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Operant Search

Conditioni SUBSCRIBE
ng: What It
Is, How It
Works,
And
Examples
Saul
Updated February
By McLeod,
on 2, 2024
PhD
Reviewed Olivia Guy-Evans,
by MSc

On This Page:
1. How It Works
:
 2. Examples

3. Schedules of

Reinforcement

4. Critical Evaluation

Operant Conditioni…

Operant conditioning, or
instrumental conditioning, is
a theory of learning where
behavior is influenced by its
consequences. Behavior that
is reinforced (rewarded) will
likely be repeated, and
behavior that is punished will
occur less frequently.

By the 1920s, John B. Watson

had left academic psychology,
and other behaviorists were
becoming influential,
proposing new forms of
learning other than classical
conditioning. Perhaps the
most important of these was
Burrhus Frederic Skinner.
Although, for obvious
:
 reasons, he is more
commonly known as B.F.
Skinner.

Skinner’s views were slightly

less extreme than
Watson’s (1913). Skinner
believed that we do have such
a thing as a mind, but that it
is simply more productive to
study observable behavior
rather than internal mental
events.

Skinner’s work was rooted in

the view that classical
conditioning was far too
simplistic to fully explain
complex human behavior. He
believed that the best way to
understand behavior is to
examine its causes and
consequences. He called this
approach operant
conditioning.
:
 How It Works
Skinner is regarded as the
father of Operant
Conditioning, but his work
was based on Thorndike’s
(1898) Law of Effect.
According to this principle,
behavior that is followed by
pleasant consequences is
likely to be repeated, and
behavior followed by
unpleasant consequences is
less likely to be repeated.

Skinner introduced a new

term into the Law of Effect –
Reinforcement. Behavior that
is reinforced tends to be
repeated (i.e., strengthened);
behavior that is not
reinforced tends to die out or
be extinguished (i.e.,
:
 weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied

operant conditioning by
conducting experiments using
animals, which he placed in a
“Skinner Box,” which was
similar to Thorndike’s puzzle
box.

A Skinner box, also

known as an operant
conditioning chamber, is
a device used to
objectively record an
animal’s behavior in a
compressed time frame.
An animal can be
rewarded or punished for
engaging in certain
behaviors, such as lever
pressing (for rats) or key
pecking (for pigeons).
:
 Skinner identified three types
of responses, or operant, that
can follow behavior.

Neutral operants:
Responses from the
environment that neither
increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior
being repeated.

Reinforcers: Responses
from the environment that
increase the probability of a
behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers can be either
positive or negative.

Punishers: Responses
from the environment that
decrease the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens
behavior.

We can all think of examples

of how reinforcers and
punishers have affected our
behavior. As a child, you
probably tried out a number
of behaviors and learned from
their consequences.
:
 For example, when you were
younger, if you tried smoking
at school, and the chief
consequence was that you got
in with the crowd you always
wanted to hang out with, you
would have been positively
reinforced (i.e., rewarded)
and would be likely to repeat
the behavior.

If, however, the main

consequence was that you
were caught, caned,
suspended from school, and
your parents became
involved, you would most
certainly have been punished,
and you would consequently
be much less likely to smoke
now.

Positive
Reinforcemen
t
B. F. Skinner’s theory of
operant conditioning
describes positive
reinforcement. In positive
:
 reinforcement, a response or
behavior is strengthened by
rewards, leading to the
repetition of the desired
behavior. The reward is a
reinforcing stimulus.

Primary reinforcers are

stimuli that are naturally
reinforcing because they are
not learned and directly
satisfy a need, such as food or
water.

Secondary reinforcers are

stimuli that are reinforced
through their association with
a primary reinforcer, such as
money, school grades. They
do not directly satisfy an
innate need but may be the
means. So a secondary
reinforcer can be just as
powerful a motivator as a
primary reinforcer.

Skinner showed how positive

reinforcement worked by
placing a hungry rat in his
Skinner box. The box
contained a lever on the side,
and as the rat moved about
the box, it would accidentally
:
 knock the lever. Immediately,
it did so that a food pellet
would drop into a container
next to the lever.

