NAMES OF GROUP 1 TEAM MEMBERS:

1. LEBOHANG ERIC SITHOLE

2. TEBOHO L MOLETE
3. MOSEBO MOTHETSI
4. OLESEGO MALEMELA
5. MOHLALEFI RAKOLOBE

FINAL REPORT
Prosthetic hand project

1
Report Submittal And Identification Sheet

Bachelor in Engineering Technology

Programme: Mechanical Engineering

Module name: Engineering Design III

Module code: M D E 2 2 A

Graduate Attribute (GA) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

assessment: X X X X X X

Innovative Cam-Follower System for

a Prosthetic Hand
Activity Number: 4
Final Report

Due date: 2 0 2 4

Lecturer: Mrs. M. K. E. Ramosoeu

Declaration of Own Group Work

We hereby declare that the content of this project is our own group work, as defined and
constituted in the Rules and Regulations of the Central University of Technology, Free State.
(Please consult the Programme Guide of the Department).

GROUP NUMBER: 01

STUDENT NUMBER: STUDENT SURNAME & INITIALS:

223051736 SITHOLE L. E
223077428 MOSEBO MJ
223027202 MALEMELA O
223065687 RAKOLOBE M
223051784 MOLETE TL

2
Attendance Register

List or Group Activities Meeting Dates Register

members
1. Mothetsi Activity 1 1. 16th August 2024 We were all
Mosebo 2. 20th August 2024 present at all
2. Teboho Molete 3. 22nd August 2024 meetings.
3. Mohlalefi 4. 23rd August 2024
Rakolobe Activity 2 1. 24th August 2024 We were all
4. Lebohang 2. 27th August 2024 present at all
Sithole 3. 28th August 2024 meetings
5. Olesego Activity 3 1. 1st September August Done on MS
Malelema 2024 Teams, we were
2. 4th September 2024 all present.
3. 5th September 2024
Activity 4 1. 1st October 2024 All members were
2. 2nd October 2024 present

Activity 5 1. 1st October 2024 All members were

2. 2nd October 2024 present

3
Writing Centre Attendance Letter
All team members met at the centre meeting during the First Design Phase. During
this discussion, we talked about the general goal for the prosthetic hand and made
sure that every subproblem was understood, such as the design of the cam profile,
the follower mechanism, and the choice of motor and gearbox. The team's goals
were able to be aligned and the groundwork for the upcoming detailed design work
was established through the collaborative conversation.

By bringing in diverse perspectives, the team made sure that the cam profiles
would achieve the desired smooth and precise movements that are crucial for the
prosthetic hand's functionality. As we moved forward with Cam Profile
Development, another centre meeting was scheduled to review the early-stage
designs of the cam profiles. This meeting offered an opportunity to analyse the
proposed cam shapes, discuss their compatibility with the prosthetic hand's size
constraints, and choose the best materials.

A centre meeting was scheduled to discuss the test results following the completion
of Follower Mechanism Testing. The team's discussion about the follower
mechanism's performance in testing and simulations was made possible by this
meeting. We assessed factors like robustness, choice of materials, and accuracy
of movements. Before deciding to finalize the follower design, the group decided
what revisions were required.

Ultimately, during the Assembly and Integration phase, a centre meeting was held
to examine the full integration of all parts—cam, follower, motor, and gearbox. The
team worked together to make sure that all parts were working together as planned
and that any unforeseen problems were fixed. This meeting was essential to
confirm that the prosthetic hand would function as planned and achieve the
project's objectives of accuracy, robustness, and fluid hand movements.

4
Acknowledgements
We want to express our deep appreciation to Mr. Mohutsiwa for his
knowledge, commitment, and unwavering assistance in making the smart
toolbox design project a success. His insightful suggestions have greatly
raised the standard and success of our work.
Throughout the whole process of this project, from inception to completion,
Mr. Mohutsiwa showed exceptional professionalism by lending his knowledge
at every stage. To overcome challenges and achieve our objectives, we
needed his innovative ideas and great attention to detail.
We would like to sincerely thank Mr. Mohutsiwa for his outstanding work and
consistent support, both of which have been important to the accomplishment
of this project. His commitment and knowledge have made a lasting
impression on our work, and we are grateful that we were able to work with
someone so extraordinary.
We are grateful for your priceless assistance and support. Our achievement
has been greatly attributed to your dedication to excellence. Looking forward
to further partnerships in the future.

5
Table of Contents

Report Submittal And Identification Sheet ................................................. 2

Attendance Register ..................................................................................... 3

Writing Centre Attendance Letter ................................................................ 4

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................... 5

List Of Symbols............................................................................................. 8

List Of Tables ................................................................................................ 9

List Of Figures............................................................................................. 10

List Of Equations ........................................................................................ 11

Chapter 1 – Introduction, Definition of Problem ...................................... 12

3.1 Introduction 12
3.2 Literature Review 14
2.2.1 Subproblem A: Cam Profile Design .............................. 14
2.2.2 Subproblem B: Spur Gearbox Design ........................... 15
2.2.3 Subproblem C: Follower Mechanism Design ................ 16
3.3 The Main Problem Statement of The Project 17
3.4 Subproblems 17
2.4.1 Subproblem A: The Cam Profile ................................... 17
2.4.2 Subproblem B: The Spur Gearbox. ............................... 22
2.4.3 Subproblem C: Follower Mechanism and Integration. .. 25

Chapter 2 – Conceptual Design ................................................................. 29

3.1 Initial Concept for Subproblem A: Cylindrical Cam Profile Design 29

2.1.1 Subproblem A: Cam Profile .......................................... 29
2.1.2 Subproblem B: Spur Gear............................................. 30
6
 2.1.3 Subproblem C: Follower Mechanism ............................ 32
3.2 Evaluation Of Concepts for Subproblem A 37
2.2.1 Evaluation of Solutions/Ideas/Concepts for Sub-Problem
A: Cylindrical cam ......................................................... 37
2.2.2 Evaluation of Concepts for subproblem B ..................... 39
2.2.3 Evaluation Of Concepts For Subproblem C .................. 42

CHAPTER 3 – RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS........................................... 44

3.1 Best Concept 44

3.2 Design Specifications 46
3.3 Bill Of Materials 47
3.4 Discussions 51

Chapter 4 – Conclusion .............................................................................. 52

References .................................................................................................. 53

12. Appendices............................................................................................ 54

Subproblem A- Calculations For Cam ...................................................... 54

Appendix B: Solidworks Detailed Drawings ............................................. 67

7
List Of Symbols

π Pi
𝝎 Omega
𝝈 Small Sigma

8
List Of Tables

Table 1: Design Specification for motor selection (subproblem A) ............. 21

Table 2: Design Specifications for gearbox ................................................ 24
Table 3: Design Specification for follower mechanism ............................... 27
Table 4: Evaluation of Solutions/Ideas/Concepts for Sub-Problem A:
Cylindrical Cam ......................................................................... 37
Table 5: Evaluation of Solutions/Ideas/Concepts for Sub-Problem B: Spur
gear ........................................................................................... 39
Table 6: Evaluation of Solutions/Ideas/Concepts for Sub-Problem C:
Follower Mechanism.................................................................. 42
Table 7: Specification for pinion ................................................................. 46
Table 8: Specification for Gear ................................................................... 46
Table 9: Specification for shaft ................................................................... 47

