Cultural Geography EXAM

UNIT 1 Cultural geography as a subfield of human geography

GEOGRAPHY EPISTEMOLOGICAL FEATURES

Geography is at the crossroad of different scientific fields (close links to both Human and Natural
Sciences).
Identifiable features of GEOGRAPHIC APPROACH:
● Location and distribution
● Description and explanation
● Comparison and connection: both individualization (of phenomena) and generalization

Within cultural geography, there is a tension between nomothetic and idiographic approaches to
knowledge, inherent to the discipline since ancient times.
Nomothetic knowledge seeks abstract generalities and universal laws applicable to a set of
phenomena. This approach is typical of the natural sciences and involves generalization,
categorization, and systematization. In cultural geography, this might involve studying cultural
patterns or behaviors that are common across different societies or regions. Typical of the
NATURAL SCIENCES
Ideographic knowledge focuses on grasping the specificities of individual objects of study. It aims
to understand the unique characteristics and meanings of particular phenomena, often
emphasizing subjective interpretations and cultural contexts. This approach aligns more with the
social sciences and humanities, where perceptions, symbols, and meanings are central.

Throughout history, cultural geography has seen examples of both ideographic and nomothetic
approaches. Figures like Strabo, Herodotus, and Ptolemy engaged in ideographic approaches,
emphasizing spatial differentiation, empirical knowledge, and the depiction of unique cultural
phenomena. Meanwhile, scholars like Friedrich Ratzel and his Anthropogeographie exemplified a
nomothetic approach by studying general environmental influences on human behavior and
cultural development.

MODERN (SCIENTIFIC) GEOGRAPHY (18th to 19th centuries)

FRIEDRICH RATZEL (1844-1904): Anthropogeographie & Kulturgeographie
Ratzel's "Kulturgeoegraphie der Vereinigten Staaten" (1878-80) explores the dichotomy between
Nature and Civilization, emphasizing their opposing roles in human progress. Influenced by
19th-century ethnographic theories, Ratzel sees culture as a liberating force from environmental
constraints, although he also embraces environmental determinism, arguing that physical factors
shape societies. He highlights the significance of cultural landscapes as expressions of human
adaptation to geography, advocating for their study to understand settlement patterns and
agricultural practices.
Ratzel's "Anthropogeographie: Principles for the Application of Geography to History" delves into
the environmental factors shaping human behavior and cultural evolution. Integrating Darwinian
principles, he presents a framework linking human settlement patterns with ecological dynamics,
emphasizing the interplay between society and environment. Influenced by social Darwinism,
Ratzel sees cultural development as driven by adaptation to environmental conditions, aiming to
position geography at the forefront of understanding human sciences.

“Anglo-Saxon Connection” –Late 19th century Geography in the USA and the GERMAN
heritage
Ellen C. Semple's work, "Influences of Geographic Environment on the Basis of Ratzel's System of
Anthropogeography" (1911), underscores the pivotal role of the physical environment in shaping
human activity, culture, and history. She emphasizes that understanding human behavior requires
considering the diverse geographic conditions that stimulate it worldwide. Semple argues that
physical features and geographic position are crucial in shaping the potential development of
societies. Furthermore, she contends that a state's historical development is deeply influenced by
its geographic basis, with more favorable environments and larger geographic territories leading to
greater historical significance.

Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845-1918)

POSSIBILISM, often associated with Historicism, suggests that the environment presents a range
of possibilities for human societies to utilize. Rather than viewing the environment as deterministic,
Vidal argued that societies have the agency to transform their environments in response to the
constraints they face.
Vidal's ideas had a significant impact on the field of Human Geography, particularly in
methodology. His emphasis on understanding the relationship between societies and their
environments influenced scholars such as Carl Sauer at the University of California, Berkeley.

Main objects, topics and approaches in classical cultural geography (CCG)

Objects
Landscape and its forms
- as a way to study nature-human interactions

Topics
Culture and Nature
- cultural diffusion and perception of nature
- a cultural area and its historical construction determined by physical and human processes
- description and explanation of areal facts - land occupation and use

Methodology
- empirical field observation: morphologic analysis (adjusted to become a specifically
historical method)
- explanatory descriptions + generic and functional approach (comprehensive regional
geography)
- CRONOLOGIC expression in landscape

Chorology is the study of the spatial distribution of phenomena, such as plants, animals, or
cultural features, within a specific region or area. It examines the patterns and variations in
distribution, considering environmental factors, historical processes, and human activities.
The concept of culture
Culture as a landscape and place based identity
- separated from what individuals do
- all that explains their behavior
- individuals as agents of cultural forces
- self determinant generating its own forces (nuanced “super organic” mode of explanation)

Alfred Kroeber introduced the concept of the "superorganic," which views culture as an
autonomous entity beyond individual members, akin to a supra-individual organism. This
perspective emphasizes that culture cannot be fully understood through individual actions alone
but instead conditions individuals through values, symbols, and ideas transmitted within society.
Kroeber argued that culture generates its own forms and evolves independently, with cultural
factors primarily explaining cultural transformations.

Carl Sauer (1889-1975)

Influences:
- German Geography's environmental determinism and Ratzel's cultural landscape ideas.
- American Anthropology's super-organic view and cultural relativism, influenced by German
sources.
- French regional geography, particularly Vidal de la Blache's Possibilism, also shaped his thinking.
His position:
- rejection of environmental determinism notion of culture and questioned using evolution as
a framework for cultural study
- culture has areal expression (chronology) - but not cultural unity
- culture: acquired habits upon which behavior depends (response to specific environments)
- material expressions of culture manifest themselves in landscape
- landscape: unit of human occupation and product of humans

o CULTURAL LANDSCAPE is a characteristic and tangible outcome of the complex

interactions between a human group and its environment A “cultural landscape” is a
humanized version of a natural environment.

