Tunnel Construction - Detailed Notes

Introduction to Tunnels

Tunnels are underground passages used for various purposes such as transportation (railways,
roads), water supply, sewage, and utilities. Their construction involves various methods and
technologies, each suited to specific geological conditions and project requirements.

Types of Tunnels and Construction Methods

1. Cut-and-Cover Tunnels
○ Characteristics:
■ Built by excavating a trench, constructing the tunnel, and then covering it
with backfill.
■ Suitable for shallow depths.
○ Advantages:
■ Cost-effective for shallow tunnels.
■ Allows for larger cross-sectional areas.
○ Disadvantages:
■ Significant surface disruption.
■ Not suitable for deep tunnels.
2. Bored Tunnels
○ Characteristics:
■ Constructed using tunnel boring machines (TBMs) that excavate the
tunnel through the ground.
■ Suitable for a variety of soils and rock conditions.
○ Advantages:
■ Minimal surface disruption.
■ Higher construction speed in uniform ground conditions.
○ Disadvantages:
■ High initial cost for TBM.
■ Limited to circular tunnel sections.
3. Drill and Blast Tunnels
○ Characteristics:
■ Involves drilling holes into the rock, filling them with explosives, and
blasting to create the tunnel.
■ Commonly used in hard rock conditions.
○ Advantages:
■ Flexible in terms of tunnel shape and size.
■ Cost-effective for short tunnels in hard rock.
○ Disadvantages:
■ Significant vibration and noise.
■ Requires extensive safety measures.
 4. Immersed Tube Tunnels
○ Characteristics:
■ Consist of pre-fabricated tunnel sections sunk into a pre-dredged trench
and covered with backfill.
■ Commonly used for underwater crossings.
○ Advantages:
■ Suitable for wide, deep water bodies.
■ Allows for large cross-sectional areas.
○ Disadvantages:
■ Complex construction process.
■ High cost due to underwater work.

Tunnel Lining and Support

1. Temporary Support
○ Rock Bolts: Used to stabilize rock faces immediately after excavation.
○ Shotcrete: Sprayed concrete that provides immediate support.
○ Steel Ribs: Used in soft ground or where additional support is needed.
2. Permanent Lining
○ Cast-in-Place Concrete: Poured and cured in the tunnel, provides a strong and
durable lining.
○ Precast Concrete Segments: Assembled within the tunnel, commonly used with
TBMs.
○ Steel Lining: Used in high-pressure applications like water tunnels.

Groundwater Control

1. Sump Pumping
○ Characteristics:
■ Simple method involving the use of pumps to remove water from the
excavation site.
○ Advantages:
■ Cost-effective and simple to implement.
○ Disadvantages:
■ Suitable only for minor water inflows.
2. Wellpoint Systems
○ Characteristics:
■ Involves installing a series of wellpoints connected to a pump to lower the
groundwater level.
○ Advantages:
■ Effective for moderate groundwater control.
○ Disadvantages:
■ Requires continuous pumping and maintenance.
3. Ground Freezing
 ○ Characteristics:
■ Involves freezing the ground around the tunnel to create a solid barrier
against water ingress.
○ Advantages:
■ Provides a watertight barrier.
○ Disadvantages:
■ High initial cost and energy consumption.

Construction Challenges and Solutions

1. Dealing with Soft Ground

○ Slurry Shield TBM: Uses a pressurized slurry to balance ground pressure and
prevent collapses.
○ Earth Pressure Balance TBM: Balances ground pressure with excavated
material to stabilize the tunnel face.
2. Rock Stability
○ Rock Bolting and Shotcreting: Common methods to stabilize rock faces and
prevent collapses.
○ Grouting: Injection of grout into fractures to strengthen the rock mass.
3. Water Ingress
○ Grouting: Injection of chemical or cementitious grout to seal water-bearing
strata.
○ Waterproof Linings: Use of impermeable linings to prevent water ingress into
the tunnel.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Tunnel Construction

1. Advantages:
○ Space Utilization: Efficient use of underground Tunnel Constructionspace in congested urban areas.
in Soft Rock

○ Environmental Impact: Minimal surface disruption

Tunnel-Boring compared to above-ground
Machines (TBMs)
Function: TBMs, or moles, are used by engineers to create tunnels. These machines can
construction. operate in a variety of ground conditions, ranging from hard rock to soft, water-bearing
ground.
○ Weather Independence: Construction and
Design: operation
TBMs are less
are large, expensive affected
pieces of bya circular plate at one end.
equipment with
Disk Cutters: The circular plate is covered with disk cutters, which can be chisel-shaped
Tunnel Construction in Soft Ground (Earth)
weather conditions. cutting teeth, steel disks, or a combination of both.