9
List Of Figures
Figure 1: The cam components (Saif, 2023) .............................................. 13
Figure 2: The cam terminology (Anon., 2023) ............................................ 19
Figure 3: Common cam profiles (Woodford, 2022)..................................... 20
Figure 4: a) Spur gear in mesh and b) basic spur gear terminology ........... 23
Figure 5: Types of cam followers (Tholiya, 2024) ....................................... 26
Figure 6: Freehand sketch of cylindrical cam profile .................................. 29
Figure 7: Freehand sketch of spur gears in mesh ...................................... 30
Figure 8: Freehand sketch of follower mechanism ..................................... 32
Figure 9: Freehand sketch of flat faced follower ......................................... 34
Figure 10: Freehand sketch of spherical follower ....................................... 35
Figure 11: Freehand sketch of knife edge follower ..................................... 36
Figure 12: Freehand sketch of inner parts of the best concept................... 44
Figure 13: Freehand sketch of the joint (3D) .............................................. 45
Figure 14: Final Concept of prosthetic hand (3D) ....................................... 53
Figure 15: Follower..................................................................................... 67
Figure 16: 9V battery .................................................................................. 68
Figure 17: DC motor ................................................................................... 69
Figure 18: Barrel/ Cylinderical cam ............................................................ 70
Figure 19: Shaft .......................................................................................... 71
Figure 20: Gears ........................................................................................ 72
Figure 21: gear ........................................................................................... 73
Figure 22: pinion......................................................................................... 74
Figure 23 arm shell..................................................................................... 75
Figure 24 hand ........................................................................................... 76

10
List Of Equations

Equation 1: Hertz contact theory for contact stress analysis ...................... 21

Equation 2: Lewis Formula ......................................................................... 23
Equation 3: Hertz equation ......................................................................... 24
Equation 4: Pitch Diameter (ref. eq. 5.4 page 172 ).................................... 56
Equation 5: Pitch line velocity (ref. eq. 5.28 page 189) .............................. 57
Equation 6: The dynamic factor of gears (ref. eq. 5.27 page 189).............. 57
Equation. 7: Transmitted load (ref. eq. 5.24 page 187) .............................. 58
Equation 8: Lewis Factor for Gears (ref. eq. 5.30 page 190) ...................... 58
Equation 9: For ISO Threads...................................................................... 59
Equation 10: For ISO Threads.................................................................... 59
Equation 11: Area (ref. eq. 10.5 page 383) ................................................ 60
Equation 12: Preload (ref. eq. 10.10 page 384).......................................... 60
Equation 13: Torque (ref. eq. 10.13 page 384)........................................... 60
Equation 14: Power (ref. eq. (2.2) page 34) . Error! Bookmark not defined.
Equation 15: Velocity (ref. Equation 2.10, page 38) .... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Equation 16: PV factor ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Equation 17: Dynamic Load Rating (ref. eq. 3.3 page 71) .. Error! Bookmark
not defined.

11
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION, DEFINITION OF PROBLEM

3.1 Introduction

What is a Cam-Follower Mechanism?

A cam-follower mechanism is a mechanical system that translates rotational or

oscillatory motion into linear or reciprocating motion. It comprises two major parts:
the cam and the follower. The cam is a shaped piece of material, typically round,
with a variable profile. As the cam rotates, its profile interacts with the follower, a
component that moves along a path set by the cam's profile, forcing it to move in
a predetermined direction. This motion can be used to actuate numerous
components in machines and gadgets (Cope, 2022).

How Can It Be Powered?

• Mechanical power: The cam can be powered by a motor, crankshaft, or

other rotating machine element.
• The cam-follower mechanism can be powered by hydraulic or pneumatic
systems, which employ fluid pressure to move the cam. (Saif, 2023).

The core components of a cam-follower mechanism are:

• Cam: The rotating element with a profiled shape.

• Follower: The moving component that interacts with the cam.

• Cam Shaft: Supports the cam and allows it to rotate.

• Frame: Provides a base for the mechanism.

• Spring: (Optional) Maintains contact between the cam and follower

(Godwin, 2018).

12
 Figure 1: The cam components (Saif, 2023)

How can it move a prosthetic hand to enhance its ability and functionality?

• A cam can actuate a wrist joint, allowing the prosthetic hand to produce
waving motions and gestures.
• It combines wrist rotation and finger movements to enhance prosthetic hand
dexterity and versatility.
• Coordinating multiple cams allows for natural-looking and functional hand
movements, including grasping, pinching, and finger extension.
• Cams can give adjustable grip strength, enabling prosthetic hands to adapt
to various items and tasks.
• Cams can be integrated with sensors and control systems for more
advanced and responsive prosthetic hands.
• Sensors detect user intentions and control cam-driven movements for a
more natural and intuitive experience.
• Cams can be tiny and lightweight, making them ideal for prosthetic hands
that require extended wear.
• Cams efficiently transform rotary motion to linear motion, lowering power
requirements for prosthetic hands.
13
 • Cams can be simply adjusted or replaced to meet changing user needs or
prosthetic hand designs.

3.2 Literature Review

2.2.1 Subproblem A: Cam Profile Design

Operating principles:
The cam profile, which controls the movement of the prosthetic hand's fingers and
joints, is the fundamental component of the cam-follower system. The cam profile
transfers the camshaft's rotational motion to the follower's precise, regulated linear
or angular motion, which subsequently moves the fingers. The path of the profile
determines the motion direction, speed, and timing, which affects the hand's
capacity to execute gripping and pinching actions (Budynas, 2015).

Manufacturing, Joining, or assembly

The cam profile can be produced in the precise shape required by using highly
accurate precision machining methods like wire EDM or CNC milling. This would
necessitate fitting the pulley to the camshaft using press-fit, keyed or welded
means, ensuring that it is well-bonded and resistant to wear even under constant
loading. The follower mechanism may instead be made with a constrained cam
profile in the housing, also to support alignment and stability (Kalpakjian, 2014).

Connection with other subproblems

To receive rotating input and transmitting motion, Subproblem A must be directly
connected to the follower mechanism (Subproblem C) and motor and gearbox
(Subproblem B). These are going to be mechanical connections using some sort
of couplings or splines whether they were keyed shafts which will assure the
precise torque and motion transfer.

Materials
Materials such as 4140 alloy steel and EN8 steel are used in materials due to it
being incredibly pure, resistance to wear and tear strength, and almost as easily
milled components. For lightweight applications, 7075 aluminium is a balanced
material in terms of both strength and weight (Ashby, 2011).

Structural material shapes

The shape of the cam profile will probably be either a cylindrical cam or a circular
14
disk, based on the needs of the design. If reducing weight is the main goal, the
camshaft could be a hollow tube or a circular bar.

Applicable standards, codes, and theories

• ISO 9001: For overall manufacturing process quality control.
• DIN 3990: For calculating the strength of gears and cam profiles.
• Kinematics and dynamics theory: To precisely design the cam profile
according to the intended/desired motion results.

Applicable catalogues:
• McMaster Carr- For materials and camshafts that are precisely machined.
• Misumi- To customize cam profiles and associated parts.

2.2.2 Subproblem B: Spur Gearbox Design

Operating Principles
The mechanism's spur gearbox oversees transferring and adjusting the torque and
rotational speed from the motor to the cam. It lowers the motor's high-speed
spinning to a lower speed that produces more torque, which is appropriate for the
cam-follower mechanism. The prosthetic hand can move its fingers with control
and accuracy thanks to the gearbox, which makes sure the cam rotates at a
precise pace (Budynas, 2015).

Manufacturing, Joining, or assembly

The spur gears can be produced via precise grinding or shaping. They are then
combined inside a gearbox housing to hold them in place and keep them parallel.
Gears can be attached to their respective shafts via splines, keys, or interference
fit. You might need to pre-lubricate the teeth of the gearbox assembly for it all to
work smoothly: after bolting down from the engine casing side.

Connection with other subproblems

The motor (input) and camshaft (output) are directly connected to the gearbox. It
could also hold or support the cam profile to make a tight and inventive design.
The gearbox and camshaft could be joined by a keyed joint that guarantees precise
motion transfer.

Materials
EN8 steel can be used to make the gears for its toughness and wear resistance.
The gearbox housing would be a good choice for 6061 aluminium being that this

15
material is light and very machinable. Inside the gearbox, bearings may be made
from 52100 steels for long-term performance (Ashby, 2011).