THE MORPHOLOGY OF LANDSCAPE (C. SAUER, 1925)

Carl Sauer's "The Morphology of Landscape" (1925) revolutionized American cultural geography,
proposing landscape as the key unit for studying human-environment interaction.
He also revisited the historical context of the late 19th century, particularly in Europe, where
divergent perspectives on the human-environment relationship had emerged. At that time, two
main trends dominated the discourse:
Environmental determinists, inspired by Charles Darwin's theories, attributed the shaping of
human cultures primarily to environmental factors. They viewed natural conditions as the decisive
influence on cultural development, with specific cultures seen as products of their environmental
contexts. This positivist approach, prevalent among geographers of the time, simplified the
complex relationship between humans and their surroundings, reducing it to causal determinants
such as climate, relief, or drainage.
Environmental possibilism challenged the deterministic view, arguing that while the environment
undoubtedly influenced cultural variations, it did not dictate them. Instead, they emphasized the
role of human agency in responding to environmental opportunities and constraints. Scholars like
Vidal de la Blache championed a more empirical and regionalist approach to geography, focusing
on documenting cultural differences and areal distributions.

Sauer's analysis of these contrasting perspectives reflected a broader shift within the discipline,
from a period dominated by positivism and environmental determinism towards a more nuanced
understanding that acknowledged the agency of human societies in shaping their landscapes. By
revisiting and synthesizing these debates, Sauer aimed to contribute to the ongoing evolution of
Geography as a rigorous and interdisciplinary field of study.

What role does culture play in Sauer’s definition of landscape?

For him human cultures were the most important factor influencing the metamorphosis of any
environment.
- It was human culture that moulded the natural landscape, and through this interaction the
natural landscape was transformed into a CULTURAL LANDSCAPE.

Hence Sauer’s definition of cultural landscape: there is a strictly geographic way of thinking of
culture; namely, as the impress of the works of man upon the area.

According to Sauer:
● culture is the agent,
● natural area is the medium,
● cultural landscape the result.
Under the influence of a given culture, itself changing through time, the landscape undergoes
development, passing through phases, and probably reaching ultimately the end of its cycle of
development.

Carl Sauer advocated for applying the morphologic method to study landscapes. This method
involves:
1. Organizing phenomena into forms and structures,
2. Comparing them across space and time,
3. Tracing developmental stages.
By identifying physical and cultural forms, drawing inferences, and documenting developmental
stages, this method allows for understanding how landscapes have been utilized and transformed
by human activity over time.

Sauer’s understanding of culture and its critics

Insofar as Sauer’s approach focused on the material cultural landscape, he understood CULTURE
AS A FORM, as a clearly distinguishable and independent entity in itself able to transform the
natural landscape.
· From this perspective, culture was “superorganic” in nature:
o Something homogeneous that existed independently of human beings.

Such a superorganic conception of culture came to be criticised by new generations of cultural

geographers through the last quarter of the 20th century, particularly in the UK.
- James Duncan (1980). “The Superorganic in American Cultural Geography”.
- Denis Cosgrove and Peter Jackson (1987). “New Directions in Cultural Geography”.
For this new generation of cultural geographers, Sauer’s approach to cultural geography
(CLASSIC CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY) was no longer able to explain the changes the world was
witnessing by the end of the 20th century:
- Social movements based on race and gender.
- Anti-war and student protests.
- Environmental campaigns against industrial
- pollution.
- Decolonization.
- Globalization.

Towards a NEW CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY…

Ultimately, the super-organic approach to culture limited the questions that may be asked about the
wider social context in which cultures are constituted and expressed, as it focused only on the
material elements of culture, leaving aside its social and symbolic dimension.
This is why new generations of cultural geographers moved beyond the anthropological bias and
turned towards a range of social disciplines which were concerned with the contingent and
constructed nature of the world.

Some of these disciplines were:

· Humanistic geography: emphasis on individual action and on the sense of place.
· Radical, Feminist and Marxist geography: emphasis on internal divisions and conflicts within
cultures and contemporary urban formations.
· Cultural Studies: emphasis on the role of culture in securing and maintaining the hegemony of
dominant groups.
· Semiotics and literary theory: emphasis on the idea of culture and landscape as texts.

Postmodern transformations: the New Cultural Geography and its relationship with Cultural
Studies.
Due to the shift in philosophical lineage, for new cultural geographers, culture was no longer
superorganic; it was no longer the agent creating landscapes, rather agency was accredited to
humans themselves.
Thus, CULTURE became understood AS A PROCESS (and not as a form) in which people are
actively engaged; culture was seen as the practical activity of producing meanings.
To the extent that culture began to be understood as a process rather than a form, the way
landscape was seen also changed.

- Landscape was no longer understood

as the strictly material expression of culture
(characteristic of “traditional” cultural
geography), but as a TEXT, a system of
meanings through which a social system is
communicated, reproduced, experienced, and
explored.

- Ultimately, landscape was seen as the

physical translation of a symbolic order of
things.
James and Nancy Duncan’s article “(Re)Reading the Landscape” (1988)
The aim of the Duncans’ text “(Re)Reading the Landscape” is:
● The Duncans suggest that the concepts of textuality, intertextuality, and reader
reception may be of importance to those interested in the notion that landscapes are read in much
the same way as literary texts. It is further suggested that landscapes can be seen as texts which
are transformations of ideologies into a concrete form.

The Duncans draw from linguistic theory to suggest that landscapes can be interpreted as texts
due to their text-like qualities, such as being subjected to processes of writing and reading. In
terms of contributions from linguistic theory:
● Structuralism (illustrated through Saussure's insights) emphasizes the arbitrary nature of
signs and the importance of conventional systems of relations among signs. Saussure's
distinction between la langue and parole highlights the significance of relationships
between signs rather than intrinsic value.
● Poststructuralism broadens the notion of text, emphasizing the ceaseless play of
meanings and the role of the reader in interpretation. Poststructuralists view texts as
deeply mediated by other texts and emphasize intertextuality.

