POLITICS QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAM

1. What is a comparison? Why do we need comparisons in politics/political science? Give examples

to illustrate your arguments.

A comparison in politics refers to the act of comparing and contrasting different political systems,
parties, ideologies, policies, or events. This may involve examining the similarities and differences
between two or more political entities, or comparing the outcomes or effects of different political
actions or decisions

There are several reasons why comparisons are useful in politics and political science:

1. Detect differences/similarities across nations: By comparing political systems across nations,

we can identify the ways in which they are similar and different. For example, we might
compare the constitutional structures of different countries, or the ways in which citizens
participate in the political process. By understanding these differences and similarities, we
can appreciate the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches and identify best
practices.
2. Identifying patterns: By comparing the political behavior of different groups or countries, we
can identify patterns or trends that help us understand the factors that influence political
behavior. For example, we might compare the voting patterns of different age groups,
income groups, or education levels. By examining these patterns, we can identify trends that
help us understand why certain groups are more or less likely to vote.
3. Criticizing effectiveness: By comparing the outcomes of different political systems or policies,
we can determine which approaches are most effective. For example, by comparing the
outcomes of different education policies, we might be able to identify the approaches that
are most effective at improving student outcomes.
4. Detecting developments: By comparing the political systems of different countries over time,
we can see how things have changed and how they may continue to evolve in the future. eg.
trends in the level of democratization. For example, we might compare the political systems
of Nordic countries, which have a long history of democracy, to those of Southern European
countries, which have experienced more recent transitions to democracy. By examining
these trends, we can try to understand why there are differences in the level of
democratization across different regions.
5. Detecting global independent variables: By comparing different political systems and
phenomena across the globe, we can identify global independent variables that might be
contributing to global or regional trends. if we see that countries with higher levels of
globalization tend to have certain types of political systems or values, we can infer that
globalization might be a global independent variable that is contributing to these trends.
6. Making informed decisions: By considering the experiences of other countries or political
systems, we can make more informed decisions about the policies or actions that we choose
to support. By learning from the successes and challenges of other systems, we can make
more informed choices about what might work best in our own context. Eg. if we see that a
particular policy approach has been successful in reducing greenhouse gas emissions in one
country, we might consider adapting that approach for use in our own country
 1. What are the three branches of government? Please explain how they matter for
democracies.

The three branches of government are the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

The legislative branch is mainly responsible for making laws. In most democracies, the
legislative branch is made up of elected representatives who form a parliament or congress.
The main role of the legislative branch is to represent the people and to make laws that
reflect the will of the majority, that it will hopefully make everybody better off.

The executive branch is responsible for enforcing (that is becomes a real rule) the laws & that
are made by the legislative branch & and maintaining public order. Ensuring that the laws are
followed by the people and by other branches of government. In most democracies, the
executive branch is headed by a president or prime minister, who is assisted by a team of
advisors and officials. When breaking the law, arresting and prosecuting people is possible or
fines or shutting down businesses for illegal things. This all goes to the judicial branch.
(police)

The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting the laws and applying them to specific
cases. In most democracies, the judicial branch is made up of a system of courts, with judges
who are appointed or elected to serve on the bench. The main role of the judicial branch is to
ensure that the laws are applied fairly and consistently, and to resolve disputes that arise
within society. (make sure laws are fair) (supreme court, local court)

These three branches of government work together to balance power and to ensure that the
government functions effectively. In a democracy, it is important that each branch has its
own distinct powers and responsibilities, so that no one branch can dominate the others.
This system of checks and balances helps to prevent abuses of power and to protect the
rights and freedoms of the people.

2. What is Politics, what is the function of politics, why do we study politics?

What is politics

According to numerous people, politics is seen as chaotic and has a pejorative notation. Yet, itis a
necessity in the world. Many intellectuals have put their own spin on what politics are.According to
H. Arendt, nothing in humans is political, it’s about people engaging with others.In general, we could
say that politics is about who gets what, when and why in a society. Theproblem is that every
community has to deal with diversity and scarcity. Therefore, politics isneeded to create a good
balance between these 2 challenges.

Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups. This can be at a local level, such as
within a city council, or at a national level, such as within a government. Politics involves making
laws, setting policies, and making decisions that affect a group of people. It is a way for people to
come together to address common problems and make collective decisions. Political systems can be
democratic, where decisions are made by the people or their representatives, or autocratic, where
decisions are made by a single person or group of people.
The function of politics

Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups, organizations, and societies. It
involves the use of power and influence to shape policies, laws, and other decisions that affect the
lives of individuals and communities.

The function of politics is to provide a framework for making decisions and resolving conflicts within
a society. It helps to determine the distribution of resources (resources are scare, politics are needed
to allocate them. E.g. Allocating resources for the defense of a country is another important function
of politics. This can involve deciding how much to spend on military personnel, equipment, and other
resources necessary for national security), rights, and responsibilities among the members of a
society and to establish the rules and norms that govern social interactions. Politics also plays a role
in Managing diversity of interests and values within a group or society, nobody it the same how do
we organize this and how do we deal with them if they are clashing. E.g. A national government
negotiates trade agreements with other countries. The government must consider the diverse
interests and values of different industries, regions, and stakeholders within the country. For
example, it must consider the interests of manufacturers who want access to new markets, farmers
who are concerned about the impact on their exports, and environmentalists who are concerned
about the impact on natural resources. The government must try to negotiate a deal that takes all of
these interests into account and tries to find a balance between them.

Why do we study politics?

Studying politics helps us understand the principles of distributive justice and
how they are applied in different political systems. Distributive justice refers to
the fair distribution of economic and public goods among members of a society.
This can include issues such as the distribution of wealth, resources, and
opportunities. By studying politics, we can learn about different approaches to
distributive justice and how they are implemented in practice.
1. The politics of recognition refers to the ways in which a society
acknowledges and honors the contributions and identities of its members.
e.g. awarding scholarships, providing access to education in one's native
language, or publishing newspapers for minority groups. Studying politics
can help us understand the importance of recognizing the diverse
identities and contributions of all members of a society and how this can
promote social cohesion and equality.
2. The relationship between liberty and equality is a central issue in politics
and is often a subject of debate and conflict. Some political systems
prioritize liberty, or the freedom of individuals to make their own choices,
while others prioritize equality, or the idea that all individuals should be
treated equally and have the same opportunities. By studying politics, we
can better understand the trade-offs and tensions that exist between these
two values and how they are balanced in different political systems.
3. The relationship between the majority and minority groups is a common
challenge in politics, as the needs and interests of these groups can
sometimes conflict. In a majoritarian system, the will of the majority is
often given the most weight, while in a rights-based system, the rights of
all individuals are protected. Studying politics can help us understand the
different approaches to resolving conflicts between majority and minority
groups and the consequences of these approaches for the well-being and
prosperity of a society
 3. What is a state, which features does it have, what are pluralist and elitist
conceptions of a state?

