EAPP-NOTES ON FORMAL and INFORMAL REPORT FIELD SURVEY, SCIENTIFIC and TECHNICAL REPORT)

Formal Report
A formal report is an official report that contains detailed information, research, and data necessary to make business
decisions. The report is generally written for the purpose of signing a problem. Some examples of formal reports
include:
● Inspection Report
● Safety Report
● Compliance Report
● Auditocident Report
● Annual Report
● Situational Report

There are two categories of formal reports national and analytical reports. The informational reports gathers data as
used to draw conclusions. The analytical report contains the same information as the informational report, but also
offers recommendations to solve a problem:

Front Section of a Formal Report

The front section contains the title page, transmittal letter, and the table of contents. The title page should contain:
1. Company name
2. Name and title of the parcy for whom the report was released
3. Name and title of the preparer
4. Date

The transmittal letters, a letter informing the recipient that a report has been included in the packer way also are the
purpose of the report. The letter also identifies any other documents that may be included. The last part of the front
section is the table of contents so that the reader can locate information by page number

Main Section of a Formal Report

The main section contains an executive summary, introduction to the problem, analysis of findings, and conclusions
and/or recommendations.

The executive summary is a summary of the formal report it should contain the basic facts without being too wordly
Think of a as a condensed version: of the entire report

The introduction statement states the purpose of the report, identifies the problem, its scopes, and the method the
writer plans to employ to solve the problem. The method may be to provide conclusions only as with an informational
report or it may be to provide conclusions and recommend cons with an analytical report.

An analysis of findings is probably the longest section. This section will reveal what facts you discovered and the
details of the investigation when drafting this section, remember to present information in the easiest and clearest
way that points your reader to your conclusions or recommendations

At the end of the main section, you will include conclusions and recommendations

Informal Report
Elements of an Informal Report
An Informal report can be used to share important information with one person or a small group of people. It is
generally brief and direct and can be delivered in email or memo format.
The following outline can be used to write an effective informal report.
I. Subject
The subject is a brief description of the report. It is placed in the subject line of an email or a mmmemo.
II. Introduction
The introduction, which should be short and to the point, lets readers know why they should read the rreport.
III. Facts
This section provides essential details about the subject and answers the question: "What does the reader
need to know?"
IV. Feedback
Feedback regarding the subject such as feelings, opinions, Interpretations, or recommendations may not be
necessary. But, if it is, then it should be logical, clear, and concise.
V. Conclusion
The conclusion summarizes the report. It underscores the most important facts and parts of the feedback
section.

The Differences between Formal and Informal Reports

Formal Report Informal Report

written in prescribed format sometimes be fragments of facts

Follows clear procedures on how to write the report one page report of several pages

involves presenting of factual impromptu

 impersonal presented in person to person communication

filed routinely according to a standard operating usually short messages with free-flowing, casual use of
procedure language

meticulously structure

focuses on objectivity and organization

contain deeper detail, and the writer must write them in

a style that eliminates factors like personal pronouns
Formal and informal reports differ in content, scope, purpose, and structure and tone as well.

EAPP-TYPES OF REPORT Introduction to Technical Report

Reading Text
The purpose of a technical report is to completely and clearly describe technical work, why it was done, results
obtained and Implications of those results. The technical report serves as a means of communicating the work to
others and possibly providing useful information about that work at some later date. A well-written report allows the
reader to quickly understand what has been accomplished. The report also provides sufficient detail to allow the
reader to recreate the results although the level of detail provided depends heavily on the report's audience and any
proprietary nature of the work.

Clear presentation of results is at least as important as the results themselves; therefore, writing a report is an
exercise in effective communication of technical information. Results, such as numerical values, designed systems or
graphs by themselves are not very useful. To be meaningful to others, results must be supported by a written
explanation describing how results were obtained and what significance they hold, or how a designed system actually
functions. Although the person reading the report may have a technical background, the author should assume
unfamiliarity with related theory and procedures. The author must therefore supply details that may appear obvious or
unnecessary. With practice, the technical report writer learns which details to include,

The key to a well-written report is organization. A report that is divided into several sections, occurring in a logical
sequence, makes it easy for the reader to quickly obtain an overview of the contents as well as locate specific
information.