The Duncans apply these contributions to landscape analysis, viewing landscapes as text-like
creations that are constructed and interpreted within specific cultural contexts. They introduce
concepts like textual community and intertextuality to approach the study of landscape as a text
from a sociological perspective.
Regarding landscapes as ideological, the Duncans argue that landscapes are culturally produced
and therefore ideological, as they inscribe social relations and naturalize them. They propose
denaturalizing the landscape through deconstruction, a method that exposes unacknowledged
implications in the reading of texts.

Lastly, the Duncans criticize the "superorganic mode of explanation" for reifying culture and
granting it independent and causative power above individuals. They argue that this approach
assigns transcendental holism to cultural explanations, thereby overlooking individual agency and
context.

• Open new avenues of inquiry (new concerns, topics and methods):

- Cosgrove’s landscape iconography;
- Duncan’s literary poststructuralist (city as text);
- P. Jackson cultural politics (historical materialism).
*Topics or concerns that were scarcely central to Berkeley School (Sauer).
New empirical studies of so far neglected geographies (of class, race, gender and sexuality) that
required new theories of culture
Culture is no longer explained through historical processes but theorized as a DYNAMIC
PROCESS that is historically and geographically specific. (Jackson, 1983).

1987 Manifesto for the NEW CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY – D. Cosgrove and P. Jackson
- UK movement of young scholars.
- First developments in the early 80s (by humanistic and Marxist geography= Radical CG) and
further new approaches
- NEW CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY “Alternative ways of theorizing culture without specific
reference to the landscape concept”
o Contemporary as well as historical (but always THEORETICALLY INFORMED and
“contextual”).
o “Social as well as spatial” (not confined to landscape issues).
o Urban as well as rural (stable: outcome of premodern agricultural societies);
o Critique of dominant IDEOLOGIES and focus on FORMS of RESISTANCE.

Culture is “the medium through which people transform the mundane phenomenon of the
material world INTO A WORLD OF SIGNIFICANT SYMBOLS to which they give meaning and
attach value”. (Jackson & Cosgrove).
o Symbolic qualities of landscape (CULTURAL IMAGE): produce, reproduce and sustain social
meaning →new sources [media and surfaces] for study in NCG.
o Wide range of landscapes representations (from painting and poetry to gardening and urban
design in the context on modern capitalism ** NATURE)

• Methodologies INTERPRETATIVE rather than morphological methods.

֎Contemporary concerns
o Culture is: symbolic, active, dynamic, constantly subject to change and riven through with
RELATIONS OF POWER.
o MECHANISM OF REPRESENTATIONS are mechanisms of power and IDEOLOGICAL
MYSTIPHICATION.
UNIT 2 NATURE, LANDSCAPE AND CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY
The study of nature in Cultural Geography
Cultural Geography studies nature, as it is a concept loaded with relevant information (from the
cultural perspective) about changes in the human-environment relationship through space and
time.
● how we define nature says much more about who defines it than about what is being
defined: the definition of nature will vary according to who is doing the defining.

According to Carl Sauer, the natural landscape consists of a distinctive association of physical
forms which provides the material from which the cultural landscape is formed
From a Marxist perspective, with the progress of capitalist accumulation and the expansion of
economic development, nature is more and more the product of social production.

Thus, the contents of nature are potentially so varied that, ultimately, what gets defined as
nature reflects social power relations, and this is what a critical geographical account of nature
is concerned with.
From a critical cultural geographic perspective (mostly upheld by “new” cultural geographers),
nature is not natural, but it is always mediated by the influence of humans. NATURE IS
CULTURALLY MEDIATED (“second nature”)

Visions of nature, and nature-society relations in Western thought.

Attitudes towards nature in Antiquity (VIII c. BC - V c. AD)
Double edged sense of nature:
- Pragmatic relation to nature Nature was often viewed through a pragmatic lens,
conceptualized as a source of "natural resources." In Mediterranean landscapes, such as
vineyards, olive groves, and wheat fields, there was a conscious effort towards land
improvement, often guided by governmental policies.The ancients observed the Earth as
composed of fundamental elements: air, fire, water, and earth. They saw humanity as an
integral part of the natural world which posited a correspondence between bodily fluids and
natural elements, reflecting the macrocosm/microcosm relationship.
- Aesthetic judgment of nature: Nature was also subject to aesthetic judgment, both
practically and culturally. Practical expressions included gardening, parks, and ornaments,
particularly among the upper social classes. Meanwhile, literature, philosophy, and painting
reflected a deep appreciation for the beauty of nature.Mediterranean landscapes were culturally
appraised positively, seen as "humanized" or domesticated environments. There was a contrast
between nature and the urban environment, with nature often symbolizing a dwelling place and
a sense of home (nostos). Additionally, nature held a sacred significance, with gods perceived
as natural forces and landscapes often serving as sites of shrines imbued with inherent divine
energy.

Double-edged cultural appraisal of nature:

-Beauty as proof of God’s creation – Earth (divine order -design): to be improved by man.
-Ability of man as to transform the land (cultivated and domesticated landscapes).
CRAFTMANSHIP (God-analogy).
Classical philosophy (“optimistic” mindset: human at the center of creation). PHYSIS & TECHNE
(reason, cause-effect: art/craft: rational transformation of material world).
3 Benchmarks in the Western cultural construction of the idea of NATURE (sense of “the
natural”).

1-Locus amoenus (Antiquity). Nature, chora and topos.