What is a state

A state is a sovereign entity geheel that consists of

1. A permanent population: This refers to the people who live within the state's territory
and are subject to its jurisdiction.
2. A defined territory: This refers to the physical land, water, and airspace that are under
the control of the state.
3. A government: This refers to the political body or bodies that have the power to make
and enforce laws within the state's territory. A government can be democratic or non-
democratic.

4. Capacity to enter into relations with other states: This refers to the state's ability to
interact with and be recognized by other states. This includes the ability to enter into
diplomatic relations and to participate in international organizations.

Besides these: The state is a political entity that has a monopoly on the legitimate use of
physical force within a defined territory. The state is responsible for enforcing laws and
maintaining order within its territory (executive branch), and it does this through various
institutions such as a police force, military, and other law enforcement agencies. The
state also has the authority to make and enforce laws, and it often has a system of courts
and other judicial bodies to ensure that these laws are followed.

The state may also have internal and external sovereignty.

Internal sovereignty It is about a country being in control of its own government and
decision-making process within its own borders, this involves also state's authority over
its citizens eg. regulate their behavior. It can also be related to the administration of the
state, as the state has the authority to make and enforce rules and regulations within its
territory. This includes the power to collect taxes and other forms of revenue, which are
used to fund the state's various functions and responsibilities.

External sovereignty: refers to a country being independent and not controlled by other
countries or outside forces in its relationships and interactions with the rest of the world.

Pluralism

Pluralism and elitism are two different theories about how power is distributed in society
and how decisions are made.

Pluralism is the theory that in a democratic society, power is distributed among many
different groups and individuals (we are not homogeneous), no single group or individual
has complete control. According to pluralism, different groups and individuals compete
with one another for influence and resources, and this competition helps to ensure that
the needs and interests of all groups & minorities are taken into account, that everybody
has a voice in politics. Pluralism sees society as being made up of many different groups,
each with its own interests and goals, and believes that the best decisions are made
when these different groups are able to work together and find common ground. Some
people see these differences as an added-value others don’t. It can turn into polarization
(political views become more extreme eg. democrats + republicans USA). This can make
it more difficult for politicians to work together and find solutions to problems, and it can
lead to increased conflict and hostility vijandigheid between people with different political
beliefs. It can also make it harder for the government to effectively represent the needs
and interests of all citizens.). Not only polarization is a risk but also Fragmentation
(society is divided into many different groups, each with its own interests and goals, and
there is little cooperation or collaboration between these groups) Role of state: identity
politics and state should allow for free speech and allow for recognition of
accommodation of diversity in a complex societal context.

Germany, which has a federal system of government with multiple political parties
represented at the national and state levels, and a robust system of interest groups that
participate in policy-making.

Elitism

Elitism is the theory that a small, powerful group of people, known as the "political elite,"
holds most of the power in society and makes the important decisions. Compared with
pluralism: different elite that are representing the masses are in competition according to
elitism, the elite are typically wealthier, more educated, and more influential than the
rest of the population, and they use their power and resources to shape society in ways
that benefit their own interests. Elitism sees society as being divided into two classes: the
elite and the non-elite and argues that the non-elite have little influence over the
decisions that affect their lives. Role of state is to provide leadership. Eg. Monarchies
such as Saudi Arabia, where the ruling royal family holds a significant amount of power
and decision-making authority.

1. What is authority? How does the concept of authority help us to understand politics?

authority refers to the right of a government or political leader to make and enforce laws
and policies. Authority is an important concept in politics because it helps to define the
relationship between the government and the citizens of a state. There is Traditional
authority, charismatic authority, Legal-rational authority. Rulers who have power are able
to enforce their decision. Authority is defined here as legitimate power in the sense that
rulers can produce acceptance by the rule, not because they can Exercise coercion BUT
because the ruled recognize the right of the rulers to exercise power

The concept of authority helps us to understand politics by explaining how power is

distributed and exercised within a political system. It also helps to clarify the roles and
responsibilities of different actors within the system, such as elected officials, civil
servants, and citizens. Understanding the concept of authority can also help us to
understand how decisions are made and how laws and policies are implemented within a
political system.

2. What is power? How does power help us to understand politics?

Power is the ability to influence or control others, or to get something done. It can be
exercised in many different ways, such as through the use of authority, coercion, or
persuasion. In politics, power is often a key factor in determining who is able to shape
policy decisions and shape the direction of a society. Those who have power over
others can determine which interest and values will be adopted by political decision-
makers. EU sometimes takes decisions that are not good for all but for certain
member states. Power can be exercised through force, but this is not always
necessary. It can also be exercised through the ability to set the political agenda, or
through the ability to shape the wants and beliefs of others. In politics, power is often
used to get others to do things that they would not otherwise do, or to prevent certain
groups from having decision-making power.
 Overall, understanding power is important for understanding politics because it helps
us to understand how decisions are made, who has the ability to influence those
decisions, and the dynamics of political relationships.

3. What is a Policy Cycle?

A policy cycle is the process by which public policies are developed, implemented, and
evaluated. It is a way of understanding how policies are created, how they are put into
practice, and how they are modified over time. The policy cycle consists of several
stages, including policy formulation, policy adoption, policy implementation, and policy
evaluation. Each stage of the policy cycle involves a different set of actors, such as
policymakers, government agencies, advocacy groups, and the general public. The policy
cycle is a dynamic process, with policies often being revised or abandoned based on the
results of their implementation.

Agenda setting: This is the first stage of the policy cycle: The process of identifying and
prioritizing policy issues for consideration by policymakers. This stage is often influenced
by a wide range of actors eg. the media, special interest groups, and public opinion, can
shape the agenda by raising awareness of certain issues.

Decision-making: The process of making policy decisions, it is based on the options and
recommendations that have been developed. Decision-makers at this stage may include
elected officials, government agencies, and other policymakers. They may consider a
variety of factors, such as the potential costs and benefits of different options, the
feasibility of implementation, and the potential impact on different stakeholders.

