of the fact that
that same information is also present elsewhere.
For technical writers, this can be somewhat frustrating and time-consuming because it means
they need to repeat themselves endlessly.
However, within the single sourcing approach, writers are able to write down the necessary
information just once and save it in a single place.
Then, every time they need to reproduce this information, they can just work the information
block into the document and carry on with their work without having to input the same
information over and over again.
This is of great help to the writer whose work is made much more engaging and less tedious, but
it’s also good for the project because documentation is written faster, and it’s always accurate
because it comes from a single, reliable source.

Flexible Formatting
In single-sourced documentation, knowledge is boiled down to the basics and recorded in its
simplest form.
Another advantage of this simplicity of expression is that the information is easily reproduced in
different formats to provide access to different audiences who will be consuming your
documentation.
This benefit is especially important to companies whose customers need access to documentation
on the go or offline.
For example, let’s imagine a product that has an online knowledge base that serves the users of
the product while they are at their desks. Like this online help tutorial from Epson:

But what if those customers needed to be supported when they weren’t at their desks and didn't
have immediate access to their computers?
In those cases, you would need to provide the same information in a different format they could
take with them, such as a printed manual or a PDF file they can save to their mobile device.
If you have a single source of information that’s simply formatted, you won’t have any problems
adapting that information so that it can be exported into other formats, such as Docx, PDF,
HTML, and so on.
This flexibility will help you to quickly and easily create knowledge bases, manuals, and user
guides in as many formats as you need to completely satisfy your user base.
Reliable Translation
In this discussion about the benefits of single sourcing documentation, we mentioned that having
just one source of information can greatly improve the consistency of the knowledge base as a
whole.
This benefit also extends into information translation and makes it much easier to do.
It’s easy to see why.
If your translators are using a single source of truth in their work, that means that their
translations will remain consistent and closely tied to the original.
To put it differently, if translators need to translate just one block of information instead of
multiple instances and versions of that block across the documents, the variations between the
original and the translations will be kept under control, and you’ll produce reliable translations
that are as close to the original as possible.
Translating technical documentation is impossible to do without at least some variation from the
original.
However, in a single sourcing environment, these discrepancies are kept under control and won’t
endanger the original information presented in the documentation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it’s clear that single sourcing in technical documentation presents writers, editors,
and translators with a fascinating set of challenges—while also offering some amazing benefits.
The five principles of single sourcing we described here are not easy to implement, but they
should help you make large strides in making your technical writing efforts more efficient and
the resulting documentation more consistent.
Single sourcing in technical writing is definitely worth considering, especially if you have a lot
of documentation to write and want to keep it as accurate and user-friendly as possible.

Localization Defined
Localization, sometimes referenced as the numeronym L10N (L followed by the numeral ten
(representing the number of letters in the word) and N) is the process of adapting a product or
service from its source country to the needs and uses of a particular cultural or linguistic market.
An example of localization is converting a document written in European French to Canadian
French.
Successfully localized products and services should seem as if they had originated within the
local culture. To achieve this goal, technical communicators, software developers, translators,
and product managers must consider many cultural and linguistic issues, such as:
➢ composition issues in the source language, which might be difficult to translate
➢ cultural differences and sensitivities, such as currency, national regulations and holidays,
product or service names, gender roles, and geographic examples
➢ machine translation and translation memory tools
➢ usability assessment of the integrated product
Although translation of documentation (packaging, user manuals, training materials, and so on)
is typically a central activity, localization also includes the following activities:

➢ translating software source code (online help, error messages, user interface elements,
etc.), websites, or database content
➢ adjusting graphic and visual elements and examples to make them culturally appropriate
➢ controlling quality of localized content and systems
Two Types of Localization

There are two types of localization: general and radical.

1) General localization refers to superficial cultural differences, such as language,
currency, and date formats. For example, someone translating a document from Spanish
 to English (or vice versa) would simply translate the words as closely as possible, factor
in currency and date formatting changes, and correct other small inconsistencies.
2) Radical localization is more in-depth, incorporating cultural differences that affect the
way users think, feel, and act. As an example, Nancy Hoft explains that an American
document localized for a British audience, “…needs to be adapted so that it uses the
British spellings of words, British axioms and expressions, currency amounts in the
British pound sterling, and measurements expressed in metrics, to name a few of the
changes. A further distinction would involve adapting to the reading and learning styles
of the British users”.
Business Issues
If a company is trying to go global, then the technical communication manager must keep in
mind several business issues when entering an international market:
➢ likelihood of the product selling, even after being localized
➢ risks of entering a new market, whether domestically or internationally
➢ minimum cost of localization, which can be $10,000 USD due to translation fees
➢ liability and other legal issues
Localization is a means of bridging the gap between cultures. For localization to be successful,
however, the technical communicator must be knowledgeable in linguistics, translation, rhetoric,
and communication. To facilitate the localization process, technical communicators should:
➢ Avoid using slang and jargon.
➢ Learn what is considered acceptable rhetoric in the target country.
➢ Learn what is proper syntax and word order.
➢ Recognize the importance of smaller details, such as the meaning of specific colors (for
example, English speakers associate jealousy with the color green; Chinese speakers
associate jealousy with the color red).
Proper localization eases communication between cultures. Poor localization could result in
awkward and unclear products, which in turn could lead to miscommunication between cultures.

Notes prepared by:

Department of Humanities and Social Sciences

Shree Ramswaroop Memorial University