Structural material shapes

Square tubes for the gearbox housing and round bars for the shafts are examples
of common material shapes that could be used. The gears themselves will have
tooth profiles and be shaped like disks.

Applicable standards, codes, and theories

• AGMA Standards: For the analysis and design of gears.
• ISO 6336: For determining life expectancy and gear strength.
• Gear Kinematics Theory: To fully understand the transmission of torque
and gear ratios.

Applicable catalogues:
Boston Gear: For different gearboxes and spur gears
Nord drive system: For motor integration and industrial gearboxes.

2.2.3 Subproblem C: Follower Mechanism Design

Operating Principles
Through direct interaction, the follower mechanism transforms the rotating motion
of the cam profile into linear or reciprocating motion. The prosthetic hand's fingers
or joints are driven by the follower, which follows a predetermined path dictated by
the contour of the cam. This kind of conversion proves to be accurate which makes
the prosthetic hand to operate in a fluid and efficient manner (Budynas, 2015).

Production, Fusion, or Assembling

The follower mechanism may be injection moulded or machined from a bar stock
with the use of computer numerical control technology based on the material to be
used and design intricacy. It could for instance entail the fixing of the follower to a
guide or linkage system designed to transmit the movement of the follower to the
fingers. Components may be bonded or soldered, conned by press fittings or
fastened by biscuits or dowels to ensure that there is no free play and to ensure
that motion is transferred accurately.
16
 Materials
It may be made of low friction material like Delrin (Acetal) or PTFE(Teflon) as the
manufacturer may deem fit. This would minimize wear while at the same time
improving the smooth operation. Tool steel or 4140 alloy steel could be used for
high-stress items (Ashby, 2012).

Structural material shapes

Based on the cam profile and required motion, the follower can be constructed as
cylindrical rollers or as rectangular bar forms. Flat plates and other structural
shapes can be used to mount and guide the follower.

Applicable standards, codes, and theories:

• ISO 10816: For mechanical vibration standards in machinery.
• Material Wear Theory: To understand wear characteristics of the follower
material under repeated contact with the cam.

Applicable catalogues:
• Igus: For components and materials with reduced friction.
• SKF: To guarantee longevity and minimize friction in bearings and
mechanical components.

3.3 The Main Problem Statement of The Project

The objective of the study is to design a prosthetic hand to formally wave like a
natural hand using a spur gearbox-powered cam-follower system. Miniature cam
will be used instead of the conventional cam and the spur gearbox will be used for
controlling the speed and torque. The respective components are to be built of
wear-resistant materials, for instance, PEEK and titanium alloys. It will also align
with ISO 13485 for health-care-related devices, it will incorporate feedback
sensors for control, as well as 3D printing and CNC for fabrication.

3.4 Subproblems

2.4.1 Subproblem A: The Cam Profile

1.4.1.1 Subproblem Statement

17
 This subproblem is to develop a deterministic cam profile of a prosthetic hand with
flexibility in the movements which include linear and oscillatory. The materials
which will be used in designing include EN8 steel, 3003 aluminium, or POM that
meets ISO 10827 and ISO 5211 standards (Brown, 2004). The cam profile is to be
used in order to translate the rotary motion of the fingers into specific grips, for
instance, grasping. In the manufacturing process, the use of CNC machining will
be used for lifespan and precision; and round bars or customized discs may also
be used. Until now it has been determined that the cam profile cannot meet the
performance requirements, at the same time it will be evaluated and improved

1.4.1.2 Delimitations

• Limits on Cam Profiles: This applies only to profiles that present a practical
manufacturing challenge for existing machining technology.
• Material Restrictions: Only materials that are practical for production and
provide precision and durability are allowed to be chosen.

• Design Scope: This may not involve all possible hand or finger motions; as
it focuses on the development of cam profiles corresponding to specific
hand movements.
• Testing Restrictions: There are disadvantages in using the simulation and
prototypes in that the performances achieved in these two stages may not
equal the real performance of the final product

1.4.1.3 Codes, Standards, Formulas and Theory

Theory:

A cam is a rotating mechanical element that converts rotary motion into linear or
oscillatory motion. The shape of the cam's profile determines the specific motion
of the follower (Saif, 2023).

Basic Cam Terminology:

• Base Circle: The smallest circle that can be inscribed within the cam
profile.

• Pitch Curve: The path traced by the centre of the follower as the cam
rotates.

• Follower: The moving component that interacts with the cam profile. It
can be a roller, flat face, or other shape.

18
• Pitch circle: Pitch circle is the circle passing through the pitch point and
concentric with the base circle

• Pitch point: Pitch point is a point on pitch curve at which the pressure
angle is maximum.

• Angle of dwell (𝜽𝒅 ): The angle through which cam rotates while follower
remains stationary at the highest or the lowest position, is known as angle
of dwell (𝜃𝑑 ).

• Angle of rise (or angle of ascent or outstroke angle) (𝜃0 ): The angle
through which cam rotates when follower begins to rise till it reaches its
highest position, is known as angle of rise or outstroke angle (𝜃0 ) (Lubken,
2016).

Figure 2: The cam terminology (Anon., 2023)

19
Common cam profiles include:

• Disk or Plate Cams: These are cut out of flat metal or plate. A follower
moves in a plane perpendicular to the camshaft’s rotation axis. Terms like
base circle, prime circle, and pitch curve are relevant when designing plate
cams.
• Wedge or Flat Cams: These have a wedge-shaped profile. They are
often used for simple applications.
• Spiral Cams: These have a helical profile, resulting in gradual motion
changes.
• Cylindrical or Barrel Cams: These have a cylindrical shape. The follower
moves along the cam’s surface.
• Heart-Shaped Cams: These cams resemble a heart shape. They create
varying motion profiles.
• Translating Cams: These move linearly, translating the follower’s motion.
• Snail Drop Cams: These have a snail-like profile, producing non-uniform
motion.
• Conjugate Cams: These are designed to maintain a constant velocity
ratio between the cam and follower.
• Globoidal Cams: These have a complex curved profile for specific
applications.
• Spherical Cams: These have a spherical shape, allowing for versatile
motion control.

Figure 3: Common cam profiles (Woodford, 2022)

20
 Equation 1: Hertz contact theory for contact stress analysis

 3P 
c =   (1 − v )
2

 4 R 

Where:
•  c σ is the contact stress
• P is the applied load
• R is the equivalent radius of curvature
• ν is Poisson's ratio

Cam and Follower Materials

The allowable contact stress depends on the materials used for the cam and
follower. Materials with higher hardness and strength can withstand higher
contact stresses.

Cam and Follower Tolerance

The tolerance between the cam and follower should be specified to ensure
proper contact and avoid excessive wear.

Codes:
• ISO 606: Standard for cam design
• ASME Y14.5 (Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing)
• ISO 2768 (General Tolerances) - Cam dynamics theory for velocity,
acceleration, and jerk analysis

1.4.1.4 Design Specifications

Table 1: Design Specification for motor selection (subproblem A)

Aspect Objective Criteria Test Conditions

Type Make sure the DC or BLDC Testing of
prosthetic hand motor electrical
is small and has appropriate for performance
excellent small-sized, with varying
control. effective control. loads.
Size Fit within the The motor's Measuring and
prosthetic hand dimensions are testing the
design. approximately prosthetic
24 mm in length hand's
and 12 mm in dimensions.
diameter.
Power requirements Ensure that the 1-2 watts of testing of
hand has power, performance at
21
 enough power depending on both maximum
to move. the force and and typical load
speed needed. levels.

2.4.2 Subproblem B: The Spur Gearbox.

1.4.2.1 Subproblem Statement

Develop a spur gearbox design that engages the motor’s rotational motion
effectively and transmits to the cam-follower mechanism of the prosthetic hand the
desired speed, and torque. A feature of the design will be lightweight 3003
aluminium housing for gears that are made of high-strength EN8 steel. The gears
will therefore be cut accurately in production and upon assembly the parts will be
well matched for the best performance. The gearbox must be well positioned in
order to propel the cam mechanism as required under ISO 9001 and to AGMA
specifications as noted by Budynas (2014). Because of this, the follower’s mobility
and the hand’s overall functionality are affected in the follower.