Implementation: This is the stage where the policy is put into action. This stage involves
the development of specific plans and programs to put the policy into action. A wide
range of actors, such as government agencies, community organizations, and other
stakeholders, may be involved in the implementation process.

This is the final stage of the policy cycle, where the results of the policy are evaluated
and used to make changes or modifications as needed. Feedback can come from a
variety of sources, such as policy evaluations, research studies, and the experiences of
those who have been directly impacted by the policy. This information can be used to
inform future policy decisions and help ensure that policies are effective and meeting
their intended goals.

If you can hold the key to these 4 elements, then you are the elite that makes the
decisions and therefore dominates the cycle

 All 4 stages of EU-policy making process => demonstrate how national states in EU
are being melded into a multi-level polity by their leaders and the actions of
numerous subnational and supranational actors

Why does the policy cycle matter for study of power & authority?

The policy cycle is important for the study of authority and power because it illustrates
how decisions about public policies are made and how different groups and individuals
can influence those decisions. The policy cycle is a process through which authorities and
power holders can shape the direction and policies of a government or society. For
example, policymakers and government agencies may have the authority to propose and
adopt policies, while advocacy groups and the general public may have the power to
influence the policymaking process through lobbying efforts or public protest.

Understanding the policy cycle can also help individuals and groups better understand
how they can exert their own power and influence within the political system. By knowing
the stages of the policy cycle and the various actors involved, individuals and groups can
identify opportunities to advocate for their own interests and make their voices heard.

Overall, the policy cycle is an important aspect of the study of authority and power
because it helps explain in which decisions about public policies are made and how
different groups and individuals can influence those decisions.

What is Democracy?

In a democracy, the government is a system of institutions and processes that are

used to make & enforce decisions that affect a society. It is a form of government in
which power is held by the people, so the power is widely spread, either directly or
through their elected representatives that makes decisions on their behalf. The key
principle of democracy is that all citizens have an equal say in the decisions that
affect their lives. The government is accountable to the people and is expected to act
in their best interests. This is typically achieved through a system of checks and
balances, which ensures that no one branch of government becomes too powerful. It
is also typically achieved through the rule of law, which ensures that the government
and its officials are bound by the same laws as the rest of the citizens.

- The problem with democracy as a source of a political obligation is that few, if any,
decisions are going to be made unanimously. As a result, the minority are going to
have to accept decisions with which they disagree, thereby reducing their
freedom.

According to dahl, a state is democratic when (minimal)

- Males and females are universal (transgender suffrage)

- on a recurring terugkerende basis, free, competitive, fair elections, that they have a chance
to compete with the others.
- More than one political party
- Different and alternative sources of information, that there is access for information,
that they can inform them about

He also includes in his definition that (expanded)

- Effective participation, your vote is effective valid
- Voting equality, not different voting bcs you are or older  therefore it is important to
know the entering voting age. For university also you have to see how much a vote
counts  according to a dahl then it isn’t a democracy.
- Enlightened understanding, showing understanding, acting in a positive way, and not
following old-fashioned or false beliefs.
- Control of the agenda  that we have influence on the agenda, that we can shape the
agenda of tomorrow. That you can start a demonstration with a certain group, and
you can shape the agenda of tomorrow.
- Inclusion of adults, all adults should be considered by being heard or represented by a
party.

4. What is an ideology, how do ideologies differ?

Political ideology refers to a set of beliefs, ideas, values, and principles that guide the
actions and decisions of a group or individual, especially in relation to politics and
government. It is a way of thinking about and understanding the world, and it shapes a
person's views on issues such as social justice, economic systems, and political power.
Each ideology has its own set of ideas and beliefs about how society should be organized
and how individuals should relate to the state and to one another.
Ideologies differ in a number of ways. First of all, we can make a distinction between
traditional ideologies & non-traditional ideologies.
Traditional ideologies have been around for a long time and have played a major role in
shaping our societies. Examples of traditional ideologies include conservatism, which
believes in limited government and a free market economy. Liberalism, which believes in
individual rights and freedoms and a more active role for government in promoting the
common good. Socialism: Their ultimate pursuit is equity meaning a more equal
distribution of wealth and resources, a belief in the collective ownership and control of
the means of production.

On the other hand, non-traditional ideologies are newer or less mainstream ways of
thinking about politics and government. These ideologies may be developed in response
to changing social, economic, or political conditions, or they may be based on more
unconventional or radical ideas. Examples of non-traditional ideologies include
anarchism, which believes in the abolition of all forms of government, feminism, which
believes in equal rights and opportunities for women. Environmentalism a belief in the
protection and preservation of the natural environment or the populism ideology that
seeks to mobilize the masses and present itself as the voice of the people.

How they also differ: the role of government: Some ideologies, such as conservatism and
liberalism, believe in a limited role for government, while others, such as socialism
believe in a more active role for government in promoting the common good.
Economic systems: Ideologies also differ in their beliefs about economic systems. For
example, capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership and the pursuit of
profit, while socialism is an economic system based on the collective ownership and
control of the means of production.
Individual rights and freedoms: Ideologies also differ in their beliefs about individual
rights and freedoms. Some ideologies, such as liberalism and conservatism, place a
strong emphasis on individual rights and freedoms, while others, such as socialism, may
prioritize the collective good over individual rights.

Overall, ideologies differ in their beliefs about the role of government, economic systems,
and individual rights and freedoms, and these differences can have significant
implications for the policies and practices of a society or government.

5. Difference nation state & state nation

A nation-state is a sovereign political entity made up of a particular nation or people, who

share a common culture, language, and history, and who are living within defined
borders. Nation-states are characterized by a strong sense of national identity and a close
relationship between the nation and the state. In a nation-state, the nation and the state
are seen as closely related, and the state is responsible for representing and protecting
the interests of the nation. The state is typically seen as the guardian of the nation's
cultural heritage. Nation-states often have a strong sense of national pride and unity and
may place a high value on national symbols and traditions. They may also have a strong
central government that plays a major role in shaping the nation's culture and identity.
Some examples of nation-states include France, the United Kingdom, and the United
States. Unity, centralized, Japan

A state-nation is a nation that is organized as a state (parts in the country), and in which
the nation and the state are closely intertwined. This means that a state-nation is a
nation that has its own state and government. State-nations are characterized by a
strong sense of national identity and a close relationship between the nation and the
state. In a state-nation, the nation and the state are seen as inseparable, and the nation's
culture, language, and history are closely tied to the state and its institutions. State-
nations often have a strong sense of national pride and unity and may place a high value
on national symbols and traditions. They may also have a strong central government that
plays a major role in shaping the nation's culture and identity . Some examples of state-
nations include, South Korea, and Israel. could be a region or area within a larger country
that is seeking independence and wants to form its own separate state. Eg. Catalonia

What are functions of a state which we can compare across different states?