Difference between Formal and Informal Reports

An informal report and a formal report are two major forms of report classification based on the length and formality of
the

HEAD SHORT REPORT LONG REPORT

Length As the name implies, a short report is very short A long report is never possible to be
in length. Short report is usually completed in a completed in a page or two. A long report
page or two. usually includes some special pages (e.g.
prefatory page) that do not appear in short
reports.

Nature A short report deals with the routine matters. Subjects in long reports are not routine
type. It deals with major complex problems.

Reader A short report is usually written for someone A long report is written for someone within
within the organization. It is used when the the organization or outside the organization.
reader's time is very limited and the full detail of
the subject is not needed.

Format Many short reports are written in memorandum A long report is always written in a
and letter formats. manuscript (narrative style format)

Formality Short reports being informal do not require A long report being formal needs a careful
extended planning and contain varieties of planning before it is written because
format. planning focuses on your readers.

Use of A short report does not include prefatory parts A long report includes these special parts.
Supplement nor appended once because it presents only As long as report deals with major complex
day-to-day events. problems and it's kept in the file for
posterity, inclusion of the supplements will
increase the reliability and validity of the
report.

Writing Short reports follow deductive writing styles. A A long report on the other hand, after
short report highlights facts and specific analyzing and interpreting the draws
recommendations. It avoids analysis and conclusion and make recommendations.
inclusion of supporting information.

Style Personal writing styles (using first or second A formal long report is written using
 person style) are used in writing a short report. impersonal (using third person style) styles.

Coherence With the lessening of the length of the report, The formal (long) report displays
the need for coherence aid is lessened. In the summaries. An introductory, forward-looking
extremely short report like memorandums and sentences and paragraphs in key places.
letter, reports, the information is presented in a These are needed to relate the different
so brief and simple way that the extra parts of complex long reports
coherence aid are not needed.

Difference between report and essay

ESSAY REPORT

argumentative and idea based informative and fact based

semi-structured formally structured

not written with a specific reader in mind usually written with a specific purpose and reader in
mind

written in single narrative written in style appropriate to each question

usually do not include sub-headings always include section heading

usually do not include bullet points often use bullet points

usually no tables and graph often includes tables or graphs

offer conclusion about the question offer recommendation for action

FIELD REPORT

Definition
The purpose of a field report in the social sciences is to describe the observation of people, places, and/or events and
to analys that observation data in order to identify and categorize common themes in relation to the research problem
underpinning the study. The content represents the researcher's interpretation of meaning found in data that has
been gathared during one or more observational events.

How to Begin
Field reports are most often assigned in disciplines of the applied social sciences (eg, social work, anthropology,
gerontology. criminal justice, education, law, the health care professions] where it is important to build a bridge of
relevancy between the theoretical concepts learned in the classroom and the practice of actually doing the work you
are being taught to do Field reports are also common in certain science disciplines (e.g., geology) but these reports
are organized differently and sarves different purpose than what is described below.

Field reports facilitate the development of data collection techniques and observation skiffs and they help you to
understand how theory applies to real world situations. Field reports are also an opportunity to obtain evidence
through methods of observing professional practice that contribute to or
challenge existing theories. When writing a field report, you need to:

1. Systematically observe and accurately record the varying aspects of a situation. Always approach your field
study with a detailed protocol about what you will observe, where you should conduct your observations,
and the method by which you will collect and record your data.
2. Continuously analyze your observations. Always look for the meaning underlying the actions you observe.
Ask yourself: What's going on here? What does this observe activity mean? What else does this relate to?
Note that this is an on-going process of reflection and analysis taking place for the duration of your field
research.
3. Keep the report's aims in mind while you are observing. Recording what you observe should not be done
randomly or haphazardly; you must be focused and pay attention to details. Enter the observation site [l.e.,
"field") with a clear plan about what you are intending to observe and record while, at the same time, being
prepared to adapt to changing circumstances as the may arise.
4. Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear and see in the context of a theoretical framework.
This is what separates data gatherings from simple reporting. The theoretical framework guiding your field
research should determine wha when, and how you observe and act as the foundation from which you
interpret your findings.