After being put in the box a

few times, the rats quickly
learned to go straight to the
lever. The consequence of
receiving food if they pressed
the lever ensured that they
would repeat the action again
and again.

Positive reinforcement
strengthens a behavior by
providing a consequence an
individual finds rewarding.
For example, if your teacher
gives you £5 each time you
complete your homework
(i.e., a reward), you will be
more likely to repeat this
behavior in the future, thus
strengthening the behavior of
completing your homework.

The Premack principle is a

form of positive
reinforcement in operant
conditioning. It suggests
using a preferred activity
(high-probability behavior) as
:
 a reward for completing a less
preferred one (low-
probability behavior).

This method incentivizes the

less desirable behavior by
associating it with a desirable
outcome, thus strengthening
the less favored behavior.

Negative
Reinforcemen
t
Negative reinforcement is the
termination of an unpleasant
state following a response.

This is known as negative

reinforcement because it is
the removal of an adverse
:
 stimulus which is ‘rewarding’
to the animal or person.
Negative reinforcement
strengthens behavior because
it stops or removes an
unpleasant experience.

For example, if you do

not complete your
homework, you give your
teacher £5. You will
complete your homework
to avoid paying £5, thus
strengthening the
behavior of completing
your homework.

Skinner showed how negative

reinforcement worked by
placing a rat in his Skinner
box and then subjecting it to
an unpleasant electric current
which caused it some
discomfort. As the rat moved
about the box it would
accidentally knock the lever.

Immediately, it did so the

electric current would be
switched off. The rats quickly
learned to go straight to the
:
 lever after being put in the
box a few times. The
consequence of escaping the
electric current ensured that
they would repeat the action
again and again.

In fact, Skinner even taught

the rats to avoid the electric
current by turning on a light
just before the electric current
came on. The rats soon
learned to press the lever
when the light came on
because they knew that this
would stop the electric
current from being switched
on.

These two learned responses

are known as Escape
Learning and Avoidance
Learning.

Punishment
Punishment is the opposite of
reinforcement since it is
designed to weaken or
eliminate a response rather
than increase it. It is an
aversive event that decreases
:
 the behavior that it follows.

Like reinforcement,
punishment can work either
by directly applying an
unpleasant stimulus like a
shock after a response or by
removing a potentially
rewarding stimulus, for
instance, deducting
someone’s pocket money to
punish undesirable behavior.

Note: It is not always easy to

distinguish between
punishment and negative
reinforcement.

They are two distinct methods

of punishment used to
decrease the likelihood of a
specific behavior occurring
again, but they involve
different types of
consequences:

1. Positive Punishment:

Positive punishment
involves adding an
aversive stimulus or
something unpleasant
immediately following a
:
 behavior to decrease the
likelihood of that
behavior happening in
the future.

It aims to weaken the

target behavior by
associating it with an
undesirable
consequence.

Example: A child
receives a scolding (an
aversive stimulus) from
their parent
immediately after
hitting their sibling.
This is intended to
decrease the likelihood
of the child hitting their
sibling again.

2. Negative Punishment:

Negative punishment
involves removing a
desirable stimulus or
something rewarding
immediately following a
behavior to decrease the
likelihood of that
behavior happening in
:
 the future.

It aims to weaken the

target behavior by
taking away something
the individual values or
enjoys.

Example: A teenager
loses their video game
privileges (a desirable
stimulus) for not
completing their chores.
This is intended to
decrease the likelihood
of the teenager
neglecting their chores
in the future.

There are many problems

with using punishment,
such as:

Punished behavior is not

forgotten, it’s suppressed –
behavior returns when
punishment is no longer
present.

Causes increased
aggression – shows that
:
 aggression is a way to cope
with problems.

Creates fear that can

generalize to undesirable
behaviors, e.g., fear of
school.

Does not necessarily guide

you toward desired
behavior – reinforcement
tells you what to do, and
punishment only tells you
what not to do.