1. Law and order: The state is responsible for maintaining law and order within its
borders, and for enforcing laws and regulations that apply to its citizens. For
example, the United States has a system of federal and state courts that are
responsible for interpreting and enforcing laws, and a system of police and other
law enforcement agencies that are responsible for maintaining order and
protecting the public.
2. Defense: The state is responsible for defending its territory from external threats,
and for protecting its citizens from harm. For example, the United States has a
military that is responsible for defending the country against external threats, and
a system of homeland security agencies that are responsible for protecting the
country from terrorism and other internal threats.
3. Economic regulation: The state is responsible for regulating and controlling the
economy, including setting monetary policy, controlling inflation, and regulating
businesses. For example, the United States has a central bank, the Federal
Reserve, that is responsible for setting monetary policy, and a system of
regulatory agencies that are responsible for regulating various sectors of the
economy, such as banking, securities, and consumer protection.
4. Social welfare: The state is responsible for providing social welfare services, such
as healthcare, education, and social security, to its citizens. For example, the
United States has a system of social welfare programs, such as Medicare and
Medicaid, that provide healthcare to the elderly and low-income individuals, and a
system of public schools that provide free education to children.
5. Infrastructure: The state is responsible for building and maintaining infrastructure,
such as roads, bridges, and public buildings, that are necessary for the functioning
of society. For example, the United States has a system of federal and state
agencies that are responsible for building and maintaining infrastructure, such as
the Federal Highway Administration and the State Department of Transportation.
6. International relations: The state is responsible for representing its interests in
international relations and negotiating with other states on behalf of its citizens.
For example, the United States has a State Department that is responsible for
representing the country's interests abroad and negotiating with other countries
on a range of issues, such as trade, diplomacy, and defense.

What is the difference between a Partisan State, Instrumental State and Guardian State?

These are 3 types of how modern states act predominantly hoofdzakelijk. But
any modern state performs a combination of these 3 roles

Partisan state

Is a state who looks after its own interest, it operates on the basis and pursues its own
interest. E.g. it provides services for its population, makes sure that the state is durable,
that the state can function but all for itself. This is typical for authoritarian regimes.

A partisan state is a state in which the government is heavily influenced by a particular

political party or ideology. The government in a partisan state may prioritize the interests
of that party or ideology over the interests of the general population and may use its
power and resources to promote and advance the agenda of the party or ideology.

This type of state can be problematic if it leads to a government that is not responsive to
the needs and concerns of the broader population, and if it leads to policies that
disproportionately benefit certain groups at the expense of others. It can also be
problematic if it leads to a lack of political diversity and competition, as the dominance of
a particular party or ideology may discourage alternative viewpoints and policies from
being considered or implemented.

An example is North Korea, which is a single-party state that is heavily influenced by the
ideology of Juche, a form of national self-reliance. The government of North Korea is
dominated by the ruling Korean Workers' Party, and the country's policies and actions are
largely driven by the party's ideology.

Instrumental state

A state in which the government is primarily focused on achieving specific, practical

goals. Eg. Improving economic growth, reducing crime or increasing access to education.
To achieve these goals, the government may implement policies and programs that are
designed to be practical and effective, rather than being driven by ideology or a
particular set of values. Basically this kind of state is focused on getting things done. This
can be beneficial if it leads to a government that is able to effectively address the needs
and concerns of the population and achieve specific goals. However, it can also be
problematic if the government is not responsive to the values and concerns of the
population, and if it prioritizes practical goals over the well-being and rights of the
population.

An example of an instrumental state is Singapore. The government of Singapore is known

for its focus on achieving specific, practical goals

Guardian state

A guardian state is a state in which the government is responsible for the protection and
well-being of its citizens. The government in a guardian state may have a strong welfare
system and may prioritize social services and the provision of resources to ensure the
basic needs of the population are met. The government in a guardian state may also
prioritize the maintenance of public order and security.

In a guardian state, the government may have a strong social safety net and may provide
a range of services and resources to support the well-being of its citizens, such as
healthcare, education, housing, and social services. The government may also prioritize
the maintenance of public order and the protection of citizens from harm, through the
provision of law enforcement and other security measures.

A guardian state may be seen as more focused on the well-being and protection of its
citizens than on other goals, such as economic growth or the promotion of a particular
ideology. This can be beneficial if it leads to a government that is able to effectively
address the needs and concerns of the population and ensure
their basic well-being.

However, it can also be problematic if the government is not responsive to the needs and
concerns of the population, or if it infringes on the rights and freedoms of citizens in the
pursuit of protection and security.

One example is the welfare state model that has been adopted by many European
countries, in which the government plays a significant role in providing social services
and support to its citizens.

Which components does the systems’ approach of David Easton have and why do they
matter for comparative politics?

David Easton's systems theory is a political science theory that explains how political
systems function and how they maintain themselves over time. It is based on the idea
that political systems are open systems that operate within a larger social and cultural
context, and that they are composed of a set of interconnected parts that work together
to maintain the stability and integrity of the system as a whole.

Easton's approach has several key components:

1. Inputs: These are the various sources of demand and supply that shape the
political system. They can include economic, social, and cultural factors, as well as
the interests and preferences of individuals and groups within society.
2. Outputs: These are the decisions, policies, and actions of the political system.
They can include laws, regulations, and other forms of government intervention
that shape the distribution of resources and opportunities within society.
3. Feedback processes: These are the mechanisms through which the outputs of
the political system shape the inputs that influence it. They can include elections,
public opinion, and other mechanisms that allow individuals and groups to
influence the direction and priorities of the political system.

These components are important for comparative politics because they provide a
framework for understanding the ways in which political systems differ from one another,
and for identifying the factors that shape those differences. By examining the inputs,
outputs, and feedback processes of different political systems, researchers can better
understand the ways in which those systems respond to different challenges and
opportunities and can identify the factors that influence their performance and stability.

What is federalism? What is a federal state?