TECHNIQUES TO RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS

● Note taking
● Photography
● Video and Audio recordings
● illustrations or drawings
EXAMPLES OF THINGS TO DOCUMENT WHILE OBSERVING
● Physical setting- the characteristics of an occupied space and the human use of the place where the filed
report is conducted
● Objects and material culture-this refers to the presence, placement, and arrangement of objects that impact
the behavior or actions of those being observed. If applicable, describe the cultural artifacts representing the
beliefs, values, ideas, attitudes, and assumptions used by the individuals you are observing
● Use of language
● Behavior cycles
● The order in which events unfold.
● Physical characteristics of subjects- note age, gender, individuals being observed
● Expressive body movements
Note: Field reports are written in the past tense Format and structure vary according to discipline.

Writing a Survey Report

Structure
Title
I. Introduction/Background: State the purpose or aim of the report, and how the information was gathered.
II. Survey instrument: Creation of the survey questionnaire, content of the survey questionnaire, types of
respondents (age, sex, place of residence, etc)and sampling technique used. (Subheading can be used to
separate each piece of information.
III. Analysis of the Survey Results: Narration of the conducted survey, discussion of the responses per question
given (tables or graphs are shown and with textual presentation.
IV. Conclusion and Recommendation: Summary of the results of the survey conducted and recommendation.
References
Appendices
● Comments on Survey Responses: Who responded? Who did not respond?
● Images taken during the conduct of survey
● Sample survey questionnaire

Report Survey

A survey is the gathering and analysis of information about a topic, an area or a group of people Surveys can be an
economical and efficient tool for collecting information, attitudes and opinions from many people and for monitoring a
project/program's progress.

How to conduct a survey

THREE BASIC TYPES OF SURVEYS:
● self-completed questionnaires
● Face-to-face interviews
● Telephone surveys.

There are nine steps to conducting a survey, including:

Step 1: Decide what you want to find out
Step 2: Decide who to survey
Step 3: Select survey method
Step 4. Decide how many people to survey
Step 5: Write the questions
Step 6: Trial the questionnaire or interview questions
Step 7: Conduct survey Step
Step 8: Analyze information
Step 9: Report Findings

There are three common types of surveys:

Self-completed questionnaires are most commonly presented as written questions on paper. The questions are
completed or foe in by the participant, usually without any assistance from the people who designed the
questionnaire

Telephone surveys involve an interviewer asking questions verbally to a single, anonymous individual over the phone
Face-to-face interviews involve an interviewer asking questions verbally to an individual in-person

Survey Questionnaire
There are two main types of questions:
➢ Open-ended
➢ Closed-ended

There are several types of closed-ended questions, including:

● Multiple choice questions (one response)
● Multiple choice questions (multiple responses)
● yes/no or true/false questions
● Scales and rating
● rank order questions
● writing the report considering the following headings
 ● Scales and ratings rank order questions

In writing the report, considering the following

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY provides a summary of the main themes, findings and/or Recommendations (usually only
needed for lengthy reports)
INTRODUCTION provides some background information sets the scene and usually includes a rationale eg what has
been achieved so far and reasons for the activities and the report
METHOD explains the steps taken and the processes used eg. Questionnaire design how respondents were selected
Results includes the facts, the data, and the outcomes (ie whatever it is you want people to know about). The results
are grouped and placed in a logical sequence
DISCUSSION allows for interpretation and explanation of the results, discusses findings and conclusions and
examines any conflict in the results.
RECOMMENDATIONS provides suggestions for further action CONCLUSION sums up what has been disc
Conclusion sums up what has been discussed and states a focus, outcome, dominating theme or position and what
is going to happen next. REFERENCES/APPENDICES should also be included as appropriate.