Locus amoenus, originating from antiquity, refers to a pleasant and delightful place, often
associated with the concept of the genius loci, or spirit of the place. This idea has been explored
through various imaginative landscapes, such as the biblical Eden. These landscapes are
characterized by pastoral imagery, including meadows, rivers, trees, and gentle topography, often
inhabited by shepherds and sheep. They serve as retreats for individuals seeking to escape urban
life and find solace in nature.
The concept of genius loci emphasizes the sacredness and unique character of a place, often
associated with worship and devotion to a specific deity. It highlights the intimate connection
between human culture and the natural environment, with each place possessing its own distinct
identity or "finger print."
In contrast to the locus amoenus, the locus horridus represents fearful and inhospitable places,
such as rugged mountain peaks or barren landscapes. These places are less well-known but are
often fully individuated, inhabited by characters that personify emotions, moral values, or
allegorical concepts.
Roman villas, particularly the villa rustica, exemplify a willingness to retreat from urban life into
seclusion while also embracing conviviality through gardening and productive order imposed on
natural surroundings. However, this conscious element of artifice has been criticized by advocates
of rustic life for being too suburban, emphasizing a tension between the desire for otium, or leisure,
and the authenticity of rural living.

Western view and attitude towards nature: ANTHROPOCENTRISM

Both the classical and medieval conceptions of nature display an anthropocentric view of nature
because they place the human being on a higher plane than the rest of living things, either
because he possesses a reason that animals and plants do not have, or because his task is to
guard the divine creation.
Although both conceptions understand the Earth as a whole, as an organic unit: nature as the
entire living world, of which the human species is a part (this vision will change with the arrival of
Modernity).

2-The “invention” of perspective in painting and architecture: Modern Times.

● • VISUAL CONTROL OF SPACE
● • DETACHED OBSERVER
● • OBJECTIVE SENSE OF SPACE
● • URBAN VIEWPOINT
Designed and controlled environment/space. CONVENTIONS and FORMALIZATION
(mathematics and geometry). Scale and position of objects in space structure / composition
● REALISTIC approach to nature – ACCURATENESS. Faithfully record the forms and
shapes of EXTERNAL WORLD for their own shake. (Secular life, towns).
● SCIENTIFIC WAY OF CONCEIVING OF SPACE
Reflection on the technique of the perspective : represents things as they really are. OBJECTIVE
UNDERSTANDING ON NATURE
• Subjective control of objective environment
3-The “discovery” of high places. Mountains and “the sublime”. Romantic sense of
landscape (Wilderness). Contemporary transformations (Authenticity).
The transition from the Enlightenment to Romanticism marked a profound shift in how nature was
perceived and experienced, particularly through concepts like the sublime and the aesthetic. This
shift was influenced by various cultural and philosophical developments. Renaissance
individualism, emphasizing the subjective experiences of the individual, laid the groundwork for
Romanticism. Thinkers like Descartes and Hume furthered this subjectivity, leading to aesthetic
subjectivism, where personal feelings determined taste and value.
Religious and cultural factors, such as Protestantism's emphasis on individual spirituality and
German Idealism's focus on intense emotions, also contributed. Figures like Rousseau critiqued
Enlightenment rationalism, advocating for individual freedom and emotional experiences.
Industrialization's anxieties fueled a romanticized view of unspoiled landscapes and societies,
seeking authenticity and strong emotions.
Aesthetics became a focal point for philosophical reflection, exploring the beautiful versus the
sublime. Rather than detached observation, there was a shift towards experiencing subjects
overwhelmed by what they saw. Mountains, symbolizing the sublime, evoked fear and awe, gaining
cultural significance during this time.
The Grand Tour shaped cultural geography, with travelers visiting significant places like the Alps,
central to European routes. Nature, during the Romantic era, was idealized as untouched
wilderness, offering refuge from urbanization and industrialization. This idealization led to the
creation of national parks in the late 19th century, aiming to protect nature from exploitation.
National parks became globally recognized for conservation efforts, reflecting broader cultural
attitudes towards nature and land use.

Accordingly, nature was no longer related to a teleological or theological view, but to a naturalist
one: It was believed that everything arises from natural properties and causes, and supernatural or
spiritual explanations were excluded or discounted. This led to a more rational and secular idea of
nature which escaped the habit of singular personification (nature as goddess or God) through
mathematics, physics and astronomy.

In Modern Times, what was being looked for in nature were the laws that explained the order in
nature: nature as a constitutional lawyer.
To the extent that the study of nature through reason revealed the natural laws of the world, nature
became externalized, that is, nature (object) was separated from humans (subject).
This externalization was two-fold:
· Cognitive sphere: nature became an object of scientific knowledge.
· Practical sphere: nature became a resource of exploitation.

This separation of nature from humans allowed to claim that cognition and exploitation of nature
belong together (knowledge is power).
This is why, following the Renaissance, scientific techniques for knowing and representing the land
(surveys, maps, census, linear perspective, etc.) played a key role in the European appropriation
and exploitation of land overseas.

Western view and attitude towards nature: DUALISM

Thus, Modernity added to the anthropocentric view of nature the separation between nature and
humans into two distinct ontological domains. From a critical cultural geographic perspective, since
nature is culturally mediated, this conception of nature as something detached from humans is not
innocent, but it is instead intricately entangled with, and enabling of, governmental rationalities,
racial and colonial discourses, and the construction of gendered, racial and ethnic/national
identities.

Text no 1. Larson, J. (2007). “A Land Full of Gods: Nature Deities in Greek Religion”, in: A
Companion to Greek Religion
The book explores how ancient Greeks revered natural features like mountains and rivers as
sacred places associated with specific deities.
It discusses how temples and sanctuaries dedicated to nature deities were situated in the
landscape, influencing pilgrimage routes and regional networks.
It reveals how Greek beliefs and rituals shaped their understanding of nature, blending animism
and anthropomorphism in their interaction with the environment.
The book delves into outdoor ceremonies and offerings made in natural settings, highlighting the
role of pilgrimage in connecting worshippers with the natural world.
It examines how religious practices influenced resource management and land use, revealing
insights into ancient Greek environmental interactions and conservation efforts

Text no 2. Cosgrove, D. (1985). “Prospect, Perspective and the Evolution of the Landscape”
"Prospect, Perspective, and the Evolution of the Landscape" is an article by Denis Cosgrove, a
prominent cultural geographer known for his work on the relationship between landscape, culture,
and society. Published in 1985, the article likely explores how human perceptions of landscapes
have evolved over time and how this evolution has shaped cultural perspectives and practices
related to the environment. Cosgrove's work often delves into the intersection of geography,
history, and cultural studies to understand the ways in which landscapes are constructed,
perceived, and represented.

