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Lecture 2 Experimental Research

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Lecture 2 Experimental Research

Uploaded by

Lê Na Nguyễn Thị
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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LECTURE 2 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

“A teacher is never a giver of truth; he is a guide, a pointer to the truth that each
student must find for himself.”

Compulsory Readings

Nunan, D. 1992. Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge: CUP (p. 24-50)
Selinger, H.W. and E. Shohamy. 1989. Second Language Research Methods. Oxford:
OUP (p. 135-152).
Brown, J.D. 1988. Understanding Research in Second Language Learning: A Teacher’s
Guide to Statistics and Research Design. New York: CUP.
Hatch, E. and A. Lazaraton. 1991. The Research Manual: Design and Statistics for
Applied Linguistics. New York: Newbury House.

What is an experimental research?

• Experimental research is carried out to explore the strength of relationship


between variables

An experimental research is:


- a controlled look at nature.
(McDonough J.& McDonough S., 1997)
- an attempt to maintain over all factors
that may affect the result of an experiment.
(James P., 1997)
- the effects of specified and controlled
treatments given to subjects usually formed
into groups. (Selinger & Shohamy, 2000)

Moderator variable: affect the relationship between the independent & dependent
variables by modifying the effect of the intervening variable
In a questionnaire study, interest might focus on the way two different kinds of pupil, e.g.
girls and boys answered the questions. Here sex would be a moderator variable.

Control variable: the variables that are not measured in a particular study must be held
constant, neutralized, or eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other
variables

Extraneous variable: are those factors in the research environment which may have an
effect on the dependent variable but which are not controlled

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Confounding variables (CV):

• Often difficult to separate out variables from one another satisfactorily.

• The researcher would have a difficult time sorting out the difference between a
group-work task and a group-work seating position.

• There are two variables, which might be important, are so far confounded.

• Confounding variables are undesirable features of experiment.

Type of scale
• Nominal scale: the nominal scale places things into named categories
• Ordinal scale: the ordinal places things in order
• Interval scale: the interval scale uses equal-sized units of measurement & shows
distances between subjects’ performances
• Ratio scale: the ratio scale employs equal intervals & begins at a true zero point

• Inferential statistics: The statistics which may be inferred from sample to


population
• T-test: the test to compare two means (2 groups)
• F-test: the test to compare more than two means (more than 2 groups)
• ANOVA: Analysis Of Variance, a procedure to compare more than two means

• Chi-square: calculate the different between the expected frequencies and


compare them with the actual frequencies
• Correlation: a statistical test to estimate the degree (strength) of association
between two variables
• Control group: the group under normal situation
• Experimental group: the group under experimental condition

Kinds of experimental research


• TRUE- EXPERIMENT

• QUASI- EXPERIMENT

• PRE- EXPERIMENT
(Nunan 1992)

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True-experiment
• Random selection of subjects
• Use of control groups
• Random assignments to control and experimental groups
• Measurements: pre- and post treatment tests
• Highly controlled, highly selective

• Advantages:
- Greater internal validity
- Causal claims can be investigated
• Disadvantages:
- Less external validity
- Not very feasible

Quasi-experiment
• No random selection of subjects
• Use of control groups
• No random assignments to control and experimental groups
• Measurements: pre- and posttests

• Advantages:
- Greater external validity
- Much more feasible given time and logistical constraints
• Disadvantages:
- Not as many variables controlled

Pre-experiment
• No random selection of subjects
• No control group
• Measurements: (pre- and posttests)
• Pilot study, one-shot case study, one group study...

• Advantages:
- Very practical

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- Set the stage for further research
• Disadvantages:
- Lower validity

Components of an experimental research


• Research questions
• Literature review
• Hypothesis & focused question
• Variables

Validity
• Internal validity: did the experimental treatment make the difference in this
specific instance rather than other extraneous variables?

• External validity: to what populations, settings, treatment variables, and


measurement variables can this observed effect be generalized?

The Logic of Statistical Inference

Mean X

• The average of a set of scores

• The central tendency of the scores

The Logic of Statistical Inference

Mode: The score that occurs most frequently in a set of scores.


Median: the middle point in a distribution, the midway between the two middle scores

• The central tendency of the scores

Standard Deviation SD

• Important measure of dispersion


• Estimating:
1) Deducting the mean from each individual score
2) Squaring the resulting figures to get rid of minus signs
3) Adding these together and dividing by the total scores minus one → Variance
4) Obtaining the square root of the figure → SD

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Standard Error SE

• The standard deviation of sample means: placing a single sample mean in


relation to the population mean
• Estimating: Dividing SD of a single sample by the square root of the number of
observations in the sample (N)
•
SE = SD : √ N

“Statistics have shown that mortality increases perceptibly in the military during
wartime” (?)

Further questions
Find a report of an experimental study in applied linguistics and give your comments
on the following checklist:

I. Introduction: Is the framework for the study clear?


A. Literature review: can you tell where the study fits in?
1. Is the background or rationale provided?
2. Is the relationship to previous research clear?
B. Statement of purpose: can you tell where the study is heading? Are any of the
following included?
1. Purpose
2. Research question
3. Research hypothesis
II. Method: Is the study replicable?
A. Subjects
1. Is the description of participants adequate?
2. Is the method of selection clear?
B. Materials
1. Is there a description of tests, questionnaires, rating scales, and so forth?
2. Do the variables represent reasonable operational definitions of the underlying
constructs or characteristics involved?
3. Is there a description of any equipment (when applicable)?
C. Procedures
1. Is there a description of the preparation of material, administration, scoring and
so on?
2. Is there a description of the conditions during study?
D. Analyses
1. Is there a description of the arrangement and grouping of the data?
2. Are the statistical tests listed in order of use?
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III. Results
A. Are all the statistical tests previously listed represented as results?
B. Is there a prose explanation (optional)?
IV. Discussion/Conclusion
A. Is the original research question, or questions, answered?
B. Is there an explanation of why the results were as they were?
1. If the conclusion is based on previous research, is it well supported and
reasoned?
2. If the conclusion is speculative, is it qualified as such and well reasoned?
C. Are suggestions for further research provided?
V. References, Notes, or Footnotes
A. Are all the references cited in the text included?
B. Are any pertinent references missing?
VI. Appendixes
A. Are they necessary?
B. Are they complete?

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