1.4.2.2 Delimitations

• Gearbox Size: Need to fit inside the prosthetic hand without adding too
much heft places restrictions on the design.
• Gear Ratio Limits: Therefore, the gear ratios and the material strength
must remain within specific levels of constraints to attain the desired speed
and torque.
• Material Selection: limited to the materials that have a desirable
combination of strength, weight and ease of fabrication.
• Assembly Precision: Depending on the environment, installation and
positioning are important and it may be difficult to complete the assembly
when done in a small area.

1.4.2.3 Codes, Standards, Formulas, Theory, Procedure

Theory:
Spur gears are the simplest type of gear, consisting of two cylindrical gears with
teeth cut parallel to the axis of rotation. They are used to transmit rotational
motion and torque between two parallel shafts.

Basic Spur Gear Terminology

• Pitch: is the distance between the same places on adjacent teeth.
22
 • Module: The ratio of pitch diameter to number of teeth.
• The pressure angle: is the angle between the line of action and the
common tangent to the pitch circles.
• Backlash: refers to the space between mated gear teeth.
• The Involute Profile: is the most popular tooth profile for spur gears,
providing a constant velocity ratio during the meshing cycle.

a) b)
Figure 4: a) Spur gear in mesh and b) basic spur gear terminology

Spur Gear Design Considerations

• The gear ratio: is the ratio of the driving gear's teeth to the driven gear's
teeth, which establishes the speed ratio.
• Centre distance: refers to the distance between the two gear centres.

• Minimise backlash: for reduced noise and vibration.

• Material: Gears should be durable, wear-resistant, and easily machined.

• Tooth profile: Spur gears typically have an involute tooth profile.

• Proper lubrication: To reduce wear and friction.

Equation 2: Lewis Formula

Ft
b = Y
bm

Where
• 𝜎𝑏 is the bending stress.

23
 • 𝐹𝑡 is the tangential force on the gear tooth.
• b is the face width of the gear.
• m is the module.
• Y is the Lewis form factor, which depends on the tooth shape and the
number of teeth.

Equation 3: Hertz equation

Ft  E 2
c =
 b R

Where
• 𝜎𝑐 is the contact stress.
• E is the modulus of elasticity of the gear material.
• R is the radius of curvature at the contact point.
• b is the face width

1.4.2.4 Product Design Specifications

Table 2: Design Specifications for gearbox

Aspect Objective Criteria Test conditions

Transfer torque The Spur gearbox Testing of
and reduce speed enables easy and efficiency at
Type
effectively. dependable transfer different speeds
of torque into speed. and loads.
Reduce torque and A gear ratio of about Operational
speed to the ideal 5:1 will guarantee an speed testing
Gear ratio levels for using a adequate production and torque
prosthetic hand. of torque. output
measuring.
Make sure it's Gearbox Testing the
small enough to fit dimensions: around prosthetic hand
Size inside the 20mm in diameter, assembly's
prosthetic hand. 30-40mm in length. dimensions and
fit.
Reduce weight Lightweight Testing for
without sacrificing materials such as material strength
Material toughness or strong polymers, and analysing its
longevity. titanium, and durability under
aluminium. stress.

24
 2.4.3 Subproblem C: Follower Mechanism and Integration.

1.4.3.1 Subproblem Statement

Design and incorporate the follower mechanism in such a way that the rotary
motion of the cam can be utilised to make the prosthetic hand move either linearly
or oscillatory. It means that through the follower’s movement which is determined
by the cam’s profile hand movements like waving are possible. In strength, EN8
steel can be used in component making; for low-friction surface material nylon or
Delrin may be employed. Proper fitting is essential hence the need to align with
the cam in order to have a smooth running. Thus, with the exact motion translation
to be offered by the design, it shall conform to ISO 10825 and ISO 2768 standards.
Components for flexible solutions will be rigged from catalogues such as
McMaster-Carr and Misumi

1.4.3.2 Delimitations

• Follower Types: Limited to those that meet the design requirements of the
prosthetic hand and can successfully follow the cam profile.

• Material Properties: Within the given space, only materials with low friction
and wear resistance can be chosen.

• Assembly Accuracy: In small-scale applications, it may be challenging to

attain the high precision needed for alignment with the cam.

• Motion Constraints: This may not support all possible hand movements or
user needs, as it focuses on motion profiles.

1.4.3.3 Codes, Standards, Formulas, Theory, Procedures

Theory
The follower in a cam-follower mechanism is a critical component that interacts
with the cam profile to translate the cam's rotational motion into a specific type of
linear or oscillating motion. The design of the follower affects the performance,
efficiency, and longevity of the cam-follower system (Cope, 2023).

Types of Followers

25
Flat-Faced Follower: The contacting surface of the follower is flat. This type is
simple to manufacture but can result in high contact stress, leading to faster wear.
Roller Follower: The contacting surface is a rolling element (typically a cylinder or
a needle roller). This design reduces friction and wear, making it suitable for high-
speed applications.
Spherical or Curved Follower: The contacting surface is spherical or curved. This
type reduces edge contact and is used where space constraints exist.
Knife-Edge Follower: The contacting surface is a sharp edge. It is rarely used
due to high wear and poor durability (Tholiya, 2024).

Figure 5: Types of cam followers (Tholiya, 2024)

Key Concepts in Follower Design

1. Follower Motion:

• Reciprocating (Translating): Moves in a straight line, typically parallel to

the camshaft.
• Oscillating (Swinging): Rotates about a pivot point.

2. Follower Travel:

• The displacement of the follower as it moves over the cam profile. This
travel depends on the cam design and the type of follower used.

3. Contact Stress:
26
 • The stress at the contact point between the cam and the follower. This
stress needs to be minimized to reduce wear and prolong the life of the
mechanism.

4. Follower Pressure Angle:

• The angle between the direction of the follower's motion and the normal to
the cam profile. A lower pressure angle reduces the friction and load on the
follower.

Delimitations

• The wrist joint will be designed for a single axis of rotation.

• The mechanism should be lightweight and compact to integrate seamlessly
with the prosthetic hand
• The follower must be designed to minimize friction and wear for long-term
reliability
• The follower will be limited to a roller type.

Applicable Codes, Formulas, Theories, Procedures, or Standards

• ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 for gear strength may be considered if the follower

interfaces with gears.
• ISO 6336 could also apply for load capacity considerations.

1.4.3.4 Design Specifications

Table 3: Design Specification for follower mechanism

Aspect Objective Criteria Test Conditions

Make sure the Roller or flat Accuracy and
transition from followers smoothness of
Type rotational to linear based on the motion under load
motion is correct and nature of the are tested.
seamless. motion.
Fit inside the prosthetic Follower size: Functional and
hand and provide for 5-10mm in dimensional tests
Size the required range of diameter. are integrated into
motion. the prosthesis
design.

27
 Reduce wear and Low-friction Testing for wear and
make sure it lasts. materials such friction under 500k+
as Delrin repeated contact
Material
PTFE, or cycles.
hardened
steel.

28
CHAPTER 2 – CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

3.1 Initial Concept for Subproblem A: Cylindrical Cam Profile Design

2.1.1 Subproblem A: Cam Profile

Figure 6: Freehand sketch of cylindrical cam profile

A cylindrical cam has its profile cut into the surface of a cylinder instead of a flat
disc. As the cam rotates, it pushes the follower back along this surface. This action
then translates into a linear or oscillatory motion from the groove or track cut into
its cylinder which guides the follower as it rotates.

