Journal of the Civil Engineering Forum, September 2024, 10(3):229-238

DOI 10.22146/jcef.10433
Available Online at https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/v3/jcef/issue/archive

An Assessment of Derelict Building Constructions Situated in Coastal Regions

Mohammad Junaedy Rahman1 , Muhammad Reza Hasrul2* , Hanafi Ashad3 , Furqan Ali Yusuf1 , Nur Refera Hasrul4
1 Department of Civil Engineering and Planning Education, Universitas Negeri Makassar, Makassar, INDONESIA
2 GraduateSchool of Environmental, Life, Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, JAPAN
3 Department of Civil Engineering, Universitas Muslim Indonesia, Makassar, INDONESIA
4 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, INDONESIA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

SUBMITTED 5 November 2023 REVISED 11 March 2024 ACCEPTED 17 April 2024

ABSTRACT Reinforced concrete structures constructed in coastal areas in Indonesia often suffer damage before reaching their intended service life,
with steel reinforcement corrosion being a major contributing factor. This study aims to investigate the use of concrete structures produced with
simple methods and inadequate supervision in coastal regions. Reinforced concrete structures near the coast are susceptible to carbonation due to
marine environmental factors, leading to reinforcement corrosion. The study was conducted on the Dande Dandere Market building, Tanakeke Island,
Takalar Regency, South Sulawesi. The research method employed quantitative techniques, including surveys and structural testing. Visual inspections
were conducted to identify the types of damage present in the building and estimate their causes. Structural testing involved both destructive and
non-destructive tests. Concrete compressive strength testing was also conducted to assess the concrete sample’s compressive strength, along with
carbonation testing to determine the acidity level of concrete due to the intrusion of salt compounds or carbonation formed within the concrete mass.
The research findings indicate structural degradation in the market’s construction, occurring more rapidly than the intended lifespan of the building.
Signs of structural degradation in the reinforced concrete construction include spalling of concrete cover on beams, supporting columns, and cantilever
slabs, as well as degraded reinforcement, with an average reduction in steel weight of 62.70% over six years, and an average weight loss of 0.103 grams
per day. Therefore, efforts are needed to optimize the structural quality of the building through comprehensive repairs, starting from the foundation.
However, for cost-efficient alternatives, it is recommended to use timber structural materials for new market construction. The use of timber in coastal
buildings, which are vulnerable to marine influences, is more feasible as the presence of saltwater can inhibit wood decay caused by microorganisms.

KEYWORDS Reinforced concrete; Coastal; Corrosion; Structural; Timber.

© The Author(s) 2024. This article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International license.

1 INTRODUCTION
The safety and durability of buildings are influenced Previous research found that exposure conditions in-
by their environment. Coastal locations significantly fluenced the rate of steel corrosion in concrete as the
contribute to serious damage prevalence in buildings primary parameter. Parameters such as humid envi-
within such environments. Reinforced concrete is the ronmental conditions and direct contact with water
most commonly used construction material today. The fell into exposure condition categories, while corrosion
use of reinforced concrete protects embedded steel rates under low relative humidity (RH) values could be
from alkali attacks and enables resistance to damage disregarded (Tian et al., 2023).
from adverse environments. However, it becomes vul-
nerable when exposed to marine environments (Sadati Reinforced concrete buildings near the coast are vul-
et al., 2015; James et al., 2019). nerable to environmental damage, especially chloride-
induced corrosion of reinforcement. Factors such as
Corrosion weakens the bond between reinforcement environmental characteristics, urban parameters, and
and concrete, thereby reducing the strength of the con- building construction systems contribute to the deteri-
crete itself. High-strain steel reinforcement is more af- oration of reinforced concrete structures significantly.
fected than low-strain reinforcement. Cracks resulting The physical condition of the structure affects its ser-
from corrosion and steel reinforcement significantly vice life (Moreno et al., 2018).
influence the dynamic and static load behavior of struc-
tures. Ultimately, corrosion damage to steel reinforce- The hazardous nature of the marine environment is
ment can affect the bond strength between steel rein- closely associated with other factors that can exacer-
forcement and concrete, which, in turn, can affect the bate chemical exposure with increased structural expo-
strength and stability of reinforced concrete structures sure to marine aerosols (Sangiorgio et al., 2019). Ac-
(Liu et al., 2022). cording to previous studies, weather conditions (in-
cluding wind), location, moisture in concrete pores,