Text no 3. Scaramellini, G. (1996). “The picturesque and the sublime in nature and the landscape:
Writing and iconography in the romantic voyaging in the Alps”
It explores how Romantic writers and artists depicted the Alps, emphasizing both the charming
("picturesque") and awe-inspiring ("sublime") qualities of the landscape. The study likely examines
how these depictions were influenced by literary and artistic conventions of the time, as well as by
the personal experiences of travelers in the Alps.

D. Mitchell (1996). “California: The Beautiful and the Damned”, from The Lie of the Land: Migrant
Workers and the California Landscape.
It explores the complex relationship between California's landscape and its migrant workers. The
chapter likely delves into how the natural beauty of California's landscape contrasts with the harsh
realities faced by migrant workers who labor within it. Mitchell might discuss how this contrast
highlights the socioeconomic disparities and environmental injustices present in the state.
Additionally, the chapter may touch upon the historical and cultural factors that have shaped
California's landscape and the lives of its migrant workers. Mitchell's work often examines issues of
labor, environment, and social justice, providing critical insights into the interconnectedness of
these themes.
UNIT 3 CULTURE, TERRITORY AND IDENTITY IN A GLOBAL WORLD
The cultural dimension of globalization from a geographical perspective:

1. Geographical experience: place, belonging and meaning.

The study of place in Cultural Geography:

Place is often thought of as a location. Here location refers both to the idea of a concrete/bounded
space and to an absolute point in abstract geographical space with a set of coordinates and
measurable distances from other locations.
However, a place is much more than its geographical location. Alongside with it, a place is also
locale and sense of place.
o Locale refers to the way a place looks —the material setting for social relations.
o Sense of place refers to the more abstract meanings and feelings that a place evokes.
Place is a meaningful site that combines location, locale and sense of place ( individual or shared).

● Places are practiced (the sense we have of a place is heavily dependent on the activities
we carry out in that place).
● Places can exist at many scales (from one’s own room to the whole earth).

Cultural Geography thus studies place as a concept because it is loaded with relevant information
(from the cultural perspective) about how humans inhabit, experience and signify space over time
(place as a lens to the world).
*Although this conception of place may seem self-evident today, it was not so in the 1970s, when
place began to be conceptualized as a meaningful site.

The concept of "place" became significant in geography only in the 1970s with the advent of
humanistic geography.
This shift emerged as a reaction against the quantitative revolution of the 1950s and 1960s, which
redefined geography as a spatial science. During this period, geographers focused on abstract
space, employing scientific methods to analyze spatial patterns, shapes, forms, densities, and
other measurable aspects. Space was seen as an absolute, fixed, and homogeneous grid,
essentially a physical extension or location where events occurred.
The humanistic approach, contrastingly, emphasized meanings and attachments to specific places,
moving beyond the mere physical and quantitative attributes of space.

Humanistic geographers critiqued the lexicon of spatial science (space, location, distance, spatial
patterns) for lacking a human-centered understanding of space. They emphasized the importance
of meaning and how humans experience and inhabit the world, focusing on subjectivity.
Central to their approach is the concept of place, viewed not merely as a location but as a way
humans create meaning through their experience and dwelling. This perspective allowed them to
explore the human-environment relationship via lived experiences, incorporating perceptions and
senses of place.
Through experience, humans transform scientific notions of space into lived, meaningful places,
making place a center of order and human meaning.

Edward Relph, in "Sense of Place," emphasized that this connection to the world is an innate
faculty. Humanistic geographers first conceptualized the notion of sense of place through
emotional attachments (topophilias) and the uniqueness of localities. In "Place and Placelessness"
(1976), Relph described the strongest sense of place as experienced when people feel at home in
their community, termed existential insideness, contrasted with existential outsideness
(homesickness).

Place as a distinctive concept — Development within the early years of globalization

(1900-1970)
The humanistic approach to place based on experience also emerged in response to the social
and cultural transformations that occurred throughout the 20th c., especially after the Second
World War.
- Urban transformation under the modernist paradigm, suburbanization, intensification of the use
of technologies, mass production and consumption.
- Postmodernism (time-space compression: speed, simultaneity, synchrony, connecting and
networking, flows).

Thus, the 1970s humanistic first takes on place also emerged as a way of conceptualizing and
responding to these social and cultural transformations that were undergoing at that time, which
directly influenced place-making and the sense of place.

The late twentieth century may be the first period in history when it is possible for most people to
survive without first-hand knowledge of their surroundings. It is now quite possible to get around a
city by using borrowed information, reading guide books and following signs. I find this depressing
because the landscapes and places we live in are important. (E. Relph in The Modern Urban
Landscape, 1987)

Edward Relph's Place and Placelessness (1976)

1. Cultural Homogenization: modern developments in architecture, commerce, and
transportation contribute to the homogenization of cultural landscapes. This process leads to the
emergence of spaces that are culturally indistinguishable from one another. This homogenization
diminishes local cultures and erodes the unique qualities that differentiate one place from another.
2. Sense of Place: refers to the emotional and symbolic meanings that people attach to
specific locations. Relph argues that placelessness undermines this sense of place by creating
environments that lack distinctive features and fail to evoke strong emotional connections. The
result is a loss of local identity and a diminished ability for people to form meaningful relationships
with their surroundings.
3. Impact on Cultural Practices: Placelessness affects cultural practices by displacing
traditional activities and social interactions that are tied to specific locales. For example, local
markets or culturally significant landmarks may be replaced by standardized, commercialized
spaces that do not support the same types of cultural engagement. This shift can lead to a
weakening of community bonds and cultural traditions.
4. Resistance and Preservation: Despite the spread of placelessness, Relph notes efforts to
resist and counteract these trends through cultural preservation and place-making initiatives.
These efforts often involve the protection of historical sites, the promotion of local arts and crafts,
and the development of urban planning strategies that emphasize the unique characteristics of
places.
5. Ethical Considerations in Place-Making: Relph's work calls attention to the responsibilities
of architects, planners, and policymakers to create environments that respect and reflect the
cultural identities of communities. Ethical place-making involves prioritizing the needs and values
of local populations, promoting cultural diversity, and ensuring that development projects do not
erase the historical and cultural significance of places.
6. Globalization and Local Cultures: The tension between globalization and local cultures is a
recurring theme in cultural geography. Relph's concept of placelessness highlights how global
economic and cultural forces can overwhelm local particularities, leading to the spread of uniform
spaces. However, it also points to the potential for global awareness to inspire movements that
celebrate and protect local cultural identities.