Examples Of
Operant
Conditioning
1. Positive
Reinforcement: Suppose
you are a coach and want
your team to improve their
passing accuracy in soccer.
When the players execute
accurate passes during
training, you praise their
technique. This positive
feedback encourages them
to repeat the correct
:
 passing behavior.

2. Negative
Reinforcement: If you
notice your team working
together effectively and
exhibiting excellent team
spirit during a tough
training session, you might
end the training session
earlier than planned, which
the team perceives as a
relief. They understand that
teamwork leads to positive
outcomes, reinforcing team
behavior.

3. Negative Punishment: If
an office worker continually
arrives late, their manager
might revoke the privilege
of flexible working hours.
This removal of a positive
stimulus encourages the
employee to be punctual.

4. Positive
Reinforcement: Training
a cat to use a litter box can
be achieved by giving it a
treat each time it uses it
correctly. The cat will
:
 associate the behavior with
the reward and will likely
repeat it.

5. Negative Punishment: If
teenagers stay out past
their curfew, their parents
might take away their
gaming console for a week.
This makes the teenager
more likely to respect their
curfew in the future to
avoid losing something they
value.

6. Ineffective Punishment:
Your child refuses to finish
their vegetables at dinner.
You punish them by not
allowing dessert, but the
child still refuses to eat
vegetables next time. The
punishment seems
ineffective.

7. Premack Principle
Application: You could
motivate your child to eat
vegetables by offering an
activity they love after they
finish their meal. For
instance, for every
:
 vegetable eaten, they get an
extra five minutes of video
game time. They value
video game time, which
might encourage them to
eat vegetables.

8. Other Premack
Principle Examples:

A student who dislikes

history but loves art
might earn extra time in
the art studio for each
history chapter
reviewed.

For every 10 minutes a

person spends on
household chores, they
can spend 5 minutes on
a favorite hobby.

For each successful day

of healthy eating, an
individual allows
themselves a small piece
of dark chocolate at the
end of the day.

A child can choose

between taking out the
:
 trash or washing the
dishes. Giving them the
choice makes them
more likely to complete
the chore willingly.

Skinner’s
Pigeon
Experiment
B.F. Skinner conducted
several experiments with
pigeons to demonstrate the
principles of operant
conditioning.

One of the most famous of

these experiments is often
colloquially referred to as
“Superstition in the Pigeon.”

This experiment was

conducted to explore the
effects of non-contingent
reinforcement on pigeons,
leading to some fascinating
observations that can be
likened to human
superstitions.
:
 Non-contingent
reinforcement (NCR)
refers to a method in
which rewards (or
reinforcements) are
delivered independently
of the individual’s
behavior. In other words,
the reinforcement is
given at set times or
intervals, regardless of
what the individual is
doing.

The Experiment:

1. Pigeons were brought to a

state of hunger, reduced to
75% of their well-fed
weight.

2. They were placed in a cage

with a food hopper that
could be presented for five
seconds at a time.

3. Instead of the food being

given as a result of any
specific action by the
pigeon, it was presented at
:
 regular intervals, regardless
of the pigeon’s behavior.

Observation:

1. Over time, Skinner

observed that the pigeons
began to associate whatever
random action they were
doing when food was
delivered with the delivery
of the food itself.

2. This led the pigeons to

repeat these actions,
believing (in
anthropomorphic terms)
that their behavior was
causing the food to appear.

Findings:

1. In most cases, pigeons

developed different
“superstitious” behaviors or
rituals. For instance, one
pigeon would turn counter-
clockwise between food
presentations, while
another would thrust its
head into a cage corner.
:
 2. These behaviors did not
appear until the food
hopper was introduced and
presented periodically.

3. These behaviors were not

initially related to the food
delivery but became linked
in the pigeon’s mind due to
the coincidental timing of
the food dispensing.

4. The behaviors seemed to be

associated with the
environment, suggesting
the pigeons were
responding to certain
aspects of their
surroundings.