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and planning considerations (such as distance from the documents such as Contract Drawings, Shop Drawings,
sea) all play crucial roles (Medeiros et al., 2013; Moreno As-Built Drawings, and technical specifications.
et al., 2015; Adam et al., 2016). Efforts are needed to op-
timize the quality of structures through careful selec-
tion of concrete quality, protecting concrete reinforce- 2.3 Visual Inspection
ment, thoughtful design, regular maintenance, and pe-
riodic repair. Observations of the building structure and its envi-
ronmental conditions were conducted to obtain an
Corrosion can lead to a reduction in the diameter of overview of the types of damages present and to esti-
steel reinforcement and result in a larger volume of mate their causes. Building damage was categorized
corrosion reaction compounds compared to the volume into three types: minor non-structural damage, minor
of reacting steel, exerting pressure on the surrounding structural damage, and moderate structural damage.
concrete. Consequently, concrete covers may crack or Minor non-structural damage generally occurs in parts
spall due to the expansion resulting from corrosion re- of the building that are not the main structural com-
action. Ultimately, this diminishes the performance of ponents, such as non-load-bearing walls, floor cover-
concrete buildings and, if left unchecked over time, ren- ings, and ceilings. On the other hand, minor structural
ders them unusable. Therefore, corrosion of reinforced damage occurs in parts of the building’s structure but
steel serves as a basis for predicting the service life of is still at a minor level and does not pose a threat to the
concrete buildings, especially those near the sea (Sud- overall safety of the building, such as cracks in beams
jono, 2005). or columns, slight shifts or displacements in founda-
tions, or minor deformations in other structural ele-
The utilization of land and geographical location in ments. Moreover, moderate structural damage is more
South Sulawesi Island continues to evolve without be- serious than minor damage. It can pose a threat to the
ing tailored to the coastal environment conditions that safety of the building if not addressed properly such as
require special treatment. Most developments ad- large cracks or fractures affecting structural integrity,
here to the same rules and behaviors without consid- significant shifts or changes in shape in foundations or
ering location-specific approaches for areas near the other main structures, and loss of load-bearing capac-
coast. Additionally, there is still a lack of investiga- ity in some structural elements.
tion and research on buildings along the coast of In-
donesia. Therefore, this study not only assesses the
safety and durability of coastal buildings, such as the 2.4 Concrete Testing
market building that has been unused for seven years
post-construction without maintenance, but also ex- In the analysis method of structural feasibility, espe-
plores the structural viability based on its findings. Fur- cially reinforced concrete in buildings, there are gen-
thermore, it provides insights into managing similar erally two types of testing. Non-destructive testing
cases in different locations, considering the local con- involves inspecting structures without damaging the
text where the market’s lack of use is attributed to low building or structure being tested, while destructive
demand from the predominantly fishing community, testing involves taking samples that damage the build-
which prefers to trade on neighboring islands. ing. Evaluation of concrete quality using Core Drill
Tests based on SNI 2847-2019 was conducted for the
laboratory building’s column structure.
2 METHODS

2.1 Research Location 2.4.1 Carbonation Testing

The study was conducted on the Dande Dandere Market Concrete chip carbonation testing was conducted to
building, located on Tanakeke Island, Takalar Regency, determine the acidity level of concrete resulting from
South Sulawesi, to examine its structure. The market the intrusion of salt compounds or carbonation within
was constructed as a simple reinforced concrete struc- the concrete mass. This test involved spraying a
ture with a lightweight steel frame roof covered with 1% phenolphthalein solution (1 gram phenolphthalein
span-deck steel. The market comprised three build- mixed with 90 cm3 ethanol and added with distilled wa-
ings: Building A, Building B, and Toilet Building, sit- ter to reach 100 cm3 ). Concrete portions still in good
uated along the coast as depicted in Figure 1. condition (alkaline) would turn pink or purple, while
carbonated portions, with a pH of 7 (neutral) or even
less than 7 (acidic), would not change color (Agency,
2.2 Preliminary Survey 2002).