Criticism to Humanistic Geography

● Subjectivism, Psychologism, Individualism: Critics argue that HG's focus on individual and
subjective experiences of place neglects broader social and political contexts.
● Essentialism and Universalism: HG is seen as promoting a static and timeless vision of
place, ignoring historical and cultural variability.
● Lack of Political and Social Outlook: Early HG fails to account for the social production of
places and the role of power in place-making.
● Nostalgic and Static Stance: HG is criticized for its morally connoted, antimodernist view,
which romanticizes the past and resists change.
● Geographic Bias: There is a perceived overemphasis on North American and late-modern
experiences, limiting the applicability of HG concepts globally.
● Under-theorization: HG is seen as lacking in conceptual development, particularly in its
reliance on binary oppositions like place vs. non-place.

Philosopher Jeff Malpas has argued for the ontological necessity of place, but critics suggest that
HG needs a more nuanced and updated understanding to grasp contemporary realities. The
dichotomy of place vs. non-place is seen as too rigid, and critics call for alternative concepts to
explain modern spatial experiences. Overall, critics inspired by Marxism, feminism, and
post-structuralism in the 1980s highlighted these limitations, advocating for a more critical and
inclusive approach to the study of place.

Latter developments on place — Global sense of place

As the first humanistic understanding of place —too fixed and too rooted in the past— began to be
challenged, other ways of thinking about space emerged between the 1980s and the 1990s. This
shift was influenced by the social and cultural changes brought about by globalization, which
marked the era of postmodernity.

D. Massey (1994). “A global sense of place”, from Space, Place and Gender.
Doreen Massey argued that the uniqueness of a place stems not from its internal history but from a
specific constellation of social relations that intersect at that location. Rather than being defined by
boundaries, places are seen as dynamic points in networks of social relations, experiences, and
understandings that extend beyond local confines.
Instead, then, of thinking of places as areas with boundaries around, they can be imagined as
articulated moments in networks of social relations, experiences and understandings that are
constructed on a far larger scale than what happens to define for that moment as the place itself.

D. Kolb claims that: “Today's society is still creating real human places. Theme parks and
suburban sprawl and anonymous functional places such as airports and parking lots are more than
nonplaces. To see them right, we have to measure them in terms of their own new forms of
connection rather than against classic hierarchical units”.
D. Kolb claims that: *Place is all about unity (meaning and sense of place) and complexity
(interconnection, ordering, underlying structure). But, *The “unity of a place” cannot be reduced to
its spatial or aesthetic expression (or even just explained through them). There are other elements
giving unity to a place (people movements, shared norms and expectation, social practices,
patterns of actions, etc.).
Kolb's concept of "sprawling places" refers to urban areas characterized by extensive
development, often sprawling outwards without clear boundaries or planning. These places
typically exhibit low density, extensive land use, and fragmented infrastructure. The term highlights
the lack of coherence and planning in the development of these areas, often leading to
environmental degradation, social segregation, and inefficient land use.

This new perspective on place fosters an extroverted sense of place, recognizing and integrating
global connections with the local. It aligns with Radical-Marxist Geography, which emphasizes
historical materialism and the social construction of place, considering economic processes and
political struggles within a global capitalist context.

In the late 1980s and 1990s, scholars like Entrikin, Sack, and Malpas built upon earlier ideas. They
combined concepts such as Massey's "global sense of place" and Kolb's "sprawling places" to go
beyond old ideas of what places are. Instead, they aimed to give modern places fresh significance,
breaking free from the old divisions between places and non-places.

Edward Relph - "The Paradox of Place" (2014)

Edward Relph's seminal work on the paradox of place explores the evolving dynamics between
place and placelessness in our contemporary world. Over the years, Relph has refined his theories
to reflect the shifting landscape of how we conceive, create, and experience places.
● 1950s-1960s: Witnessed a modernist anti-place development approach, emphasizing
uniformity over distinctiveness.
● 1970s-1980s: Saw a resurgence of interest in place distinctiveness through heritage
designation and the rise of postmodernism.
● 1990s: Placelessness began to be mitigated through diversification strategies and the
emergence of place branding.
○
The Paradox Unveiled: The paradox lies in recognizing that appreciating a place's unique identity
necessitates acknowledging its similarities with other places. Distinctiveness is thus defined by its
relationship to sameness, making place inseparable from placelessness in our postmodern
context.
Contemporary Realities
● Today, our experiences of place are increasingly transitory, transnational, and
multi-centered, resulting in tangled manifestations of both distinctiveness and sameness.
● Hybridity has become an unavoidable aspect of everyday place experience, blurring
traditional boundaries and categories.

Globalization and Deterritorialization: Globalization leads to placelessness and non-places, but

also fosters a "global sense of place" where individuals may feel connected to global spaces in
meaningful ways.