5. The rate of reinforcement

(how often the food was
presented) played a
significant role. Shorter
intervals between food
presentations led to more
rapid and defined
conditioning.

6. Once a behavior was

established, the interval
between reinforcements
:
 could be increased without
diminishing the behavior.

Superstitious
Behavior:

The pigeons began to act as if

their behaviors had a direct
effect on the presentation of
food, even though there was
no such connection. This is
likened to human
superstitions, where rituals
are believed to change
outcomes, even if they have
no real effect.

For example, a card player

might have rituals to change
their luck, or a bowler might
make gestures believing they
can influence a ball already in
motion.

Conclusion:

This experiment
demonstrates that behaviors
can be conditioned even
without a direct cause-and-
effect relationship. Just like
humans, pigeons can develop
:
 “superstitious” behaviors
based on coincidental
occurrences.

This study not only

illuminates the intricacies of
operant conditioning but also
draws parallels between
animal and human behaviors
in the face of random
reinforcements.

Schedules Of
Reinforcemen
t
Imagine a rat in a “Skinner
box.” In operant conditioning,
if no food pellet is delivered
immediately after the lever is
pressed, then after several
attempts, the rat stops
pressing the lever (how long
would someone continue to
go to work if their employer
stopped paying them?). The
behavior has been
extinguished.

Behaviorists discovered that

:
 different patterns (or
schedules) of reinforcement
had different effects on the
speed of learning and
extinction. Ferster and
Skinner (1957) devised
different ways of delivering
reinforcement and found that
this had effects on

1. The Response Rate –

The rate at which the rat
pressed the lever (i.e., how
hard the rat worked).

2. The Extinction Rate –

The rate at which lever
pressing dies out (i.e., how
soon the rat gave up).

Skinner found that variable-

ratio reinforcement produces
the slowest rate of extinction
(i.e., people will continue
repeating the behavior for the
:
 longest time without
reinforcement). The type of
reinforcement with the
quickest rate of extinction is
continuous reinforcement.

(A) Continuous
Reinforcement

An animal or human is
positively reinforced every
time a specific behavior
occurs, e.g., every time a lever
is pressed, a pellet is
delivered, and then food
delivery is shut off.

Response rate is SLOW

Extinction rate is FAST

(B) Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced only

after the behavior occurs a
specified number of times.
e.g., one reinforcement is
given after every so many
correct responses, e.g., after
every 5th response. For
example, a child receives a
:
 star for every five words
spelled correctly.

Response rate is FAST

Extinction rate is MEDIUM

(C) Fixed Interval

Reinforcement

One reinforcement is given

after a fixed time interval
providing at least one correct
response has been made. An
example is being paid by the
hour. Another example would
be every 15 minutes (half
hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is
delivered (providing at least
one lever press has been
made) then food delivery is
shut off.

Response rate is MEDIUM

Extinction rate is MEDIUM

(D) Variable Ratio

Reinforcement

behavior is reinforced after an

unpredictable number of
:
 times. For example, gambling
or fishing.

Response rate is FAST

Extinction rate is SLOW

(very hard to extinguish
because of
unpredictability)

(E) Variable Interval

Reinforcement

Providing one correct

response has been made,
reinforcement is given after
an unpredictable amount of
time has passed, e.g., on
average every 5 minutes. An
example is a self-employed
person being paid at
unpredictable times.

Response rate is FAST

Extinction rate is SLOW

Applications
In Psychology
:
 1. Behavior
Modification Therapy

Behavior modification is a set

of therapeutic techniques
based on operant
conditioning (Skinner, 1938,
1953). The main principle
comprises changing
environmental events that are
related to a person’s behavior.
For example, the
reinforcement of desired
behaviors and ignoring or
punishing undesired ones.

This is not as simple as it

sounds — always reinforcing
desired behavior, for
example, is basically bribery.

There are different types of

positive reinforcements.
Primary reinforcement is
when a reward strengths a
behavior by itself. Secondary
reinforcement is when
something strengthens a
behavior because it leads to a
primary reinforcer.