Introduction to Technical Report

Reading Text
The purpose of a technical report is to completely and clearly describe technical work, why it was done, results
obtained and Implications of those results. The technical report serves as a means of communicating the work to
others and possibly providing useful information about that work at some later date. A well-written report allows the
reader to quickly understand what has been accomplished. The report also provides sufficient detail to allow the
reader to recreate the results although the level of detal provided depends heavily on the report's audience and any
proprietary nature of the work.

Clear presentation of results is at least as important as the results themselves; therefore, writing a report is an
exercise in effective communication of technical information. Results, such as numerical values, designed systems or
graphs by themselves are not veri useful. To be meaningful to others, results must be supported by a written
explanation describing how results were obtained and what significance they hold, or how a designed system actually
functions. Although the person reading the report may have i technical background, the author should assume
unfamiliarity with related theory and procedures. The author must therefor supply details that may appear obvious or
unnecessary. With practice, the technical report writer learns which details to include.

The key to a well-written report is organization. A report that is divided into several sections, occurring in a logical
sequence, maire it easy for the reader to quickly obtain an overview of the contents as well as locate specific
information.

SCIENTIFIC REPORT

A scientific report is a document that describes the process, progress, and results of a technical or scientific research
or the state of a technical or scientific problem. It might also include recommendations or conclusions of the research.

Elements of a Scientific Report

Title Page The title page will include the following:
Title of the report;
Should be short, specific and descriptive, containing the keywords of the report.
Authorship:
Usually 4-12 words in length.
Always publish under the same name.
Include author addresses.
Indicate the corresponding author and their contact details. Date: The date when the
paper was submitted

Table of Contents A table of contents is only required for length reports (usually 6 pages or more)

Abstract The Abstract is a self-contained synopsis of the report an informative summary of what
you did and what you found out
The Abstract should include the following: Objectives (as outlined in the Introduction)
and scope of the investigation.
A summary of the results and conclusions - a brief but thorough statement of the
outcome/s of the experiment. If there is a hypothesis, you may state what it is and
whether it was supported or refuted.
A brief reference to the Materials and Methods.
The following should not be included in the Abstract: Literature citations.
Formulae and abbreviations, references to tables.
Although the Abstract comes first in a report, it is best to write it last, after you have the
results and conclusions

Introduction This provides a summary of the analysis to be undertaken. The purpose of the
Introduction is to put the reader in the picture and place the research/experiment within
a context.
The following may be included in the Introduction:
Background about the analysis to be carried out.
 A brief review of previous research (relevant literature) to give a
background-paraphrase relevant facts from the scientific literature, citing the sources to
support each statement. Reason/s why the research was undertaken.
Statement of the hypothesis (an idea or concept that can be tested by experimentation)
if there is one. An explanation of the different techniques and why they are used.
A statement of the objective/s-what you hope to achieve.
The Introduction is the what and why of the experiment, and should answer the
following questions:
What was the purpose or objective of the experiment/research? Why was the
experiment/research conducted in a particular manner?
Why was it important in a broader context? The Introduction should not include any
results or conclusions

Materials and The Materials and Methods, sometimes called Experimental, is a description of the
Methods materials and procedures used.
(Experimental) what was done and how. Describe the process of preparation of the sample,
specifications of the instruments used and techniques employed.
The Method should include such things as sample size, apparatus or equipment used,
experimental conditions, times, controls, etc.
While the Method does not need to include minute details (e.g. If you followed a set of
written instructions, you may not need to write out the full procedure-state briefly what
was done and cite the manual), there needs to be enough detall so that someone could
repeat the work.
Do not keep using the word "then" - the reader will understand that the steps were
carried out in the order in which they are written.
The Method must be written in the past tense and the passive voice.