Federalism is a way of organizing a country so that it is divided into different regions or

states, each with its own government & sovereignty. The national or central government
has its own powers and responsibilities as well as the regional or local governments have
their own areas of authority & sovereignty, these are called the exclusive competences.
They also have shared competences where they work together to run the country. The
system of a federal state has therefore vertical checks & balances meaning that the
Centre doesn’t have that much power on its own. This allows for a balance of power and
helps to make sure that the needs of all the different regions are taken into account.

In a federal system, both the central government and the regional governments have
their own spheres of authority and are responsible for certain functions. Federal systems
often have a two-chamber parliament, with an upper chamber composed of
representatives from the states or provinces, and a constitutional court to rule on the
constitutionality of legislative proposals.

One of the main benefits of federalism is that it allows for greater diversity and local
control, as each region can have its own laws and policies that reflect the needs and
values of its citizens. Federalism has often been used as a way to provide guarantees for
minority communities to preserve their way of life. However, federal systems are not
always successful in preventing conflict and dissolution. The breakup of the USSR and
Yugoslavia, for example, was due in part to a lack of legal support and rule of law, which
made their constitutional provisions more vulnerable.

A federal state is a political entity that operates under a federal system of government.
They hold on to the concept of federalism (as I described above)

Examples of federal state is Belgium, sovereignty is decentralized. The power is divided

between a central government and regional governments. These regional governments
represent the country's three main linguistic communities: the Flemish community, the
French community, and the German-speaking community. They all have their own
authorities & responsibilities. E.g. The central government is responsible for matters such
as national defense, foreign policy, and immigration, while the regional governments are
responsible for areas such as education, culture, and the environment.

European union is also an example. member states, each with its own national
government. But The EU has its own institutions which have powers and responsibilities
that are separate from those of the member states

What are parties and how do parties differ? How can we categorize them?

Political parties are organizations that seek to influence public policy and government by
nominating and supporting candidates for public office.

Political parties often have a particular ideology or set of values that they promote, and
they seek to advance these values through their candidates and their platforms. Parties
also play a role in the electoral process, as they nominate and campaign for their
candidates and seek to win elections. In this way, parties provide a way for citizens to
participate in the political process and to have a say in the policies and decisions that
affect their lives. They are therefore a key part of the political process in many countries

Political parties serve a number of important functions in a democracy. Parties come

together to organize their interests to then represent the interests of their group,
providing a means for citizens to participate in the political process, and contributing to
the stability of the political system by providing a mechanism for peaceful and orderly
political competition. So parties are there to bridge diversities within societies. However,
parties can also be a source of polarization and divisiveness, and they may be subject to
corruption and other forms of misconduct. It divides our society.

Political parties can be distinguished & categorized in a number of ways, depending on

the criteria being used. Some common ways to categorize political parties include:

1. Ideology: Parties can be categorized based on their ideology, or the set of values
and beliefs that they promote. Parties may be conservative, liberal, socialist, or
libertarian, for example. Bcs of this, it is easier to compare the parties
2. Type of government: Parties may be classified based on the type of government
they support. For example, parties in parliamentary systems may be divided
between those that support a strong executive branch and those that favor a
more parliamentary system.
3. Level of support: Parties may also be categorized based on their level of support
among the public. Major parties are those that have a significant level of support
and often hold a significant number of seats in government. Minor parties, on the
other hand, have less support and fewer seats.
4. Region or locality: Parties may be organized at the national, regional, or local
level, and they may be specific to a particular region or locality.
 5. Other characteristics: Parties may also be categorized based on other
characteristics, such as their membership structure, their relationship to interest
groups or other organizations, or their history and traditions.

Three main categories of political parties:

1. Mass parties: Mass parties are political parties that represent certain sections of
civil society and seek to advance the interests of those groups. They are often
associated with social-democratic parties that represent labor or employee
groups, for example. Mass parties tend to get their votes by appealing to specific
sectors of society and representing their interests.
2. Catch-all parties: Catch-all parties are political parties that seek to be a "broker"
between civil society and the state, rather than representing specific sectors of
society. They often position themselves in the middle of the political spectrum,
rather than on the left or right, and appeal to a broad range of voters.
3. Cartel parties: Cartel parties are political parties that become closely connected
with the state, to the point where it is difficult to distinguish between the party
and the state. These parties may prioritize their own interests over those of the
public and may be more focused on maintaining their own power rather than
advancing specific policy agendas. Cartel parties are not the typical type of
political party and are generally seen as problematic because of their close ties to
the state.

What are different party systems

A party system is the set of political parties and the relationships between them that
operate within a particular political system. Party systems can vary widely in terms of the
number of parties, the level of competition between parties, and the role that parties play
in the political process. Some common types of party systems include:

1. Two-party systems: A two-party system is a party system in which two major

parties dominate the political landscape and hold the majority of seats in
government. Two-party systems are often characterized by a high level of
competition between the two major parties and a low level of support for minor
parties.
2. Multi-party systems: A multi-party system is a party system in which there are
three or more significant parties that compete for power. In a multi-party system,
parties may form coalitions or alliances in order to gain a majority in government.
In this kind of system parties have to think how they can position themselves the
best to get the most votes.
3. One-party systems: A one-party system is a party system in which a single party
holds a monopoly on political power and there is little or no competition from
other parties. One-party systems are often associated with authoritarian or
totalitarian regimes. Japan has more systems where people can vote on but the
system is so corrupt that the outcome will always be the same, so it is difficult to
say if it is a 1 part system or multi-parti system.

The electoral system, or the way in which votes are translated into seats in government,
can influence the development of party systems. For example, Duverger's law states that
first-past-the-post electoral systems, in which the candidate with the most votes wins,
tend to produce two-party systems, while proportional representation systems, in which
parties are awarded seats based on their share of the vote, tend to produce multi-party
systems.

Party systems can also be shaped by the ways in which society is structured and the
types of cleavages, or divisions, that exist within it. For example, parties may emerge to
represent different regions or urban and rural areas, or to advocate pleiten for different
religious or ideological beliefs. Parties may also be attracted to certain voters based on
their employment status or other social or economic factors .
What is globalization & how does it impact on politics & the state?

Globalization is the process by which the world becomes more interconnected and
interdependent as a result of the increasing exchange of goods, services, ideas, and
culture. It is driven by advances in communication, transportation, and technology, which
have made it easier and faster for people, businesses, and organizations to connect and
interact with one another across national borders. Shortly a compression samendrukking of time
& space.

Globalization has many different dimensions, including economic, cultural, social, and
political, and it has both positive and negative effects. Some of the positive effects of
globalization include increased economic growth and development, the spread of new
technologies and ideas, and the expansion of cultural exchange and understanding. Some
of the negative effects of globalization include increased income inequality, the loss of
traditional cultures and ways of life, and the negative environmental impacts of increased
trade and transportation.