Examples of behavior
modification therapy include
:
 token economy and behavior
shaping.

Token Economy

Token economy is a system in

which targeted behaviors are
reinforced with tokens
(secondary reinforcers) and
later exchanged for rewards
(primary reinforcers).

Tokens can be in the form of

fake money, buttons, poker
chips, stickers, etc. While the
rewards can range anywhere
from snacks to privileges or
activities. For example,
teachers use token economy
at primary school by giving
young children stickers to
reward good behavior.

Token economy has been

found to be very effective in
managing psychiatric
patients. However, the
patients can become over-
reliant on the tokens, making
it difficult for them to adjust
to society once they leave
prison, hospital, etc.
:
 Staff implementing a token
economy program have a lot
of power. It is important that
staff do not favor or ignore
certain individuals if the
program is to work.
Therefore, staff need to be
trained to give tokens fairly
and consistently even when
there are shift changes such
as in prisons or in a
psychiatric hospital.

Behavior Shaping

A further important
contribution made by Skinner
(1951) is the notion of
behavior shaping through
successive approximation.

Skinner argues that the

principles of operant
conditioning can be used to
produce extremely complex
behavior if rewards and
punishments are delivered in
such a way as to encourage
move an organism closer and
closer to the desired behavior
each time.

In shaping, the form of an

:
 existing response is gradually
changed across successive
trials towards a desired target
behavior by rewarding exact
segments of behavior.

To do this, the conditions (or

contingencies) required to
receive the reward should
shift each time the organism
moves a step closer to the
desired behavior.

According to Skinner, most

animal and human behavior
(including language) can be
explained as a product of this
type of successive
approximation.

2. Educational
Applications

In the conventional learning

situation, operant
conditioning applies largely to
issues of class and student
management, rather than to
learning content. It is very
relevant to shaping skill
performance.
:
 A simple way to shape
behavior is to provide
feedback on learner
performance, e.g.,
compliments, approval,
encouragement, and
affirmation.

A variable-ratio produces the

highest response rate for
students learning a new task,
whereby initial reinforcement
(e.g., praise) occurs at
frequent intervals, and as the
performance improves
reinforcement occurs less
frequently, until eventually
only exceptional outcomes are
reinforced.

For example, if a teacher

wanted to encourage students
to answer questions in class
they should praise them for
every attempt (regardless of
whether their answer is
correct). Gradually the
teacher will only praise the
students when their answer is
correct, and over time only
exceptional answers will be
praised.
:
 Unwanted behaviors, such as
tardiness and dominating
class discussion can be
extinguished through being
ignored by the teacher (rather
than being reinforced by
having attention drawn to
them). This is not an easy
task, as the teacher may
appear insincere if he/she
thinks too much about the
way to behave.

Knowledge of success is also

important as it motivates
future learning. However, it is
important to vary the type of
reinforcement given so that
the behavior is maintained.

This is not an easy task, as the

teacher may appear insincere
if he/she thinks too much
about the way to behave.

Operant
Conditioning
Vs. Classical
Conditioning
:
 Learning Type

While both types of

conditioning involve learning,
classical conditioning is
passive (automatic response
to stimuli), while operant
conditioning is active
(behavior is influenced by
consequences).

Classical conditioning
links an involuntary
response with a stimulus. It
happens passively on the
part of the learner, without
rewards or punishments.
An example is a dog
salivating at the sound of a
bell associated with food.

Operant conditioning
connects voluntary
behavior with a
consequence. Operant
conditioning requires the
learner to actively
participate and perform
some type of action to be
rewarded or punished. It’s
active, with the learner’s
behavior influenced by
:
 rewards or punishments.
An example is a dog sitting
on command to get a treat.

Learning Process

Classical conditioning
involves learning through
associating stimuli resulting
in involuntary responses,
while operant conditioning
focuses on learning through
consequences, shaping
voluntary behaviors.