Data collection was conducted to gather the necessary In general, concrete damage due to chemical attacks
aspects for detailed surveys. The data included various can be caused by various factors such as carbonation,

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Figure 1 Research location map

chloride, sulfate, decalcification, and water quality. 2.4.2 Strength Testing

Concrete carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere reacts with hydrated cement minerals, Concrete compressive strength and Paving Block test-
producing carbonate. Concrete carbonation manifests ing were conducted to determine the compressive
in two types: early-age carbonation and weathering strength of concrete samples (fck in kg cm2 ). The com-
carbonation. Early-age carbonation occurs when car- pressive strength was obtained by dividing the com-
bonation coincides with the hydration reaction of fresh pressive force (P , in kgf) from the compression testing
concrete exposed to aggressive environments, leading machine by the surface area (A, in cm2 ) measured pre-
to rapid carbonation and contributing to slow concrete viously, or by the following formula :
strength development.

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P From this principle, the average reduction in the diam-

fck = (1) eter of the iron after rust removal can also be estimated.
A
In corrosion-induced reinforcement degradation test-
ing in the laboratory, weight or diameter differences
Concrete testing was limited to chip samples from the of intact 12 mm plain reinforcement compared to their
Lods table and Paving Blocks installed on-site. original condition after rust removal were used. These
differences were divided by the number of days over six
2.4.3 Density Testing years to obtain the average weight reduction or diame-
ter reduction per day.
Relative dry concrete density (G, in grams cm-3 ) test-
ing was performed to control the strength against con- 3 RESULTS
crete mass density. This testing involved weighing each
concrete compression test sample (Wc , in grams) before 3.1 Visual Inspection
compression in a dry oven and dividing the result by the
corresponding sample volume (Vc , in cm3 ) to obtain the
The condition of the market building and its surround-
density of each test specimen :
ings during the field visit, as depicted in Figure 2, re-
vealed rampant wild vegetation with strong roots en-
Wc croaching the area surrounding the market building,
G= (2)
Vc making it challenging for the team to identify Paving
Block works around the building. Eventually, after a
2.4.4 Degradation Testing thorough exploration of these wild plants, the Paving
Blocks were discovered.
Corrosion-induced reinforcement degradation testing
Visual identification revealed structural degradation in
was conducted to determine the rate of weight loss of
the market’s construction, occurring at a faster rate
reinforcement due to corrosion over six years. This
than the expected lifespan of the building. Signs of
testing involved preparing iron specimen pieces with
structural degradation in the reinforced concrete con-
known lengths, diameters, and weights before degra-
struction include the peeling of concrete coverings
dation by corrosion (Ws1 , in grams). After rust removal
(spalling) on beam and column components, as well as
from the specimens, they were weighed (Ws2 , in kg).
on cantilever slab plates.
The difference between Ws1 and Ws2 represented the
weight loss of iron due to corrosion (Wc , in grams) : While observing the deteriorated upper building condi-
tions, it was also presumed that the foundation of this
Wc = Ws1 − Ws2 (3) market building had undergone similar, more severe
conditions due to the accumulation of salt aggression
and sulfuric acid from the surface soil. Based on visual
If the weight Wc is divided by a specific period (t in identification, the soil was identified as expansive or-
days), the weight loss per that period (Lo , in grams ganic silty clay sand, characterized by black color. An-
day-1 ) can be predicted using the following equation : other type of non-structural degradation involved the
detachment of ceramic tiles from walls or floors and the
Wc collapse of lod’s sales tables. During the team’s inspec-
LD = (4) tion, a lods table collapsed even with only one person
t

Figure 2 Condition of the market building and surroundings

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Figure 3 Identification of component damage in the building

attempting to step on it. struction in Main Buildings A and B. This type of struc-
tural damage included cracked and expanded concrete
On the other hand, the lightweight steel frame and with wide openings (more than 1.0 mm), spalling of
roof covering were still more robust than its support- concrete covers and corrosion, as well as severe expan-
ing structure, although they showed significant signs of sion of reinforcements (rebar fracture and easy tear-
deterioration, indicated visually by the detachment of ing). The damage depicted in the figure was attributed
roof coverings and list planks. It can be directly identi- to the very low quality of concrete during the initial
fied that the cause of the roof component detachment implementation, making it vulnerable to the aggres-
was rusty nails or screws coming loose. However, de- sive influence of the coastal environment. Similarly,
spite the apparent lack of severe damage to the roof the damage has also occurred to architectural compo-
structure, it remained highly hazardous as potential nents, such as floor damage caused by soil conditions,
debris, given that the reinforced concrete columns and roof and listplank detachment due to wind influence,
beams supporting its main structure have undergone and corrosion on nails/screws from the surrounding en-
severe deterioration in bearing the construction load vironment.
above.
3.2 Concrete Testing
In Figure 3, severe damage or significant degradation
was evident in the structural elements of the slab, col- Figure 4 shows white-colored debris samples with ad-
umn, and beam throughout almost all parts of the con- hering reinforcements in concrete or mortar. The white

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crete structure, leading to a decrease in the pH of the

concrete around the carbonation zone. Consequently,
the concrete loses its alkaline properties and becomes
more acidic, thereby increasing the risk of corrosion to
the steel reinforcement.