Overall, globalization is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that has the potential
to bring people and countries closer together, but it also has the potential to create new
challenges and inequalities.

Global awareness is important in the context of globalization because it helps individuals

understand how the world is changing and how their own lives are affected by global
events and trends. For example, globalization has led to the rapid spread of information
and ideas, as well as the migration of people across borders. Global awareness allows
individuals to keep up with these developments and to consider the potential implications
for their own lives and communities. It also helps them understand the perspectives and
experiences of people in other parts of the world, and to recognize the complex
interconnections that exist between different countries and cultures.

Globalization has had a significant impact on politics and the state in several ways.

1. Increased interdependence among countries: Globalization has led to an increase

in cross-border trade, investment, and migration, which has created economic and
political linkages between countries that did not exist before. This has made it
more difficult for states to act independently, as their actions often have
consequences for other countries.
2. Changes in the role of the state: Globalization has also led to a shift in the role of
the state, as governments have had to adapt to the changing economic and
political landscape. In some cases, this has meant reducing their role in certain
areas, such as by privatizing state-owned enterprises or deregulating certain
industries. In other cases, it has meant increasing their role in areas such as
environmental protection or social welfare, in order to address global challenges.
3. The rise of supranational organizations: Globalization has also led to the growth of
supranational organizations, such as the European Union or the World Trade
Organization, which have the power to shape policies and regulations that affect
member states. This can create tension between national sovereignty and the
authority of these organizations.
4. Changes in political ideologies: Globalization has also led to changes in political
ideologies, as traditional left-right divides have been challenged by the rise of
issues such as global inequality and environmental degradation. Some political
parties have adapted to these changes by adopting more globalized platforms,
while others have resisted globalization and advocated for more nationalist or
protectionist policies.

European union support globalizations BUT it protects its member states to the negative
consequences of globalization.
What is the so-called “second unbundling” of globalization?

The "second unbundling" of globalization refers to the way that globalization has
changed over the past few decades.

The first wave of globalization, which took place from the 19th to the early 20th
century, was characterized by the expansion of international trade and the
movement of goods and people across borders. This was because there was a
separation of production processes into distinct activities that can be performed by
different firms in different locations. For example, a company might design a new
product in a developed country, such as the United States, and then outsource the
manufacturing fabricage of the product to a developing country, such as China, where
labor costs are lower. This is called the "first unbundling" of globalization. This
process was disrupted by WWI, and only began to recover after World War II.

The second unbundling can be seen as a continuation of the process of globalization

that began with the first wave. But it is more seen as the globalization of innovation
then the globalization of production. This shift has been driven by the increasing
importance of knowledge-based industries, such as technology and research, which
are less reliant on physical movement and more reliant on the exchange of ideas and
information. The second unbundling of globalization has also been marked by the rise
of digital platforms, which have facilitated the global exchange of goods and services
even more in new ways. E.g. It has it made easier for people to work together and
learn from each other, even if they're not in the same place.

What is global governance, how did it emerge & why did it do so especially after the
WW2?

Global governance refers to the systems and mechanisms through which nations
and other actors in the global system work together to address common problems
and achieve shared goals. This can include a wide range of issues, such as economic
development, environmental protection, human rights, and peace and security.
Global governance can take place at the international level, through organizations
such as the United Nations, or at the regional level, through organizations such as
the European Union. It can also involve non-governmental organizations, civil society
groups, and multinational corporations. The goal of global governance is to ensure
that the global system is stable, sustainable, and equitable, and that it works in the
interests of all its members. However, there are often challenges to effective global
governance, including differences in national interests and the lack of a central
authority with the power to enforce decisions.

Why did global governance emerge?

Global governance can be traced back to the development of international

organizations and treaties in the 19th and early 20th centuries, which were created
to address specific problems and promote cooperation among nations. These early
international organizations were a key part of the system of global governance that
emerged before World War II, and they laid the foundations for the modern system of
global governance that has developed in the post-war period.

The rise of globalization and the increasing interconnectedness of the world economy
in the late 19th and early 20th centuries led to the emergence of global governance
as a way to address the challenges and opportunities of an increasingly complex and
interconnected world. International organizations and NGOs played a crucial role in
this process, helping to establish the necessary infrastructure and rules to support
the global economy and promote cooperation among nations. The inter-imperial
world of the time was held together by a thin network of public and private
international organizations that focused on issues such as communication and
transportation, industrial standards, inter-imperial monetary systems, and the rules
of trade.

Why after WW2

The events of World War II and the preceding decades, including the Great
Depression and the rise of fascist regimes in Europe, demonstrated the need for
international cooperation and the importance of addressing global problems. The
United Nations was established in the aftermath of World War II with the goal of
promoting international cooperation and addressing the challenges of the post-war
world. The United Nations has played a central role in global governance, with a
mandate to maintain international peace and security, promote human rights, and
provide humanitarian assistance.

In the decades following the establishment of the United Nations, global governance
has evolved and expanded to address a wide range of issues, including economic
development, environmental protection, and public health. Eg. the UN has worked to
address global health issues such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, and Ebola. This has included
initiatives to improve access to healthcare and to develop vaccines and other
treatments. Another example is that The UN has been involved in efforts to address
environmental issues such as climate change, deforestation, and pollution. They also
made the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

Which challenges is global governance facing?

Global governance is facing a number of challenges, including:

1. Differences in national interests: Global governance involves cooperation

among nations, but nations often have different interests and priorities. This
can make it difficult to reach consensus on issues and to agree on common
solutions to global problems. Differences in national interests: For example,
some countries may prioritize economic development and may support
policies that promote trade and investment, while other countries may
prioritize environmental protection and may support policies that restrict
economic activity in order to protect the environment.