Technique: Uses 2. Disadvantages :

• Application: Often used for subways, water-supply systems, and sewers.
Operation
• a tunnel shield, an iron or steel cylinder, to support the tunnel.
Cutting Process: As the circular plate rotates, the disk cutters slice into the rock. The cut rock
• The shield is pushed into the soft soil.
• ○ High Initial Cost
It carves a round hole and supports the earth while debris is removed.: Significant investment in machinery
falls through and
spaces in the cutting technology.
head onto a conveyor system.
Conveyor System: The conveyor carries the excavated material (muck) to the rear of the
• A permanent lining of cast iron or precast concrete is installed.
Jacks push the shield forward○ Complexity : Requires specialized knowledge and equipment.
machine. Hydraulic cylinders attached to the TBM’s spine propel the machine forward a few
• to extend the tunnel.
feet at a time.
Tunnel Construction in Hard Rock ○ Risk: Potential for unforeseen geological conditions and groundwater issues.
Support System
Drilling and Grouting: Behind the cutters, drills bore into the rock. Workers then pump grout
Application: Used for railways or roadways through mountains. into the holes and attach bolts to stabilize the tunnel.
Technique: By understanding these detailed aspects of tunnel construction, engineers can choose the
Drilling and Blasting:
Erector Arm: The TBM also has a massive erector arm that raises segments of the tunnel
lining into place, ensuring the tunnel remains supported and stable as excavation continues.
•
•
appropriate methods and technologies to successfully complete tunneling projects while
Involves using explosives to break rock.
Workers remove the debris (muck) and repeat the process. Tunnel Construction Underwater
•
managing risks and optimizing costs.
Tunnel Boring Machines:
Used today instead of dynamite to chew through rock. Challenges
Water Management: Constructing tunnels underwater is particularly challenging because
Additional Method for Hard Rock - Fire-setting water must be prevented from entering the construction site.
Fire-setting: Early Methods
• The tunnel wall is heated with fire and cooled with water. Pressurized Chambers: Early engineers used pressurized excavation chambers to prevent
• The rapid temperature change causes rock to break off. water from gushing into the tunnels during construction.
Support:
• Very hard rock may not need extra support. Modern Methods
• In fractured rock, additional support like bolts, sprayed concrete, or steel beams is used. Prefabricated Segments: Today, prefabricated tunnel segments are used. These segments
• Permanent concrete lining is often installed. are floated into position, then sunk and attached to other sections to form the tunnel.
Tunneling Methods: Cut and Cover

Overview of the Cut-and-Cover Method:

Description: The cut-and-cover method involves creating an open trench, building the tunnel within it, and then covering it
with soil or other materials. This technique is typically used for tunnels that cross the bottoms of rivers, bays, and other water
bodies.

Steps in Cut-and-Cover Construction:

Dredging a Trench:
Initial Phase: Construction begins by dredging a trench in the riverbed or ocean floor. This trench forms the base for the
tunnel.
Placement of Prefabricated Tube Sections:
• Prefabrication: Long sections of the tunnel, made of steel or concrete, are prefabricated. These sections are
sealed to prevent water ingress.
• Transport and Placement: The sealed tube sections are floated to the construction site and sunk into the
prepared trench.
Connecting and Sealing:
• Divers’ Role: Divers connect the tube sections underwater and remove the seals.
• Water Management: Any excess water inside the sections is pumped out to ensure the tunnel remains dry.
Covering and Backfilling:
• Final Steps: The entire tunnel is then covered with backfill material to keep it in place and provide additional
structural support.

Advantages of the Cut-and-Cover Method:

Minimized Long-term Disruption: The trench is often covered with a temporary deck soon after excavation to restore
pedestrian and vehicular traffic, minimizing disruptions during construction.
Suitable for Shallow Excavations: This method is particularly advantageous for shallow tunnels and in areas where deep
excavation is not feasible.

Open-Cut Construction:

Open-Cut vs. Cut-and-Cover: While the cut-and-cover method involves covering the trench after the tunnel is built, open-cut
construction leaves the trench uncovered during tunnel construction.
Applicability: Open-cut construction is suitable for shallow excavations and areas without nearby properties, where the
disruption of an open trench is less of an issue.