The results of carbonation testing on concrete samples

are depicted in Figure 6. The figure illustrates a no-
ticeable difference in the surface color of two types of
samples from different sources. Concrete chip samples
from the location of Dande Dandere Market, Tanakeke
Figure 4 Samples of concrete debris from the site
Islands, exhibited no color change after being sprayed
with phenolphthalein solution. This result suggesteds
an increase in calcium carbonate content on the sur-
face of these concrete chips, shifting the pH of the re-
inforced concrete from alkaline to acidic conditions. In
contrast, the reference sample used in this test, a labo-
ratory core drill specimen with concrete, remained al-
kaline. Upon spraying with phenolphthalein solution,
it immediately changed color to pink or purple. Simi-
larly, direct spraying of the same solution on the sur-
face of a peeled column structural element showed no
Figure 5 Rebar samples and the condition of corroded rebars color change, indicating that the reinforced concrete
that can be fractured had undergone carbonation.

Further testing was also conducted on concrete powder

samples using XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence) equipment in
the UNHAS Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sci-
ences Laboratory, which can analyze the composition
of elements and oxide compounds. The test results in-
dicated that the average Calcium Oxide (CaO) content
formed from the two samples was 42.80%, classified as
very high as it exceeded the Silica Oxide (SiO2 ) con-
tent of 37.32%, which was a determinant of concrete
strength.

3.2.2 Strength Testing

Figure 6 Results of carbonation testing on concrete debris and
structural elements In the case of the low strength of concrete on the low
lods table samples, issues arose during the prepara-
tion of the compression test specimen. Chunks of de-
color of this debris provided an initial indication that
bris from the reinforced concrete low lods table sam-
the concrete had detached due to carbonation. Fig-
ples were formed into 5×5×5 cm3 cubes using a con-
ure 5 illustrates the visual condition of reinforcement
crete cutter. However, precise shapes and sizes were
elements that have undergone severe corrosion, char-
not obtained as expected due to damage occurring to
acterized by brittle fractured reinforcement metal and
the sides or edges of the cubes during the cutting pro-
easy tearing, resulting in a reduction in the cross-
cess, as shown in Figure 4. During compressive strength
sectional area of the reinforcement steel. The reduced
testing with a Compression Testing Machine performed
diameter of the reinforcement due to continuous corro-
on one of the test specimens that managed to be formed
sion will reduce the bearing capacity of reinforced con-
into a cube, no compressive strength results were ob-
crete elements such as beams, columns, and slabs in the
tained. The sample immediately cracked soon after the
market, both under tensile and compressive stresses.
test started. This result indicated that the compressive
3.2.1 Carbonation Testing strength of the concrete in the market was already very
low compared to the planned concrete quality of 24.90
MPa.
The carbonation occurring is diffusion carbonation,
where CO2 from the air penetrates the pores of the con- The Paving Block samples obtained from the site were
crete and reacts with the calcium hydroxide present in first cut to form 5×5×5 cm3 sizes to conform to the
it. This reaction occurs uniformly throughout the con-

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Figure 7 Compression strength testing of paving blocks sample (left) and testing aparatus (right)