1. Lack of a central authority with the power to enforce decisions: The global
system lacks a central authority with the power to enforce decisions and
ensure that all actors follow the rules. This can make it difficult to effectively
address global problems and to hold actors accountable for their actions. For
example, international agreements such as the Paris Climate Agreement rely
on voluntary action by countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions.
Without a central authority with the power to enforce these commitments, it
can be difficult to ensure that countries follow through on their commitments.
2. Limited resources: Many global problems require significant resources to
address, and global governance mechanisms may not have the financial
resources or political support needed to effectively address these problems.
For example, addressing global health issues such as HIV/AIDS or malaria can
be expensive and may require significant resources. If global governance
mechanisms do not have access to sufficient resources, it can be difficult to
effectively address these issues.
3. Complexity of global issues: Global issues are often complex and
interconnected, which can make it difficult to identify and implement effective
solutions. For example, climate change is a complex and interconnected issue
 that involves economic, environmental, and social factors. Finding effective
solutions to this problem requires understanding the complex interactions
between these factors and developing strategies that address them in a
holistic way.
4. Lack of participation: Some actors, particularly non-state actors such as
multinational corporations, may be resistant to participating in global
governance efforts or may not be subject to the same rules as states. For
example, multinational corporations may have significant influence on global
issues such as trade and investment, but they may not be subject to the same
rules and regulations as states. This can make it difficult to ensure that all
actors are held accountable for their actions.

What is multi-level governance

Multi-level governance refers to the complex system of interactions and decision-
making processes that take place between different levels of government and other
actors within a country or region. It is a way of organizing and managing policy
issues that are interconnected and cross jurisdictional boundaries , and therefore
require coordination and cooperation among different levels of government and other
actors.

Jurisdiction: the power to govern and make decisions within a specific area or
domain.
For example, a national government has jurisdiction over issues that affect the entire
country, such as defense and foreign relations, while a state government has
jurisdiction over issues within its own borders, such as education and transportation.

For example, let's say that a city is trying to decide how to reduce pollution in its air.
The city government might make a plan to improve public transportation and
encourage people to use buses or trains instead of cars. But the state government
might also have a say in this issue, because they might have laws or regulations that
affect how the city can tackle the problem. And the federal government might also be
involved, because they might provide funding or support to help the city implement
its plan.

So in this example, there are three levels of governance: the city, the state, and the
federal government. Each level has its own authority and responsibilities, and they
might work together or coordinate with each other to find the best solution to the
problem. This is what we mean by multi-level governance.

Multi-level global governance

refers specifically to the way that global problems and issues are addressed by actors
at different levels of governance, including international organizations, national
governments, and non-governmental organizations. It recognizes that global
problems often require the coordination and cooperation of actors at many different
levels in order to be effectively addressed.

For example, climate change is a global problem that requires the participation of
many different actors in order to be effectively addressed. This might include
international organizations like the United Nations, national governments that set
policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and NGOs that work to raise awareness
about the issue and advocate for policy changes.
Multi-level global governance helps to understand the complex interactions and
relationships between these different actors and how they work together to address
global problems

How is authority being delegated in multi-level governance?

In multi-level governance, authority is typically decentralized. this means that the

power delegated or to different levels or layers of government or other organizations.
This delegation of authority can occur through a variety of mechanisms, such as
formal agreements, informal networks, and the establishment of joint committees
and working groups.

At the national level, authority is delegated to national governments and to sub-

national actors such as regional and local authorities, which may have varying
degrees of autonomy and influence depending on the specific policy area and the
legal and political context. Authority may also be delegated to other actors such as
social partners (e.g. labor unions, business associations) and public agencies.

at the EU level, the European Commission and the European Parliament are
responsible for making some decisions about EU policies. They have authority to do
this because they represent the EU as a whole and have been given this power by
the EU countries. At the national level, national governments and sub-national actors
like regional and local authorities also have authority to make decisions about certain
issues. They work together with the EU level to make sure that EU policies are
implemented in their countries.

The European Union (EU) can be understood as a system of multi-level governance

because it is composed of a complex network of institutions, actors, and decision-
making processes that operate at the European, national, and sub-national levels. At
the European level, the EU is composed of several key institutions, including the
European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the EU, and the
European Court of Justice. These institutions work together to formulate and
implement EU policies and legislation.

At the national level, each member state of the EU has its own government and
system of governance, which plays a role in the implementation and enforcement of
EU policies within its borders. Finally, at the sub-national level, local and regional
authorities also play a role in the implementation and delivery of EU policies and
programs.

Overall, the EU's system of multi-level governance allows for a balance of power
between the different levels of government, as well as a degree of flexibility in policy-
making and implementation. This approach helps to ensure that EU policies and
legislation take into account the specific needs and circumstances of different
regions and communities within the EU.

What is regional governance

Regional governance is the way that decisions are made, and power is exercised in a
specific region or area. This can include how different levels of government, like local,
state, and national, work together and make decisions that affect the people living in
that region. It can also include the involvement of non-governmental organizations,
like charities or community groups, and ordinary citizens in the decision-making
process. The goal of regional governance is to make sure that the needs and
concerns of the people in the region are taken into account when decisions are being
made that affect them

In general, regional governance aims to promote cooperation and coordination

among the various actors within a region in order to address common challenges and
achieve shared goals.

The European Union (EU) is an example of regional governance across multiple

countries. The EU is a political and economic union of 27 European countries that
works to coordinate policies and activities in areas such as trade, agriculture, and the
environment.

the term "region" can refer to any geographic area that is defined by shared
characteristics and that is subject to some form of governance or coordination.

What are global governors

Global governors are people or organizations that have the power to make decisions
that affect the entire world. Some examples of global governors are the United
Nations, which is an organization made up of countries from all around the world that
works to solve problems and promote peace, and the World Bank, which is a financial
organization that helps countries develop their economies.

Global governors play a very important role in shaping the world we live in, and their
decisions can have a big impact on people's lives. For example, if the United Nations
decides to send peacekeeping forces to a country that is experiencing a war, it can
help to stop the fighting and protect the people living there. Or if the World Bank
provides financial assistance to a country to help it develop its infrastructure, it can
help improve the lives of the people living there by creating jobs and increasing
access to things like clean water, education, and healthcare.

It is important for global governors to be fair and considerate of the needs and
opinions of people from different countries and cultures, because their decisions can
have a big impact on the lives of people all around the world.

Global governors have multiple tasks eg. Set agendas, decision making, negotiation,
implementation, monitoring
- Lobbyists: acting as interest groups
- Partners: providing expertise or participating in common projects
- Adversaries: blaming and shaming governmental authorities
- Functional substitutes for states: performing regulatory functions

How does global governance relate to solving problems globally? Why do people call to
action?

Without global governance, it would be more difficult to address issues like climate
change, poverty, and disease, which require the cooperation and collaboration of
many different actors.

People call for action on global problems for a variety of reasons. Some people may
be motivated by a sense of moral obligation to help others, while others may be
driven by self-interest, recognizing that global problems like climate change can have
direct and indirect impacts on their own lives and communities. Still others may be
motivated by a desire to promote global stability and security, recognizing that global
problems like conflict and terrorism can have serious consequences for people
around the world.