TOWARDS NEW UNDERSTANDINGS OF :

-GLOBAL/COSMOPOLITAN BELONGING AND IDENTITY.
-(HIPER)MOBILE SENSE OF PLACE.
-MULTI-CENTERED GEOGRAPHICAL EXPERIENCES (Fluidity, hybridity, ‘liquidness’)

The unity, connection, and complexity of a place are primarily shaped by its social thickness, which
encompasses diverse social roles and interactions. This understanding allows for the differentiation
between various types of place unity, rather than categorizing places as authentic or inauthentic.
Even seemingly ordinary places like suburban sprawl can offer unique norms and patterns of
action that defy previous conventions. For example, suburban sprawl introduces new social norms
and expectations, fostering fresh understandings of connection, relation, reference, and transition.
This occurs as individuals weave the separated units of suburban sprawl into interconnected
patterns of living.
Unit 4: 4. SPACE, DIFFERENCE AND POWER. GEOGRAPHIES OF
IN /EXCLUSIO1-A cultural politics of space: producing space, contesting power.

“The PRODUCTION of space”

1) Production: economic production relations

(economic system): material processes (infrastructure) shapes the superstructure: ideology,
culture)
Relation people-nature: land within an economic system (property, land tenure, exploitation,
production and manufacturing)

2) “Construction”: cultural/social/epistemic
constructivism
- places are more than physical locations
- rich tapestries of human meaning and experience
- constructed through social interactions, cultural practices, and power dynamics.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE: the nature of social bonds, social roles and hierarchy, inequalities,
segregation)

Background of constructivism
-The relationship between people and nature, land tenure, exploitation, production, and social
structures such as segregation and inequality (Marxist Geography)
- A-Post-May 68: Cultural and sexual revolution; Civil Rights movements; political uprisings:
politicization of “everyday life”
- Postmodernism: Criticism of Modern Culture and Epistemology

1. Critique of Modernism:
○ Modern Culture: Belief in objective truth, universal values, and a coherent self.
○ Epistemology: Knowledge seen as objective and certain.
2. Cultural and Social Constructions:
○ Truth, Objectivity, Knowledge:
○ Postmodern View: These are not natural entities but are constructed through
cultural and social processes.
○ Implication: What is considered "truth" or "knowledge" varies by historical and
cultural context.
3. Identity and Subjectivity:
○ Power-Mediated:
○ Subject = Subjection: Identities are formed through societal domination and
control.
○ Example: Gender roles and racial identities imposed by societal norms.

○ Domination and Reshaping:

○ Identity: Fluid and continuously negotiated, not fixed.
○ Culture: Shapes understanding of self and others.
○ Example: The "self-made individual" in capitalist societies vs. community-focused
identities in other cultures.
Implications:
● Relativism: Challenges the idea of absolute truths or universal standards.
● Critical Perspective: Encourages examination of power structures in knowledge production.
● Empowerment: Recognizing constructed identities allows for challenging oppressive
structures and promoting inclusivity.

1. X is not given/not natural:

○ Marxist View: Space and place are not simply physical entities but are produced through
economic activities and social relations.
○ Postmodern View: Truth, objectivity, knowledge, identity, and space are not natural entities
but are constructed through cultural and social processes.
2. X is a construction (socially produced/culturally constructed):
○ Marxist View: Spaces are produced through labor, capital, and economic relations. For
example, urban landscapes are shaped by the needs of capital accumulation.
○ Postmodern View: Meanings and identities of places are constructed through cultural
practices, discourses, and power relations.
3. If X is constructed, then X might be changed, and it might have been otherwise:
○ Marxist View: Since spaces are produced by specific economic systems, changing these
systems can change the spaces. For example, altering capitalist practices can transform urban
spaces.
○ Postmodern View: Since places are culturally and socially constructed, changing cultural
narratives and power dynamics can alter the meanings and uses of places.
4. If X might be changed, then X must be transformed (ought to be transformed):
○ Marxist View: Calls for the transformation of spaces to address inequalities and injustices
produced by capitalist systems. For example, advocating for equitable urban planning and
distribution of resources.
○ Postmodern View: Advocates for transforming spaces to reflect diverse cultural practices
and power relations, promoting inclusivity and resisting dominant narratives.

Henri Lefebvre's Theory:

Book: "The Production of Space" (1974)
Concepts:
● Perceived Space ("Le perçu"): Physical space as experienced in everyday life.
● Conceived Space ("Le conçu"): Space as planned and conceptualized by experts and
authorities.
● Lived Space ("Le vécu"): Space as it is actually used and lived in, including the
symbolic meanings attached to it.

Key Concepts in Constructivism

1. Social Construction of Space:
Social Practices: Spaces are shaped by the activities and interactions of people. This
includes daily routines, social practices, and the historical and cultural narratives that
people associate with places.
2. Cultural and Social Constructs:
Symbolic Meanings: Places carry meanings that are constructed through cultural
symbols, language, and narratives.
3. Power and Identity:
 Power Relations: The construction of a place is influenced by who has the power to
define and control spaces.
Identity: Places are integral to the formation of personal and group identities.
4. Dynamic Nature of Places:
Negotiation and Change: The meanings and uses of places are constantly evolving as
social, economic, and political conditions change.
5. Multivocality:
Multiple Meanings: Different groups may have different interpretations and experiences
of the same place.
6. Spatial Practices:
Use and Movement: The ways in which people use and move through spaces
contribute to their meaning and significance.

Implications
● Resistance and Contestation:
Counter-Spaces: Spaces created in opposition to dominant power structures, often
through grassroots and community-led initiatives.

● Transformative Potential:
Possibility for Change: Recognizing that places are socially constructed opens up the
possibility for deliberate and transformative change.

The spatial turn in the social and human sciences involves recognizing the importance of space in
addition to time in understanding social processes and struggles. This shift highlights how spatial
arrangements and practices are central to power relations and emancipation, leading to new forms
of activism that address both temporal and spatial dimensions of social justice.