Advantages of Cylindrical Cams

• It allows for a complicated set of movement patterns out of the follower,

giving them very precise control over their motion.
• It is possible to design cams in a cylindrical shape, which is handy for
occasions with limited space.
• They have good rigidity
• They can support high axial forces and loads, so are also suitable for heavy-
duty applications.
• Cylindrical cams produce to order the specific type of desired follower
movement, providing an intentional trajectory.
29
 • Long service life if correctly made and maintained as of periodicity—
cylindrical cams.

Disadvantages of the cylindrical cam

• The cam against the follower rubs to create a lot of friction, leading to wear.
This requires regular lubrication and maintenance.
• The design and manufacturing of cylindrical cams also make them
potentially more costly.
• A cylindrical cam may need to be periodically inspected and greased,
especially if a follower rolls along the face of the cams such as illustrated by
grooved or Vernolier profiles.
• Machining a repeatable cylindrical cam that complies with the tolerance of
accuracy can be expensive since it involves careful processing.
• The mechanical interaction creates noise that is not welcome in many
applications.

2.1.2 Subproblem B: Spur Gear

Figure 7: Freehand sketch of spur gears in mesh

A spur gear is a cylindrical wheel, which has linear teeth cut on them with the
direction of the teeth being along the length of the gear. Spur gear systems can be
used as sets with two gears; the driving gear is then called the spur gear and the
other a pinion gear. For them to work in harmony their jaws are connected through
the teeth. When the driving gear rotates, the teeth of the cursed and the driving
gears engage each other in a tighter manner. The force exerted at the driving gear
30
is transmitted to the next gear, the received gear, through the engaged teeth. In
addition, it becomes seen that the rotation of the driven gear begins to be the
reverse of the rotation of the driving gear. The ratio of the driving gear’s teeth to
the driven gear’s teeth is known as the gear ratio.

Advantages Of Spur Gears

• Design Gear teeth are cut in one simple process with the use of various
cutter heads for improved control over the polycarbonate nature as it spins
into final gears.
• Power transmission is very large from up to 95 percent.
• Manufacturing of spur gears is easier and cheaper as compared to helical
or bevel gear etc.
• The highest amount of accuracy in producing spur gears which allows for
precise motion properties that fit within a limit.
• Spur gears are also low maintenance because they have such simple
designs and do not generate excessive axial forces.

Disadvantages of Spur Gears

• Due to the way that spur gears are made — with straight teeth — they are
noisy, especially at high speeds.
• Spur Gears for Only Parallel Shafts: A major drawback of spur gears is that
they are limited to parallel shaft configurations, so this type does not work
well in non-parallel or perpendicular shaft applications where the unique
gearing geometry cannot be paralleled.
• Face-gear meshes can operate in direct tooth-on-tooth contact and
consequently might be susceptible to shock loading over time.
• Failure to properly mesh teeth increases the local contact stresses that
could cause tooth failure under wind loads.
• This is the result of a small play between teeth and can hit precision.

31
2.1.3 Subproblem C: Follower Mechanism

Figure 8: Freehand sketch of follower mechanism

In the case of an upward movement this is achieved by mimicking or waving the

prosthetic hand while in the downward movement it simply slides with the help of
the follower that moves in the groove formed by the revolving cam. The graphic
shows how cam’s profile controls the position of the hand, so it can either move
like natural hand or make a wave movement. That simple, yet efficient mechanics
of the prosthetic hand does not allow any jerking motion as the cam turns and can
mimic natural hand gestures.

Advantages Of the Roller Follower

• Enhanced Durability: Roller followers tend always to experience less

wearing due to reduced friction and contact stresses hence experiencing
higher reliability and longer life.
• Less Heat Generation: Rolling movement produces less heat than when
sliding followers are employed, thus making the system last longer and be
very efficient.

32
 • Less Noise: The rolling action is smoother, which makes a prosthetic hand
to function more quietly than when sliding or striking it.
• Reduced Contact Stress: This roller is cylindrical and cuts down the
surface pressure on the cam by distributing it in a larger area thereby
increasing its durability and that of the cam.
• Increased Precision: Tasks which require accurate adjustment of the
movements such as finger mimicking in a prosthetic device would certainly
gain a lot from roller followers’ versatility in movement.

Disadvantages Of The Roller Follower

• Size Restrictions: Due to the spinning movement of the roller, sufficient
space has to be provided so that the roller of the roller follower is able to
rotate hence it may not be suitable in small spaces.
• Susceptibility to Dirt and Debris: The rollers may get contaminated with
dirt or debris, which may impact the rollers’ life and work.
• Complexity and Cost: This is so because the construction of the roller
followers entails elements and engineering which may be slightly more
advanced as opposed to the sliding followers, making the construction
slightly costly.

• Maintenance Requirements: Sometimes roller followers may need

frequent lubrication to minimize on problems such as dust build-up or
damage to bearings.

33
Flat faced follower

Figure 9: Freehand sketch of flat faced follower

Advantages
• It high axial forces and load can be supported.
• It can follow cams with profile capturing traces with steep gradients.
Disadvantages
• It is relatively rigid and has a high amount of friction and wear and may
need to be lubricated.

Spherical follower

34
Figure 10: Freehand sketch of spherical follower

Advantages
• It can allow cam rotation at different axis as the follower; hence it can
allow misalignment of the angular as well as the radial misalignment.
• It can move in any direction.
Disadvantages
• It has more friction and wear than a roller follower and may call for
lubrication and other types of maintenance.

35
Knife edge follower

Figure 11: Freehand sketch of knife edge follower

Advantages
• It can be easily produced at a low cost and can correctly trace intricate
cam curves.
Disadvantages
• It has high friction and wear and may develop noise and vibration.

36
3.2 Evaluation Of Concepts for Subproblem A

2.2.1 Evaluation of Solutions/Ideas/Concepts for Sub-Problem A: Cylindrical cam

Table 4: Evaluation of Solutions/Ideas/Concepts for Sub-Problem A: Cylindrical Cam

Idea 3: Idea 4:
Total Idea 1: Idea 2: Idea 5:
Evaluation Criteria Aluminium Composite
Points Steel cam Plastic cam Titanium cam
alloy cam cam
1. SAFETY Robust when Safe but could Good safety Versatile, Outstanding
(the condition of being carrying large distort under at modest robust, and safe safety and
protected from or unlikely 21 loads pressure loads strength under all
to cause danger, risk, or loads
injury)
Extremely Excellent Lightweight Outstanding Excellent
2. FUNCTIONALITY accurate and under load but and with functionality and durability and
20
(Effectiveness on usage) fluid motion less accurate good adaptability precision
accuracy
Incredibly Moderate Strong and Excellent Extremely strong
robust and robustness but resistant to durability, but and resistant to
3. Durability 15
long-lasting prone to wear corrosion there may be wear
material fatigue

37
 Costly Inexpensive Moderate Costly because Extremely costly
because of the and obtainable price, less of the composite because of the
4. Cost 15
materials and expensive materials cost of the
machining than steel materials
5. Ease of Challenging to Simple to Moderate and Moderate, Challenging and
manufacture machine assemble or simpler to necessitates highly precise
17
mould work with unique
than steel procedures
6. Compactness Thick because Incredibly Small and Small and It is small but
17 of the strength small and light light featuring more substantial
of the material movable layers than aluminium

38
2.2.2 Evaluation of Concepts for subproblem B

Table 5: Evaluation of Solutions/Ideas/Concepts for Sub-Problem B: Spur gear

Evaluation Total Idea 1: Smooth Idea 2: Idea 3: Idea 4: Idea 5: Regular

Criteria Points edges and Integrated Emergency stop Protective Maintenance
Rounded safety sensors mechanism. Housing Alerts
Corners
17 minimizes the detects and offers a quick Involves ensures that timely
possibility of stops safety option to additional steps maintenance is
danger by dangerous stop working, in manufacturing performed to keep
Safety getting rid of situations like safeguarding the to create and the gearbox in a
sharp edges that over-torque or mechanism and attach the safe operating
could cut the overheating to the user. protective state.
person. ensure safe housing.
operation.