Learning by
Association (Classical
Conditioning): In
learning by association, a
person (or animal) learns to
associate two stimuli,
causing a behavior change.
A neutral stimulus is paired
with an unconditioned
stimulus that naturally
triggers a response.
Over time, the person
responds to the neutral
stimulus as if it were the
unconditioned stimulus,
even when presented alone.
The response is involuntary
:
 and automatic.

An example is a dog
salivating (response) at the
sound of a bell (neutral
stimulus) after it has been
repeatedly paired with food
(unconditioned stimulus).

Learning by
Consequences (Operant
Conditioning): In
learning by consequences,
behavior is learned based
on its outcomes or
consequences. The learner
is active, and the response
is voluntary.
Behavior followed by
pleasant consequences
(rewards) is more likely to
be repeated, while behavior
followed by unpleasant
consequences
(punishments) is less likely
to be repeated.

For instance, if a child gets

praised (pleasant
consequence) for cleaning
their room (behavior),
they’re more likely to clean
their room in the future.
:
 Conversely, if they get
scolded (unpleasant
consequence) for not doing
their homework, they’re
more likely to complete it
next time to avoid the
scolding.

Timing of Stimulus &

Response

The timing of the response

relative to the stimulus differs
between classical and operant
conditioning:

Classical Conditioning
(response after the
stimulus): In this form of
conditioning, the response
occurs after the stimulus.
The behavior (response) is
determined by what
precedes it (stimulus).

For example, in Pavlov’s

classic experiment, the dogs
started to salivate
(response) after they heard
the bell (stimulus) because
they associated it with food.
:
 Operant Conditioning
(response before the
stimulus): In this form of
conditioning, the response
generally occurs before the
consequence (which acts as
the stimulus for future
behavior).
The anticipated
consequence influences the
behavior or what follows it.
It is a more active form of
learning, where behaviors
are reinforced or punished,
thus influencing their
likelihood of repetition.

For example, a child might

behave well (behavior) in
anticipation of a reward
(consequence), or avoid a
certain behavior to prevent
a potential punishment.

Summary
Looking at Skinner’s classic
studies on pigeons’ and rats’
behavior, we can identify
some of the major
assumptions of the
:
 behaviorist approach.

• Psychology should be
seen as a science, to be
studied in a scientific
manner. Skinner’s study
of behavior in rats was
conducted under
carefully controlled
laboratory conditions.

• Behaviorism is
primarily concerned with
observable behavior, as
opposed to internal
events like thinking and
emotion. Note that
Skinner did not say that
the rats learned to press a
lever because they
wanted food. He instead
concentrated on
describing the easily
observed behavior that
the rats acquired.

• The major influence on

human behavior is
learning from our
environment. In the
Skinner study, because
food followed a particular
:
 behavior the rats learned
to repeat that behavior,
e.g., operant
conditioning.

• There is little difference

between the learning that
takes place in humans
and that in other animals.
Therefore research (e.g.,
operant conditioning) can
be carried out on animals
(Rats / Pigeons) as well
as on humans. Skinner
proposed that the way
humans learn behavior is
much the same as the way
the rats learned to press a
lever.

So, if your layperson’s idea of

psychology has always been of
people in laboratories
wearing white coats and
watching hapless rats try to
negotiate mazes to get to their
dinner, then you are probably
thinking of behavioral
psychology.

Behaviorism and its offshoots

tend to be among the most
:
 scientific of the psychological
perspectives. The emphasis of
behavioral psychology is on
how we learn to behave in
certain ways.

We are all constantly learning

new behaviors and how to
modify our existing behavior.
Behavioral psychology is the
psychological approach that
focuses on how this learning
takes place.

Critical
Evaluation
Operant conditioning
can explain a wide variety of
behaviors, from the learning
process to addiction
and language acquisition. It
also has practical applications
(such as token economy) that
can be used in classrooms,
prisons, and psychiatric
hospitals.

Researchers have found

innovative ways to apply
operant conditioning
:
 principles to promote health
and habit change in humans.

In a recent study, operant

conditioning using virtual
reality (VR) helped stroke
patients use their weakened
limb more often during
rehabilitation. Patients
shifted their weight in VR
games by maneuvering a
virtual object. When they
increased weight on their
weakened side, they received
rewards like stars. This
positive reinforcement
conditioned greater paretic
limb use (Kumar et al., 2019).