standard size for compressive strength test specimens. The main indicators of good concrete quality, reflect-
The testing of Paving Block samples is shown in Figure ing planned quality, are typically observed in the com-
7. The average compressive strength test result of five pressive strength test results at a certain age (usually
5×5×5 cm-3 cube specimens obtained a value of 11.45 above 28 days) of test specimens taken during cast-
MPa, which was only about 46% of the planned strength ing. When the quality of concrete reaches only 46%
of 24.90 MPa. Similarly, the relative density of con- of the planned quality, it may be attributed to one or
crete, determined by weighing the test specimens in dry several factors mentioned above. Considering the lo-
conditions, was obtained at 2.29 grams cm-3 . This re- cation of the market, built on the beach of one of the
sult represented a decrease of 4.6% from the weight of islands in Takalar Regency obtaining materials may be
the paving block, which commonly exceeded 2.4 grams challenging, leading to the potential use of local aggre-
cm-1 . gate materials (sand and gravel) of poor quality. More-
over, bringing aggregate materials through boat cross-
ings could expose them to seawater contamination dur-
3.2.3 Degradation Testing ing transportation. In addition to aggregate quality,
low concrete quality can also result from the use of mix-
The results obtained from testing four reinforcement ing water containing salt compounds which can hinder
bars with an initial diameter of 12 mm revealed an av- the cement hydration process. Despite using clean wa-
erage weight reduction of 62.70% over six years. This ter with neutral pH during the construction, poor work-
result corresponded to an average weight loss of 0.103 manship, by excessive water usage for improved work-
grams per day or a reduction in the diameter of the re- ability can lead to high concrete porosity and poor wa-
inforcement bars by 2.0 μm per day over the six years. ter resistance, as noted in the previous study (Wibowo
Considering that the reinforcement bars served as com- et al., 2020).
ponents for both compression and tension reinforce-
ment in reinforced concrete, such rapid dimensional re- Previous studies (Siregar and Atur, 2006; F, 2007) in-
duction (from a diameter of 12 mm to approximately dicated that in aggressive environments like coastal
7.33 mm over approximately six years), it can be in- areas, seawater, or water vapor containing salt ions,
ferred that the structural integrity of the market build- chlorides, and sulfates can easily penetrat the pores of
ing was significantly decreased. This degradation was porous concrete layers. Subsequently, a highly com-
attributed not only to the deterioration of concrete ma- plex chemical reaction occurs with calcium hydroxide
terial but also to the reduction in diameter and quality (Ca(OH)2 ) which is expansive in nature. This reaction
of the reinforcement bars. leads to the growth of new material inside the concrete
pores, known as ettringite (Calcium Aluminate Sulfate,
Ca4 Al6 O16 S). Ettringite formation results in a volume
4 DISCUSSION expansion, exerting pressure, within the concrete. This
Several factors can contribute to the low quality of pressure causes tension within the concrete, leading to
structural concrete, including failure to meet the phys- surface cracking, followed by concrete cover cracking
ical and chemical quality of constituent materials, in- and spalling, ultimately initiating corrosion of the re-
appropriate composition of all materials not in ac- inforcement.
cordance with the expected quality, and methods of
mixing and handling concrete during early-age main- In the mechanical review presented in Table 1, the very
tenance that do not comply with industry standards. low compressive strength of concrete diminishes its

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Table 1. Comparing the actual and standard conditions

Aspect Actual Conditions Standard Conditions
Compressive Very low, reducing the ability to withstand Sufficiently high to withstand pressure from
Strength of pressure from its own weight or dead loads its own weight and dead loads with an
Concrete above adequate safety margin (ASTM C39/C39M)
Should not occur if the concrete has
Spalling Occurs more rapidly on the lower side of
adequate compressive strength and is
Mechanism cantilever slabs due to pressure mechanism
properly protected (ACI 301-16)
The slab bends downward, experiencing The structure should remain stable under
Response to tension on the upper side and compression load without significant deformation,
Load on the lower side, leading to compression preventing cracking or spalling
cracking or crushing and spalling (SNI 1727:2020)
Upper tie beam components also All components should maintain structural
Durability of
experience similar degradation integrity over time without such degradation
Components
mechanisms (SNI 2847:2019)