17 keeps the improves improves helps to keep enhances long-term

gearbox functionality by dependability by the gears clear performance by
operating adjusting on its acting as a failsafe of dust and dirt, lowering the chance
smoothly and own to avoid to make sure the which of malfunctions
Functionality stops jerky or damage or gearbox stops contributes to through
harsh malfunctions before it can constant preventative
movements. while in use. damage something performance. maintenance.
or breakInvalid
source specified..

39
 18 increases Periodic increases durability shields the ensures that the
longevity by maintenance by avoiding misuse gearbox from gearbox is
lessening gear may be or mechanical elements that maintained before
Durability wear and tear necessary for stress on the gears could eventually problems worsen,
because of sensors, but while they are in cause the plastic extending its
smoother they also guard use. to deteriorate. lifespan.
interactions. against
situations that
could harm the
gearbox.

Cost 16 economical raises The inclusion of somewhat raises adds very little to
since it needs expenses since mechanical the price the cost, mostly
little extra electronic components because more because of the
processing or components required for the materials are warning system and
material. are required emergency stop needed to make sensors.
and because feature has the protective
they may be resulted in a shell.
complicated. moderate cost
increase.

19 Simple to use more difficult to Quite difficult; requires extra rather simple to
and requiring integrate exact integration of production incorporate using
little alteration to because an emergency stop procedures to current technology
Ease of the current sensors must mechanism is fabricate and during manufacture.
Manufacture manufacturing be fitted into the required. attach the
procedure. gearbox's protective
construction. housing.

16 keeps the Some bulk expands the adds a little bulk minimal effect on
design small might be added gearbox's because the size, increasing

40
Compactness because because of the dimensions protective features while
rounded corners sensors and somewhat to enclosure maintaining a
don't contribute related wiring. provide room for slightly enlarges compact gearbox
a lot of weight. the emergency the entire object. design.
stop mechanism.

41
2.2.3 Evaluation Of Concepts For Subproblem C

Table 6: Evaluation of Solutions/Ideas/Concepts for Sub-Problem C: Follower Mechanism

Evaluation Criteria Total Idea 1: Roller Idea 2: Flat Idea 3: Needle Idea 4: Idea 5: Pin
Points follower follower Bearing Spherical follower
follower follower

1. SAFETY 19 When properly Low risk, but incredibly safe Safe, yet in Simple but
(the condition of being greased, safe with time, heat because of the extreme prone to rapid
protected from or unlikely to operate; if and wear from reduced friction circumstances deterioration,
to cause danger, risk, or not, there may friction could and smooth complexity may potentially
injury) be a chance of become rolling motion introduce points leading to
jamming dangerous. of failure sudden
failures
2. FUNCTIONALITY 16 Low friction Excellent for Exceptionally seamless Easy to use
(Effectiveness on usage) and smooth linear motion low friction, functioning in and efficient,
action make it but could lead perfect for multidirectional although there
perfect for to increased operations motion could be more
prolonged use. friction requiring high wear and tear
precision
3. Durability 18 robust, but prone to Because of the Sturdy but a little high rate of
with repeated friction wear, rolling action, it more wear and
touch, it could with moderate is very robust complicated requirement
deteriorate durability and reduces for regular
with time. wear. replacement

42
4. Ease of 17 precise Simplest to Because of difficult to Low
manufacture machining is produce, bearings, produce, complexity
necessary, yet smooth manufacturing particularly for and easy to
it's a common surfaces, and is complicated multi-axis motion create, but
and well- low complexity and costly. may require
established more frequent
replacement
5. Maintenance 18 Low Low Built-in Medium upkeep: Increased
maintenance, maintenance, bearings sporadic maintenance
but lubrication although after require very inspections can because of
is necessary wearing it little be necessary increased
sometimes could need to maintenance wear and
be replaced and cut down replacement
on the needs
frequency of
lubrication.

43
CHAPTER 3 – RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Best Concept

Figure 12: Freehand sketch of inner parts of the best concept

Description of the sketch:

The prosthetic hand is powered by a rechargeable battery which runs the motors.
The motor, with a pinion gear attached to it, turns the spur gear and provides
speed reduction by a suitable gear ratio. A shaft is connected to the spur gear,
and transmits power to the belt drive, which in turn also provides further speed
reduction.

44
The belt drive transmits power from the shaft onto the camshaft, which turns the
cylindrical cam. As the cylindrical cam rotates, a follower inserted in its groove
follows the predetermined profile path, which is sinusoidal. The follower will
cause linear motion of the link, due to the nature of the path the link will travel
back and forth. The link pivots around the link causing it to rotate and move the
hand skeleton/frame in a “hand wave” motion.

Figure 13: Freehand sketch of the joint (3D)

45
3.2 Design Specifications

For Pinion
Table 7: Specification for pinion

Specification for pinion

Part number ZG0.5-12

Teeth 12
PCD 6 mm
Outer diameter 7 mm
Bore diameter 2 mm
Face width 2.76×10-7 m
Weight 0.0001 kg
Module 0.5 m
Material Plastic Delrin
Price R79.00

Gear
Table 8: Specification for Gear

Specification for gear

Part number ZG0.5-60

Teeth 60
PCD 30 mm
Outer diameter 31 mm
Bore diameter 4 mm
Face width 1.54×10-7
Weight 0.0045
Module 0.5 m
Material Plastic Delrin
Price R136.03

46
For the Shaft
Table 9: Specification for shaft

Specification for shaft

Material 070M20 Bright Drawn Steel
Diameter 3.6 mm
Length 20mm
Tensile Strength 300-430 MPa
Hardness 100-150 MPa
Applications Engineering Gear Boxes
Tolerance +/- 0.01mm
Weight 0,099kg
Price 37 ZAR-92 ZAR

3.3 Bill Of Materials

Part Unit Material

Item Description Quantity Amount Material Amount
Number

MTR- 1.2 W DC
Motor 1 R265.65 N/A R265.65
1.2W Motor, 12V

Pinion 10-tooth,
PG-10T- Acetal
Gear (2nd Module 0.5 1 R79.70 R79.70
0.5 (POM)
stage) Gear
12-tooth,
Pinion
PG-12T- Module 0.5 Acetal
Gear 1 R88.55 R88.55
0.5 Gear for motor (POM)
(Motor)
shaft

12V
Power PWR-
Rechargeable 1 R442.75 N/A R442.75
Supply BAT-12V
Battery

47
 Wrist 3D printed
plate for wrist
Mounting WMP-3D 1 R88.55 PLA/ABS R88.55
joint
Plate connection

3D printed
shell for
PS-
Prosthetic prosthetic
SHELL- 1 R354.20 PLA/ABS R354.20
Hand Shell hand
3D (120x120x120
mm)

50mm linkage
arm
Linkage LK-
connecting 1 R79.70 Aluminium R79.70
Arm ARM50MM
follower to the
wrist

Driven 50-tooth,
DG-50T- Acetal
Gear (2nd Module 0.5 1 R132.83 R132.83
0.5 (POM)
stage) Gear

5mm diameter
Camshaft SHAFT5MM camshaft, 1 R123.97 Steel R123.97
80mm length

5mm Inner
Bearings BRG-
Diameter 2 R53.13 Steel R106.26
(Camshaft) 5MM
Bearings

GBOX- 60:1 Planetary

Gearbox 1 R442.75 Steel/Acetal R442.75
60P Gearbox

Driven 60-tooth,
DG-60T- Acetal
Gear (1st Module 0.5 1 R141.68 R141.68
0.5 (POM)
stage) Gear
Custom
cylindrical
Cylindrical Acetal
CAM-10S cam, 1 R265.65 R265.65
Cam (POM)
sinusoidal
profile