Another study utilized

operant conditioning to assist
smoking cessation.
Participants earned vouchers
exchangeable for goods and
services for reducing
smoking. This reward system
reinforced decreasing
cigarette use. Many
participants achieved long-
term abstinence (Dallery et
al., 2017).

Through repeated
:
 reinforcement, operant
conditioning can facilitate
forming exercise and eating
habits. A person trying to
exercise more might earn TV
time for every 10 minutes
spent working out. An
individual aiming to eat
healthier may allow
themselves a daily dark
chocolate square for sticking
to nutritious meals. Providing
consistent rewards for desired
actions can instill new habits
(Michie et al., 2009).

Apps like Habitica apply

operant conditioning by
gamifying habit tracking.
Users earn points and collect
rewards in a fantasy game for
completing real-life habits.
This virtual reinforcement
helps ingrain positive
behaviors (Eckerstorfer et al.,
2019).

Operant conditioning also

shows promise for managing
ADHD and OCD. Rewarding
concentration and focus in
ADHD children, for example,
can strengthen their attention
:
 skills (Rosén et al., 2018).
Similarly, reinforcing OCD
patients for resisting
compulsions may diminish
obsessive behaviors (Twohig
et al., 2018).

However, operant
conditioning fails to take into
account the role of inherited
and cognitive factors in
learning, and thus is an
incomplete explanation of the
learning process in humans
and animals.

For example, Kohler (1924)

found that primates often
seem to solve problems in a
flash of insight rather than be
trial and error learning. Also,
social learning theory
(Bandura, 1977) suggests that
humans can learn
automatically through
observation rather than
through personal experience.

The use of animal research in

operant conditioning studies
also raises the issue of
extrapolation. Some
psychologists argue we cannot
:
 generalize from studies on
animals to humans as their
anatomy and physiology are
different from humans, and
they cannot think about their
experiences and invoke
reason, patience, memory or
self-comfort.

Frequently
Asked
Questions
Who discovered
operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning was

discovered by B.F. Skinner,
an American psychologist, in
the mid-20th century.
Skinner is often regarded as
the father of operant
conditioning, and his work
extensively dealt with the
mechanism of reward and
punishment for behaviors,
with the concept being that
behaviors followed by positive
outcomes are reinforced,
:
 while those followed by
negative outcomes are
discouraged.

How does operant

conditioning differ
from classical
conditioning?

Operant conditioning differs

from classical conditioning,
focusing on how voluntary
behavior is shaped and
maintained by consequences,
such as rewards and
punishments.

In operant conditioning, a
behavior is strengthened or
weakened based on the
consequences that follow it.
In contrast, classical
conditioning involves the
association of a neutral
stimulus with a natural
response, creating a new
learned response.

While both types of

conditioning involve learning
and behavior modification,
operant conditioning
:
 emphasizes the role of
reinforcement and
punishment in shaping
voluntary behavior.

How does operant

conditioning relate to
social learning theory?

Operant conditioning is a core

component of social learning
theory, which emphasizes the
importance of observational
learning and modeling in
acquiring and modifying
behavior.

Social learning theory

suggests that individuals can
learn new behaviors by
observing others and the
consequences of their actions,
which is similar to the
reinforcement and
punishment processes in
operant conditioning.

By observing and imitating

models, individuals can
acquire new skills and
behaviors and modify their
own behavior based on the
:
 outcomes they observe in
others.

Overall, both operant

conditioning and social
learning theory highlight the
importance of environmental
factors in shaping behavior
and learning.

What are the

downsides of operant
conditioning?

The downsides of using

operant conditioning on
individuals include the
potential for unintended
negative consequences,
particularly with the use of
punishment. Punishment may
lead to increased aggression
or avoidance behaviors.