ability to withstand pressure from its own weight or ious constructions due to its ease of shaping, struc-
dead loads above it. Typically, the spalling observed tural strength, and suitability for various applications
is influenced by the pressure mechanism acting on the (Joseph and Tretsiakova-McNally, 2010). Moreover,
cross-section side of the stressed component. In can- a natural understanding of timber building materials
tilever slabs, spalling tends to occur more rapidly on the combined with traditional skills can result in a struc-
lower side. This phenomenon occurs due to the weight turally robust and environmentally savvy buildings (Ri-
of the slab itself, causing it to bend downward. As a re- fai, 2010), making it easier for coastal communities to
sult, its upper side experiences tension, while its lower work with and oversee structural work using wooden
side experiences compression. The compressed side of materials. Additionally, timber’s vulnerability to the
the slab may undergo compression cracking or crush- influence of coastal environments can be mitigated, as
ing, eventually leading to spalling. This mechanism is microbial decay can be inhibited by exposure to salt-
also observed in upper tie beam components. water, making wood a more environmentally friendly
choice for coastal buildings (Treu et al., 2019).
The occurrence of vertical cracks and peeling of column
covers is also attributed to the pressure mechanism
acting on the column. Under the compressive force 5 CONCLUSION
from the load above it, the column tends to shorten
or even bend. When the entire cross-section of the The condition of the Dande Dandere Market Building,
column experiences uniform compression, the concrete located in Maccini Baji Village, Tanakeke Islands Dis-
cover becomes the weakest part, while the core part, re- trict, Takalar Regency, South Sulawesi, which was con-
strained by reinforcements, is stronger. In cases where structed seven years ago, is severely deteriorated. It is
the concrete compressive strength is low, the unre- characterized by extensive cracks and swelling of con-
strained concrete cover section cannot withstand sig- crete, widespread spalling of the concrete covers, corro-
nificant compressive strains, resulting in cracking and sion, and easily fraying reinforcement bars. The struc-
expansion, ultimately leading to earlier spalling. Simi- tural quality of the concrete only reaches 46% of the
larly, when the columns have undergone flexural bend- planned quality. Detailed identification of the upper
ing, certain surface sides of the column bear greater structure’s reinforcement steel has revealed progres-
compressive strains, characterized by crack expansion sive corrosion, marked by a reduction in diameter of
in the compressed area, eventually leading to spalling. 2.0 μm per day over time. Given these conditions, re-
inforcing the structure is challenging due to the com-
Based on these findings, we recommend the demoli- prehensive degradation of structural elements. Repairs
tion of this building and its replacement with more ef- are necessary, from reinforcing the foundation to upper
ficient and effective materials suitable for coastal loca- building elements. However, pursuing rehabilitation
tions. According to Kuzman and Grošelj (2012), pro- would entail costs exceeding those of new construction.
cessed timber construction emerges as the top prior- Reinforcing the structure with encased foundations,
ity among various construction types, followed by solid columns, and beams with new concrete or with Fiber
timber construction, concrete construction, brick con- Reinforced Polymer fails to provide adequate strength
struction, and steel construction. Timber buildings of- recovery due to the extremely poor concrete quality and
fer numerous advantages, including comfort, attrac- corroded reinforcement bars. These costs may even
tiveness, versatility, affordability, ease of construction, surpass the initial construction budget. If the building
low cost, durability, and environmental safety (Kozak were to be reconstructed using reinforced concrete, wa-
and Cohen, 1999). Timber has been utilized for var- terproof and durable concrete is imperative. Alterna-

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tively, if steel is chosen, it is advisable to use steel with College of Speech & Language Therapists 49(4), 37–46.
thicker anti-corrosion coatings. However, we strongly URL: http://doi.org/10.1086/250095
recommend using timber materials due to their cost-
Kuzman, M. and Grošelj, P. (2012), ‘Wood as a construc-
effectiveness, ease of implementation, supervision by
tion material: Comparison of different construction
coastal communities, and environmental friendliness,
types for residential building using the analytic hierar-
making timber structural elements more suitable for
chy process’, Wood Research 57, 591–600.
buildings in the coastal region.
URL: https://www.researchgate.net/publica-
DISCLAIMER tion/288811202

Liu, Y., Hao, H., Hao, Y. and Cui, J. (2022), ‘Experimental

The authors declare no conflict of interest. study of dynamic bond behaviour between corroded
steel reinforcement and concrete’, Construction and
Building Materials 356, 129272.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuild-
mat.2022.129272
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Zen-
taro Furukawa, Associate Professor Faculty of Environ- Medeiros, M., Gobbi, A., Réus, G. and Helene, P. (2013),
mental and Life Science, Okayama University, for their ‘Reinforced concrete in marine environment: Effect of
invaluable guidance and support throughout this re- wetting and drying cycles, height and positioning in re-
search project. Their expertise and insightful feedback lation to the sea shore’, Construction and Building Ma-
greatly contributed to the quality and success of this terials 44, 452–457.
study. URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.02.078
Moreno, J., Bonilla, M., Adam, J., Borrachero, M. and So-
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