48
 Foam padding
Damping DMP-
for damping 1 R53.13 Foam R53.13
Material FOAM
wrist motion

Fasteners FST- Stainless

M2 Nuts 10 R0.89 R8.90
(M2 Nuts) NUTM2 Steel

Fasteners
M2 x 10mm Stainless
(M2 FST-M210 10 R1.77 R10.77
Screws Steel
Screws)

Microcontroller
Control MCU- with motor
1 R531.30 N/A R531.30
Unit CTRL-1 control and
feedback

FLW- Roller follower

Follower ROLLER- with 5mm 1 R88.55 Steel/Plastic R88.55
5 diameter

Simple hinge
Wrist Joint WJ- Stainless
for wrist 1 R177.10 R177.10
(Hinge) HINGE-20 Steel
motion

Total
People Time Cost
Step Cost Postproduction Colour
Involved (hours) (R/hour)
(R)

Quality
1. QC:
Control Inspection of
Preparation 1 hour R200,
Technician, R350 components for N/A
of each WA:
Warehouse defects
Components R150
Assistant

2. Motor and Alignment and Black

Assembly
Gearbox 1 hour R200 R200 securing of a (Motor,
Technician
Assembly motor assembly Gearbox)

49
3. Gear Train Black
Lubrication of
and Assembly 1.5 (Gears),
R200 R300 gears, fine-
Camshaft Technician hours Silver
tuning
Installation (Shaft)

4. Linkage
Ensure smooth Silver
and Assembly
1 hour R200 R200 motion of (Linkage,
Follower Technician
linkage Roller)
Assembly

Black
5. Wrist and Adjust wrist joint
Assembly (Wrist
Joint 1 hour R200 R200 for free
Technician Joint,
Installation movement
Hinge)

White or
Surface
6. Hand Custom
Assembly finishing and
Shell 1 hour R200 R200 Color
Technician assembly
Assembly (Hand
adjustments
Shell)

Electronics EE: Calibration of

7. Electrical 1.5
Engineer, R350, motor and
System hours R825 N/A
Assembly AT: feedback
Integration each
Technician R200 system

Quality
QC:
8. Final Control Final quality
1 hour R200,
Assembly Technician, R400 checks and N/A
each AT:
and Testing Assembly system tests
R200
Technician

Proper
9. Packaging Warehouse
1 hour R150 R150 packaging for N/A
and Delivery Assistant
safe delivery

Assembly Plan and Cost Breakdown

50
3.4 Discussions

Several mechanical systems are employed in the design and development of

prosthetic hands to replicate movements identical to a normal hand. The thesis is
divided into three main subproblems: motor/gearbox selection, follower
mechanism and cam design. The prosthetic hand has its spatial constraints, and
in accordance with that the mechanical specification of each subproblem needs to
be maintained as well. The main goal of this project is to design a prosthetic hand
that mimics a hand wave motion naturally.

The cam mechanism is required to control the hand wave motion of the prosthetic
hand. Under this sub-problem, the problem of designing a correct cam profile in
order to move prosthetic fingers smoothly and accurately is solved. Materials such
as Delrin or hardened steel are chosen based on their wear resistance and
durability. However, the cam must be tiny enough to work in a prosthetic hand that
is smaller than its regular version. For this reason, the design is both difficult and
critical in terms of how we operate these devices.

The follower mechanism used to transform the cam motion into finger linear
actuation needs to be selected carefully as high friction would lead to poor
performance undermining smooth-action desired. In this design, the roller followers
are used as flat rollers have more wear and lower efficiency. Since the prosthetic
hand has limited space, they should be compact but powerful thus needs to use
materials such as steel or reinforced plastic are appealing options.

Precision in alignment and material selection plays a vital role in reducing the wear
at points of geared joints, thus extending life for prosthetic hands. The choice of
motor and gearbox also ensures that this is powerful enough whilst being small
and efficient. These gears have a meshing ability which when combined with the
small size of a DC motor, reduces the high input speed of the motor and provides
an increased output shaft more quickly so that finger movements are easy. To
make sure the motor outputs sufficient torque without exceeding space constraints
in the prosthetic hand, this gear ratio must be dialled. Physical power is strictly
coupled with brightness, so physical sizing and weight must be balanced as well
in order not only to regulate comfort for the user but profitability and utility of the
end product; that's why those are among the basic success factors on this project.

51
CHAPTER 4 – CONCLUSION

In summary, by offering a functioning prosthetic hand design that incorporates

important mechanical systems—cam design, follower mechanism, and
motor/gearbox selection—the project has effectively satisfied the objectives stated
in the issue statement. Space, materials, and utility were carefully considered for
each subproblem, and the outcome is a design that is both sturdy and small,
mimicking natural hand movements. The prosthetic hand achieves its intended
purpose of increasing users' mobility by guaranteeing smooth operation through
durable materials, precisely controlled motor function, and optimized cam profiles.
Although more testing and improvement could be required to fully optimize the
design, the project has accomplished its main goals and established a strong basis
for real-world prosthetic use.

52
Figure 14: Final Concept of prosthetic hand (3D)

REFERENCES
Anon., 2023. Cam: Definition, Types, Applications, Advantages and Disadvantages.
[Online]
Available at: https://byjusexamprep.com/gate-me/cams
[Accessed 23 August 2024].
Ashby, M., 2011. Materials selection in mechanical design. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann: s.n.
Ashby, M. a. J. D., 2012. Engineering materials 2. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann: s.n.
Budynas, R. a. N. J., 2015. In: Mechanical engineering design. 10th edition. New York:
s.n.
Cope, L., 2022. How Does A Cam and Follower Mechanism Work?. [Online]
Available at: https://engineerfix.com/mechanical/cams/how-does-a-cam-and-follower-
mechanism-work/
[Accessed 23 August 2024].
Cope, L., 2023. A Complete Guide To Cam And Followers: What They Are And Types.
[Online]
Available at: https://engineerfix.com/mechanical/cams/a-complete-guide-to-cams/
[Accessed 23 August 2024].
Godwin, 2018. Everything you need to know about cam and follower. [Online]
Available at: https://studentlesson.com/cam-and-follower-definition-function-working-
types-diagram/
[Accessed 23 August 2024].

53
Kalpakjian, S. a. S. S., 2014. Manufacturing engineering and technology. 7th edition ed.
Boston: Pears: s.n.
Lubken, J., 2016. Camshaft Specifications and Terminology. [Online]
Available at: https://www.speedwaymotors.com/the-toolbox/camshaft-specifications-and-
terminology/28647
[Accessed 23 August 2024].
Saif, M., 2023. Cam and Follower: Definition, Types, Working & Uses. [Online]
Available at: https://www.theengineerspost.com/cams-and-followers/
[Accessed 23 August 2024].
Saif, M., 2023. Cam and Follower: Definition, Types, Working & Uses. [Online]
Available at: https://www.theengineerspost.com/cams-and-followers/
[Accessed 23 August 2024].
Tholiya, S., 2024. Cam and Follower Mechanism – Types, Working & Application.
[Online]
Available at: https://myigetit.com/tech/cam-and-follower-mechanism/
[Accessed 23 August 2024].
Woodford, C., 2022. Cranks and cams. [Online]
Available at: https://www.explainthatstuff.com/cranks-and-cams.html
[Accessed 23 August 2024].