Results The following will be included in your Results:

Brief statements of the results in the text (without repeating the data in the graphs and
tables). When writing about each picture, graph or table, refer to it parenthetically e.g.
(Figure 1).
If possible give a section of related results and then comment on them rather than
presenting many pages of unrelated results and then discussing them at the end.
Subheadings can be used to divide this section. Massive quantities of data or raw data
(not refined statistically) can be presented in appendices. Include only your own
observed results in this section.
Pictures and spectra.
Tables and graphs whenever practical.
The following should not be included in your results:
What you expected to find or what you were supposed to have observed. References to
other works (published data or statements of theory). Use the Discussion section of the
report for these.
The Results section should be written in the past tense and passive voice, avoiding the
use of "1" and "we".

Discussion State your interpretation of your findings, perhaps comparing or contrasting them with
the literature. Reflect on your actual data and observations. Explain or rationalize errant
data or describe possible sources of error and how they may have affected the
outcome. The Discussion must answer the question "What do the results mean?" It is
an argument based on the results.

Conclusion This is the summing up of your argument or experiment/research, and should relate
back to the Introduction. The Conclusion should only consist of a few sentences, and
should reiterate the findings of your experiment/research If appropriate, suggest how to
improve the procedure, and what additional experiments or research would be helpful.

References Cite any references that you have used, ensuring that each item in the reference list
has an in-text citation, and every in-text citation has a full reference in the reference list
at the end of your paper.

Memo Writing Notes

Memos are used within organizations to communicate everything from routine details to complete proposals and
reports. Memos are often only a few short paragraphs, but they can be much longer, depending on their purpose

Here are some typical uses of memos;

● to inform others about new or changed policy, procedures, organizational details
● to announce meetings, events, changes
● to present decisione, directives, proposals, briefings
● to transmit documents (internal)

Memo Format
● Company and/or department name (without address)
Heading
● To (who gets it)
● From (who sent it)
● Subject (what it's about)
● Date (when it was sent)
Body (conveys message)
 ● Concise: Make your sentences, paragraph, and overall memo as bref and as focused as possible
● Clear. Get your purpose straight before you start, then plan what you want to say and in what
order.
● Use your memo layout to help your reader (headings, bulleted lists, white space, as appropriate)
● Direct: Speak directly to your reader, as you would in person or on the phone. Do not pad your
ideas with unnecessary details. Think of what questions your reader wants answered, and then
answer them.
● Clean: Reread, revise, copyedit, and proofread.
Memo Structure
Subject Line: Summarizes the main idea; think of it as being preceded by the words "This memo is about."
Introductory paragraph: Quickly orients the reader to what the memo is about
● Give your purpose for writing.
● Supply any relevant background information.
● Identify any task the memo is related to
Body: Conveys the information and supporting detauls relevant to the memo's purpose
● Keep paragraphs short and focused; one main idea per paragraph.
● Keep sentences tight and informative
● Use bullets to list information
Close: End courteously (think of a phone call or face-to-face meeting), stating any expected outcome, action or other
information appropriate to your purpose. For example,
● "Please send me your comments and suggestions by January 16"
● "Let's meet next week to go over the next stage plan"

Meeting Minutes

Taking meeting minutes is essential to a meeting you have your project written with plenty of important details such
as: who as
responsible for what action, when, how, and so on.

You may or may not be asking yourselves: "What are, and how to take meeting minutes" Meeting minutes can be
defined as written or recorded documentation that is used to inform people of what happened during the meeting and
define the next step planned To write effective meeting minutes you should include:
● The names of the participants
● Agenda items
● Calendar or due dates Actions or tasks
● The main points
● Decisions made by the participants Record what is the most important points
● Future decisions Documents: images, attached files

Before the meeting: you need to prepare the different topics to be addressed during the meeting, noting what you
know about them in order to save time and to be able to focus on important topics during the meeting. If not, you
might end up on the margins of the meeting being too busy taking notes.

During the meeting: meeting minutes are an effective contributor to successful meetings, yet they need to be
appropriately written
and distributed in time. The main problem with reports is that they take a long time to be written down properly, and
that they must be sent quickly after the meetings to let everyone know their next projects or actions. You need to build
your notes as the meeting progresses: a good way of organizing your note-taking is to differentiate actions from
remarks as well as noting the different actions per person with a deadline.