Additionally, some behaviors

may be difficult to shape or
modify using operant
conditioning techniques,
particularly when they are
highly ingrained or tied to
complex internal states.
:
 Furthermore, individuals may
resist changing their
behaviors to meet the
expectations of others,
particularly if they perceive
the demands or consequences
of the reinforcement or
punishment to be undesirable
or unjust.

What is an application
of bf skinner’s operant
conditioning theory?

An application of B.F.
Skinner’s operant
conditioning theory is seen in
education and classroom
management. Teachers use
positive reinforcement
(rewards) to encourage good
behavior and academic
achievement, and negative
reinforcement or punishment
to discourage disruptive
behavior.

For example, a student may

earn extra recess time
(positive reinforcement) for
completing homework on
time, or lose the privilege to
:
 use class computers (negative
punishment) for misbehavior.

Further
Reading
Ivan Pavlov Classical
Conditioning Learning and
behavior PowerPoint

Ayllon, T., & Michael, J.

(1959). The psychiatric
nurse as a behavioral
engineer. Journal of the
Experimental Analysis of
Behavior, 2(4), 323-334.

References
Bandura, A. (1977). Social
learning theory.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

Dallery, J., Meredith, S., &

Glenn, I. M. (2017). A
deposit contract method to
deliver abstinence
reinforcement for cigarette
:
 smoking. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis,
50(2), 234–248.

Eckerstorfer, L., Tanzer, N.

K., Vogrincic-Haselbacher,
C., Kedia, G., Brohmer, H.,
Dinslaken, I., & Corbasson,
R. (2019). Key elements of
mHealth interventions to
successfully increase
physical activity: Meta-
regression. JMIR mHealth
and uHealth, 7(11), e12100.

Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B.

F. (1957). Schedules of
reinforcement. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Kohler, W. (1924). The

mentality of apes. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Kumar, D., Sinha, N.,

Dutta, A., & Lahiri, U.
(2019). Virtual reality-
based balance training
system augmented with
operant conditioning
paradigm. Biomedical
Engineering Online, 18(1),
:
 1-23.

Michie, S., Abraham, C.,

Whittington, C., McAteer,
J., & Gupta, S. (2009).
Effective techniques in
healthy eating and physical
activity interventions: A
meta-regression. Health
Psychology, 28(6), 690–
701.

Rosén, E., Westerlund, J.,

Rolseth, V., Johnson R. M.,
Viken Fusen, A., Årmann,
E., Ommundsen, R., Lunde,
L.-K., Ulleberg, P., Daae
Zachrisson, H., & Jahnsen,
H. (2018). Effects of
QbTest-guided ADHD
treatment: A randomized
controlled trial. European
Child & Adolescent
Psychiatry, 27(4), 447–
459.

Skinner, B. F. (1948).
‘Superstition’in the
pigeon. Journal of
experimental
psychology, 38(2), 168.
:
 Schunk, D.
(2016). Learning theories:
An educational
perspective. Pearson.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The

behavior of organisms: An
experimental analysis.
New York: Appleton-
Century.

Skinner, B. F. (1948).
Superstition” in the pigeon.
Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 38, 168-172.

Skinner, B. F. (1951). How

to teach animals. Freeman.

Skinner, B. F. (1953).
Science and human
behavior. Macmillan.

Thorndike, E. L. (1898).
Animal intelligence: An
experimental study of the
associative processes in
animals. Psychological
Monographs: General and
Applied, 2(4), i-109.

Twohig, M. P., Whittal, M.

:
 L., Cox, J. M., & Gunter, R.
(2010). An initial
investigation into the
processes of change in ACT,
CT, and ERP for OCD.
International Journal of
Behavioral Consultation
and Therapy, 6(2), 67–83.

Watson, J. B. (1913).
Psychology as the
behaviorist views it.
Psychological Review, 20,
158–177.

Reviewer Author

Olivia Guy-Evans,
MSc
BSc (Hons)
Psychology, MSc
Psychology of
Education
Associate Editor for
Simply Psychology

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer

and associate editor for
Simply Psychology. She has
:
 previously worked in
healthcare and educational
sectors.

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