Detailed Comparison:

Cut-and-Cover Method:
• Involves both excavation and covering of the trench.
• Provides immediate restoration of surface traffic with temporary decking.
• Prefabricated sections are used, making the underwater construction process faster and more efficient.
Open-Cut Construction:
• Leaves the trench open during the construction phase.
• Suitable for projects with minimal impact on surrounding areas.
• Typically used for shallower tunnels without the need for temporary surface restoration.

Jacked Tunnel Construction

Overview:
Method: Jacked tunnel construction involves using hydraulic jacks to push specially made pipes or concrete boxes through
the ground behind a tunnel boring machine (TBM) or shield.
Application: This method is particularly useful for creating tunnels under existing structures such as roads or railways,
where surface disturbance must be minimized.

Process of Jacked Tunnel Construction:

Initial Setup:
• Hydraulic Jacks: Powerful hydraulic jacks are set up to push the tunnel components through the soil.
• Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) or Shield: A TBM or a shield is used at the front to bore through the soil and
create the tunnel path.
Pushing Pipes or Concrete Boxes:
• Concrete Boxes: Large concrete boxes are commonly used for this method. These boxes support the soil at the
top and bottom, preventing it from collapsing.
• Earth Removal: As the box is pushed forward, the soil inside the box is excavated and removed.
Hydraulic Jacking:
• Force Application: Hydraulic jacks apply force to push the concrete box against a fixed structure, such as a
concrete wall.
• Incremental Movement: The box is pushed forward incrementally, typically about five feet at a time.
Spacer Tubes Installation:
• Creating the Gap: Each time the box is pushed forward, a gap is created behind it.
• Installing Spacers: Workers install spacer tubes in the newly created gap to maintain the alignment and stability
of the tunnel.
Repetition:
• Advancing the Tunnel: This process of pushing, excavating, and installing spacers is repeated continuously.
• Minimizing Surface Disturbance: By repeating this process in small increments, engineers can advance the
tunnel without disturbing the structures on the surface.

Advantages of Jacked Tunnel Construction:

• Minimal Surface Impact: This method is ideal for constructing tunnels under sensitive areas without causing
surface disruption.
• Structural Support: The method provides excellent support for the tunnel, preventing collapse and ensuring
stability as the tunnel advances.
• Versatility: It can be used for various types of underground installations, including sewage pipes, utility conduits,
and transport tunnels.
Sequential Excavation Method (SEM) / New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM)

Overview:
Flexibility: Unlike Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs) which excavate fixed, typically circular shapes, the Sequential Excavation Method
(SEM), also known as the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM), allows for tunnels of various shapes and sizes. This makes it
especially useful in areas where the tunnel dimensions need to change, such as highway ramps and subway stations.

Excavation Process:

1. Mining Equipment:
• Tools Used: Equipment like backhoes and road headers are used to excavate the tunnels. This machinery is adaptable to
different shapes and sizes of tunnels.
2. Sequential Excavation:
• Stages: The tunnel is excavated in stages or sequences, which can be adjusted based on the ground conditions and the
tunnel design requirements.
• Flexibility: This sequential approach allows for adjustments to the excavation process, providing better control and safety.

Support Systems:

1. Initial Ground Support:

• Shotcrete: A sprayable concrete known as shotcrete is applied to the tunnel walls immediately after excavation to provide
initial support. This may be reinforced with fibers or welded-wire fabric.
• Steel Arches: Steel arches, often lattice girders, are installed to further support the tunnel structure.
• Ground Reinforcement: Additional reinforcement methods like soil nails and spiling (installing small steel rods or pipes
into the ground) may be used to stabilize the surrounding ground.
2. Permanent Support:
• Concrete Lining: The permanent support for the tunnel is usually a cast-in-place concrete lining. This lining is installed
after the initial supports have stabilized the tunnel.
• Variations: Depending on the specific requirements of the project, the permanent lining may not always be necessary, but
it is commonly used for added stability and longevity.

Advantages of SEM/NATM:

• Adaptability: Allows for tunnels of various shapes and sizes, making it suitable for complex tunnel systems.
• Flexibility in Excavation: The sequential approach can be adjusted to handle different ground conditions and structural
requirements.
• Safety: Provides immediate and adaptable support to the tunnel, reducing the risk of collapse and enhancing worker
safety.