12. APPENDICES

Appendix A: Calculations

SUBPROBLEM A- CALCULATIONS FOR CAM

The speed delivered to the cylindrical cam is 46.26 rpm. Therefore, the speed of
the follower and the linear waving speed of the hand are calculated as follows:

54
Where:

V= speed of follower hence waving speed of hand

ω= circular speed of cam

r= radius of the cam where the follower contacts it

N= input speed to the cam

Cam:
 = 2 N
= 2    46.24
= 290.66 rad / s

Follower:

r=5mm
v = r
= 290.66  0.005
= 1.45 m / s

55
1. Gear calculations

First stage:

Gear ratio:

NG n p
=
N p ng
N G 60
=
N p 12
= 5 :1

Np
ng =  np
Ng
12
=  5780
60
= 1156 rpm

Pitch diameters:

For Pinion:

Equation 4: Pitch Diameter (ref. eq. 5.4 page 172 )

𝑑𝑝 = mNp

= (0,5) (12)
=6 mm

For Gear:

𝑑𝐺 = mNG

= (0.5) (60)

= 30 mm

Pitch line velocity:

56
Pinion:

Equation 5: Pitch line velocity (ref. eq. 5.28 page 189)

d 2
Vp = 10−3  n 
2 60
6 2
= 10−3  5780 
2 60
= 1.816

Gear:

d 2
Vg = 10−3  n 
2 60
6 2
= 10−3  5780 
2 60
= 1.816 m / s

The dynamic factor of gears:

Pinion:

Equation 6: The dynamic factor of gears (ref. eq. 5.27 page 189)

6.1
Kv =
6.1 + V p
6.1
=
6.1 + 1.816
= 0.771

Gear:

6.1
Kv =
6.1 + V p
6.1
=
6.1 + 1.816
= 0.771

Transmitted load:
57
Pinion:

Equation. 7: Transmitted load (ref. eq. 5.24 page 187)

P
Wt =
V
1.2
=
1.816
= 0.66 N

Gear:

P
Wt =
V
1.2
=
1.816
= 0.66 N

Lewis Factor for Gears

Pinion:

Equation 8: Lewis Factor for Gears (ref. eq. 5.30 page 190)

Wt
F=
K v mY 
0.66
=
( 0.771)( 0.5)( 0.22960 ) ( 34.480 106 )
= 0.2162 10−6 m

Gear:

Wt
F=
K v mY 
0.66
=
( 0.771)( 0.5)( 0.4104 ) ( 34.480 106 )
= 1.209 10−6 m

58
Second stage:

𝑁𝑝 = 12; 𝑁𝑔 = 60; 𝑛𝑝 = 1156 rpm

Np
ng =  np
Ng
12
=  1156
60
= 231.2 rpm

Third stage:

𝑁𝑝 = 12; 𝑁𝑔 = 60; 𝑛𝑝 = 231.2 rpm

Np
ng =  np
Ng
12
=  231.2
60
= 46.24 rpm

2. Bolt Calculation:
Equation 9: For ISO Threads
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑 − 0.649519𝑝

= 2 − 0.649519 × 0.4

= 1.740𝑚𝑚

Equation 10: For ISO Threads

𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑 − 1.226869𝑝

= 2 − 1.226869 × 0.4

= 1.509𝑚𝑚

59
 Equation 11: Area (ref. eq. 10.5 page 383)
𝜋 2
𝐴𝑡 = 16 (𝑑𝑝 + 𝑑𝑟 )
𝜋
= 16 (1.740 + 1.509)2

= 2.073 𝑚𝑚

Equation 12: Preload (ref. eq. 10.10 page 384)

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 0.75𝐴𝑡𝜎𝑝

= 0.75 × 2.073 × 310

= 0.482 𝑘𝑁

Torque required to tighten the bolt

K=0.2

Equation 13: Torque (ref. eq. 10.13 page 384)

𝑇 = 𝐾𝐹𝑖 𝑑 ...eq10.13 pg384

= 0.2 × 0.482 × 103 × 0.002

= 0.1928 𝑁𝑚

2. Bearing Calculations

Radial load for stage 1 and 2

Density of gear material (acetal plastic)= 1140kg/m3 obtained from theory

Volume of gear= 2.48×10-6 mm3 obtained from solid work software
Mass of gear = 2.48×10-6 ×1140= 2.83×10-3 kg
Weight of gear= m×g = 2.83×10-3 ×9.81=0.0278N

For pinion:
Density of pinion material (acetal plastic)= 1140kg/m3
60
Volume of pinion= 7.415×10-8m3
Mass of pinion= 7.415×10-8×1140= 8.453×10-5
Weight of pinion= m×g= 8.453×10-5× 9.81= 8.3×10-4N

For shaft:
Density of shaft material (steel)=7850kg/m3 obtained from theory
Volume of shaft= 2.019×10-7 obtained from solid works software
Mass of shaft= 2.019×10-7×7850= 1.585×10-3 kg
Weight of shaft= 1.585×10-3×9.81=0.016N

Total radial load on the bearing = 0.016+ 0.0278 +8.3×10-4= 0.0446N

Axial load on the bearings:

Axial load is related to any thrust forces generated by gears:

P
Wt =
V
1.2
=
1.816
= 0.66 N

According to theory, axial load= gears thrust force × 0.5

Hence axial load = 0.66×0.5=0.33N
Total load acting in in bearings of stage 1 and 2:

=√0.332 + 0.04462 = 0.333N

D (diameter of bearing) = 3.64mm

L (length of bearing) = 3.64mm
W (Applied load) = 0.333N
P ( load capacity)

𝑊 0.333
P=𝐿𝐷 = 0.00364×0.00364 =0.02513MN/m2
61
 2𝜋 𝐷 2𝜋 0.00364
V=ωr= 60 × 𝑁 × 2 = 60 ×1156× = 0.2203m/s
2

Pv= 0.2203×0.02513=0.00537MN/m2
For safe factor of 2:
Pv= 0.00537×2= 0.011MN/m2

Material with limiting PV value of 0.035 such as thermoplastic material without

filler (according to table 2.2 page 37 of MECHANICAL DESIGN Third Edition by
P.R.N. Childs) would give the acceptable performance.

4. Cam calculations

The speed delivered to the cylindrical cam is 46.26 rpm. Therefore, the speed of the
follower and the linear waving speed of the hand are calculated as follows:

Where:
V= speed of follower hence waving speed of hand
ω= circular speed of cam
r= radius of the cam where the follower contacts it
N= input speed to the cam

Cam:

 = 2 N
= 2    46.24
= 290.66 rad / s

Follower:

𝑟 = 5𝑚𝑚
v = r
= 290.66  0.005
= 1.45 m / s

This is the linear velocity that the hand will be waving at, and it is traveling at a
reasonable speed to mimic natural human hand wave motion.

62
5 Shaft calculations done by MATLAB

63
64
STANDARDS
ANSI/ASME B106.1M-1985. Design Transformation of shafting
ASTM A470/A470M-05. (2020) Standard specification for carbon and steel
forgings.

Nomenclature (Pinion and gear)

dg= Pitch diameter of the gear (mm)
dp= Pitch diameter of the pinion (mm)
FP= Face width for the pinion
Fg= Face width for the gear
m= module (m)
ng= rotational speed of the gear (rpm)
np= rotational speed of the pinion (rpm)
Ng= Number of teeth in the gear
Np= Number of teeth in the pinion
PCD= Pitch circle diameter
Vp= Velocity for pinion (m/s)
Vg= Velocity for gear (m/s)
Y= Lewis form factor (m)
Kv= Dynamic factor
𝝈p= Permissible stress
Wt= Transmitted load (N)
65
Nomenclature (Bolt/ Fasteners)
At= Tensile stress area of the bolt (m2)
d= Diameter (m)
dp= pitch diameter (m)
dr= Minor diameter
Fi= Preload (N)
𝝈p= proof strength of the bolt (N/m2)

Nomenclature (Bearing)
L= Bearing length
N= Speed (rpm)
W= Applied load
D= Outer diameter
P= Load capacity (N/m2)
V= Journal Velocity (m/s)

66
APPENDIX B: SOLIDWORKS DETAILED DRAWINGS

Figure 15: Follower

67
Figure 16: 9V battery

68
Figure 17: DC motor

69
Figure 18: Barrel/ Cylinderical cam
70
Figure 19: Shaft
71
Figure 20: Gears
72
Figure 21: gear

73
Figure 22: pinion
74
Figure 23 arm shell
75
Figure 24 hand
76