After the meeting: type out your notes in a logical manner and not chronologically. It needs to be organized to be
sent out to your colleagues Also, adding a short summary organized per person and per project at the end of the
minutes helps your colleagues quickly glance at the minutes and spot the actions they need to realize within seconds

Sampling

SAMPLING-is a word that refers to your method or process of selecting respondents or people to answer questions
meant to yield data for research study. The chosen ones constitute the sample through which the researcher will
derive facts and evidence to support the claims or conclusions propounded by the research problem.
POPULATION- the bigger group from where the researcher chooses the sample.
SAMPLING FRAME-the list of the members of such population from where the researcher will get the sample.

Population and Sample

● Target population refers to all members who meet the particular criterion specified for a research
investigation.
● A single entity of any given population which is not decomposable further is called an element.
● An element may be an Individual, a household, a factory, a market place, a school, etc.
● What an element is going to be depends on the nature of population.
● What a population is going to be depends on the nature of investigation.
● A population may be homogenous or heterogeneous.
 ● A population is said tobe homogenous when its every element is similar to each other in all aspects. In other
words, every element has all the characteristics that meet the described criteria of target population.
● Variables that make a population heterogeneous vary greatly from research to research.
● Common variables that make a population heterogeneous are gender, age, ethnicity, socioeconomic status,
etc.
Sample
● A sample can be defined as a group of relatively smaller number of people selected from a population for
investigation purpose.
● The members of the sample are called as participants.
Sampling and Its Purpose
● The process through which a sample is extracted from a population is called sampling.
● In investigation it is impossible to assess every single element of a population so a group of people (smaller
in number than the population) is selected for the assessment.
● On the basis of information obtained from the sample, the inferences are drawn for the population.
● The more the samples are representative of the population, the higher is the accuracy of the inferences and
better are the results generalizable.
● A sample is said to be representative when the characteristics of elements selected are similar to that of
entire target population.
● The results are said to be generalizable when the findings obtained from sample are equally true for the
entire target population.
● Sampling process may encounter the problem of systematic errors and sampling biases.
● Systematic errors can be defined as incorrect or false representation of the sample.
● These errors are caused by over representation of one characteristic and/ or under representation of others.
● Sampling bias is said to occur when the selected sample does not truly reflect the characteristics of the
population.

Types of Sampling
1. Probability sampling method
2. Non-Probability sampling method

Probability Sampling or Unbiased Sampling

Probability Sampling - involves all members listed in the sampling frame representing a certain population focused on
by the study. An equal chance of participation in the selection process is given to every member listed in the sampling
frame.
"The right sample size also depends on whether or not the group is heterogeneous or homogeneous. The first group
requires a bigger size, the second group a smaller one.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD

● Probability sampling is also called as random sampling or representative sampling.
● In probability sampling every member of the population has a known non zero probability of being included
in the sample.
● Some form of random selection is used.
● The probabilities can be assigned to each unit of the population objectively.
● These techniques need population to be very precisely defined.
● These techniques cannot be used for the population that is too general a category found almost everywhere
in the world.
● This is well suited for research that is intended to develop the understanding of a population.
Advantages
● This sampling technique reduces the chance of systematic errors.
● The methods minimize the chance of sampling biases.
● A better representative sample is produced using probablity sampling techniques. Inferences drawn from
sample are generalizable to the population.
Disadvantages
● The techniques need a lot of effort.
● A lot of time is consumed.
● They are expensive.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD

● This is also called as judgment or non-random sampling.
● Every unit of population does not get an equal chance of participation in the investigation.
● No random selection is made.
● The selection of the sample is made on the basis of the subjective judgment of the Investigator.
● This is well suited for exploratory research intended to generate new ideas that will be systematically tested
later.
Advantages
● The techniques need less effort.
● They need less time to finish up.
● They are not much costly.
Disadvantages
● The sampling techniques are prone to encounter with systematic errors and sampling bluses.
● The sample cannot claimed to be a good representative of the population.
● Inferences drawn from sample are not generalizable to the