SPATIAL POLITICS: putting forward a spatialized concept and way of looking to politics = politized
understanding of space

Urban design and planning are not politically neutral activities

● They shape social identities, lifestyles, and power relations within cities
● By influencing where people live, how they access resources, and how they interact with
their environment and each other, spatial structures can either perpetuate or challenge
social inequalities
● Recognizing the political dimensions of space is crucial for creating more equitable and
inclusive urban environments.

Understanding Space:
○ Space as a Process: Space is not static; it is constantly shaped and reshaped by social,
economic, and political processes.
○ Space as a Site of (Re)production: Space plays a crucial role in the reproduction of
societal structures and relations. It is where social norms, economic activities, and power dynamics
are enacted and maintained.
Texts:

Text No. 8: R. Philips (2004). "Sexuality". In: Duncan, Johnson, and Schein (Eds.), A
Companion to Cultural Geography, pp. 265-278.

● Overview: This chapter examines the relationship between sexuality and space within
cultural geography.
● Key Themes:
○ Sexual Geographies: How different spaces are associated with specific sexual identities
and practices.
○ Public and Private Spaces: The distinction and interaction between public and private
spheres in relation to sexual expression.
○ Queer Spaces: The creation and significance of spaces that cater specifically to LGBTQ+
communities.
○ Heteronormativity: How spaces are often structured to privilege heterosexual norms, and
the resistance to this through queer spatial practices.

Text No. 9: Vives Miró, S. (2011). "Producing a ‘Successful City’: Neoliberal Urbanism and
Gentrification in the Tourist City—The Case of Palma (Majorca)"

● Overview: This article investigates how neoliberal urbanism and gentrification have shaped
Palma, Majorca, particularly in the context of tourism.
● Key Themes:
○ Neoliberal Urbanism: The influence of neoliberal policies on urban development, focusing
on market-driven approaches.
○ Gentrification: The process by which higher-income groups displace lower-income
residents, often linked to urban regeneration projects.
○ Tourism: The role of tourism in driving gentrification and reshaping urban spaces to cater
to visitors rather than local residents.
○ Socioeconomic Impacts: The consequences of these processes for local communities,
including displacement and changes in the social fabric.

Text No. 10: Purcell (2002). "Excavating Lefebvre: The Right to the City and Its Urban
Politics of the Inhabitant"

● Overview: This text delves into Henri Lefebvre's concept of "the right to the city" and its
implications for urban politics.
● Key Themes:
○ The Right to the City: The idea that all urban inhabitants should have a say in how their
city is shaped and used.
○ Lefebvre's Contributions: Analysis of Lefebvre's ideas on urban space and their
relevance to contemporary urban struggles.
○ Urban Politics of the Inhabitant: How inhabitants can claim their rights and participate in
the transformation of their urban environments.
○ Case Studies and Examples: Practical applications of these concepts in various urban
contexts, highlighting struggles for inclusive and participatory urban development.
Anas slides:

David Harvey (1973) “Social Justice and the City”

● Origin of a sustained reflection on relationship between politics, capitalism, and the social
aspects of geographical theory-
● It was an expression of Harvey's position that geography could not remain objective in the
face of urban poverty and associated ills.
● Harvey analyzes core issues in city planning and policy-employment and housing
location, zoning, transport costs, concentrations of poverty, asking in each case about the
relationship between social justice and space.
● Underlying claim: there is more to geography (place) than just sense of place,
placelessness: geographic/urban transformations do produce consequences, but the
process itself (geographic/urban transformation) is to explain on the basis of the link
between ECONOMIC RELATION AND SPATIAL FORMS:
Harvey's exploration doesn't steer him toward liberal or technocratic fixes, but rather toward a
"revolutionary geography" that surpasses the constraints of current spatial paradigms. His focus on
robust thinking and theoretical advancement, particularly within Marxist geographic theory, has
granted Marxist geography enduring relevance.

The uses of Public Space: Urban Policy and Exclusion in the Neoliberal City.
In the neoliberal city, there's a concerted effort to reshape the image of the urban center to cater to
international consumption and competition, attracting businesses, tourism, and cultural events.
This often involves marginalizing and erasing the visibility of "undesirable" people and activities,
such as those sleeping on the streets or engaging in disruptive behavior. The perception of such
behavior as making the urban environment unpleasant and unsafe fuels a demand for increased
security measures, leading to significant transformations in the cityscape.
The control of public space becomes a key aspect of implementing social control, with design
playing a crucial role. Strategies such as fortification, surveillance, gentrification, privatization,
sanitization, and criminalization are employed to redefine the nature of public space. These
measures aim to regulate who can access and utilize public spaces, often at the expense of
marginalized communities and their right to the city.

Ex. Urban furniture as a tool to control public space: “anti-homeless” benches

French artists collective called Survival Group, carried a Project called “Anti-sites”, which is
focused on street and public area details that are created in order to avoid any kind of sitting,
resting or sleeping possibilities

Intersectionality recognizes how various social identities intersect to shape individuals'

experiences of oppression. When applied to sense of place and the production of space, it
highlights how systemic injustices are spatialized, influencing both the physical environment and
people's emotional connections to it. This approach allows for a deeper understanding of how
power dynamics operate within society and emphasizes the need for inclusive spaces that
consider the diverse identities and experiences of individuals.

Places and emotions are to be studied taking into account the POSITIONALITY of the subject (how
its social position lies at the intersection of a number of economic, social, gender, racial and
political variables/deeds).
Relief Maps (Rodó de Zarate) is a methodological tool for research in social sciences with an
intersectionality perspective, that represents the relation between places, emotions and social
positions.
Relief Maps can be seen as a tool for systematic collection of data on experience based on
different positions and according to place. Historically, emotions have been underestimated in the
study of social inequalities, but there are many forms of discrimination that can be identified
through this dimension: humiliation, fear and the feeling of exclusion are fundamental indicators of
inequalities. Furthermore, with regard to places, the geographic perspective is not usually included
in the debates on intersectionality, yet place acts as a motor for intersectional dynamics and helps
in understanding them in a more fluid and changing way (M. Rodó de Zarate – UOC).