What is a majoritarian and proportionality election system?

Majoritarian system
A majoritarian system is a voting system that is designed to produce a single winner
with a majority of the votes. The goal of a majoritarian system is to create a clear
mandate for the winning candidate or party, which can help to ensure that they have
a strong foundation of support when making decisions and governing.

There are several different methods that can be used to achieve a majoritarian result
in an election. One common method is first-past-the-post voting, where the candidate
with the most votes is declared the winner. This method is used in many
parliamentary and presidential systems around the world, including the United
Kingdom and the United States.

Other methods that can be used to achieve a majoritarian result include two-round
voting, where a second round of voting is held if no candidate wins a majority in the
first round, and instant-runoff voting, where voters rank candidates in order of
preference and the candidate with the least votes is eliminated until one candidate
has a majority.

 France: France uses a two-round voting system for presidential elections,

where a second round of voting is held if no candidate wins a majority in the
first round. This is a majoritarian system because it is designed to produce a
single winner with a majority of the votes.
 The United Kingdom uses the first-past-the-post voting system for
parliamentary elections, where voters cast a ballot for their preferred
candidate and the candidate with the most votes is declared the winner. This
is a majoritarian system because it is designed to produce a single winner with
a majority of the votes.

proportionality election system

Proportional representation is a voting system that is designed to ensure that parties

are represented in proportion to their share of the vote. The goal of a proportional
representation system is to create a more representative and diverse elected body,
and to ensure that all parties have a chance to be represented in the government.
But they can also be more complex and can lead to the formation of unstable
coalition governments.

There are several different methods that can be used to achieve a proportional result
in an election. One common method is party-list voting, where voters cast their
ballots for a political party rather than a specific candidate. The parties are then
allocated a number of seats in the parliament based on their share of the vote.
Belgium

Other methods that can be used to achieve a proportional result include single
transferable vote, where voters rank candidates in order of preference, and mixed-
member proportional representation, where voters cast two votes, one for a
candidate and one for a party
What is a constitution & which elements does a constitution have?

A constitution is a set of rules that describe how a country, organizations, state-like

systems (universities, political parties) are governed. It explains the different parts of
the government and what they are responsible for, and it also lists the rights and
freedoms that people in that country or organization are entitled to.

For example, a constitution might say that the government is divided into three
branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch, and the judicial branch. The
executive branch is responsible for carrying out the laws that are made by the
legislative branch, which is made up of elected representatives. The judicial branch is
responsible for interpreting the laws and deciding if they are fair.

A constitution also usually includes a Bill of Rights, which is a list of basic rights and
freedoms that are protected by the constitution. These might include the right to free
speech, the right to a fair trial, and the right to practice your own religion.

Overall, a constitution is an important document that helps to make sure that a

country or organization is run fairly and in a way that protects the rights of its
citizens or members.

Elements

1. Competences: Competences refer to the powers and responsibilities of

different branches or levels of government. A constitution typically defines the
competences of the different branches or levels of government and sets out
the limits of their authority.
2. Fundamental rights: Fundamental rights are basic rights and freedoms that
are protected by the constitution. These may include rights such as freedom of
speech, freedom of religion, and the right to a fair trial. (Fundamental rights
also includes the rule of law)
3. Institutions and procedures: Institutions are the different branches or levels of
government that are established by the constitution, and procedures are the
processes and procedures that are used to carry out the functions of
government. A constitution typically sets out the structure and powers of the
different institutions of government, as well as the processes and procedures
that they must follow.

Overall, a constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents

that establishes the structure and powers of a government, protects the rights and
freedoms of citizens, and sets out the institutions and procedures that are used to
govern a country or organization.

Diplomacy

Statecraft: is the overall strategy and tactics that a country uses to achieve its goals
in the world.

What is diplomacy
Diplomacy is the art of conducting & managing international relations through
negotiation and communication. It is a way for countries to communicate with each
other and resolve conflicts or disputes peacefully, without resorting to war or
violence. Diplomacy involves the use of various tools and techniques to communicate
and negotiate with other countries, such as formal negotiations, back-channel
communication, cultural exchange programs, and other forms of engagement.
Diplomacy is an important tool for managing relations between countries, and it
plays a key role in maintaining peace and stability in the international system.
Diplomats work to advance the interests of their own country and to build
relationships and networks of cooperation with other countries.

While diplomacy is often used to solve problems and resolve conflicts, it can also be
used to promote cooperation and understanding between nations. Diplomacy can be
used to build relationships and create networks of cooperation, which can help to
prevent conflicts and promote peace and stability. In this sense, diplomacy is not
only about solving problems, but also about building trust and cooperation between
nations.

Back-channel, track two diplomacies: a way for people to try and solve problems
or make agreements with other people or countries without using the usual, formal
ways of doing it. Instead of going through official channels like embassies or
governments, people might use their own personal connections or private
conversations to try and work things out

The 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations codified the rules and practices
of diplomacy as they had developed in the modern European state system.

Foreign policy: refers to the actions, strategies and decisions that a country makes
when it interacts with other actors in the international system (countries e.g.). It can
include things like how the country responds to conflicts, what kind of agreements it
makes with other countries, and how it protects its own interests. It is about a
country's overall approach to dealing with the rest of the world.

Does the EU have a foreign policy?

Yes, the European Union (EU) has a foreign policy. It is called the Common Foreign
and Security Policy (CFSP), and it is a set of rules and guidelines that the EU follows
in its interactions with other countries and in matters of security.

The EU foreign policy is founded on a set of ideals which attempt to project

normative power (soft power)

The main goals of the EU's foreign policy are to protecting the common values and
fundamental interests of the EU, to strengthen aansterken the security of the Union in all
ways, to preserve peace and strengthen international security, to promote
international cooperation, and to develop and consolidate hechter maken democracy and
the rule of law.

For example, the EU might work with other countries to try to stop a war or to help
countries that are experiencing a crisis. The EU also has a special policy for security
and defense called the European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP), which is
focused on enhancing the EU's ability to respond to crises and to contribute to peace
and security in the world.

Overall, the EU's foreign policy is an important part of the way that the EU interacts
with the rest of the world, and it helps to promote the values and interests of the EU
and its member states.

Relationship diplomacy & foreign policy

Diplomacy is one tool that states can use to achieve their foreign policy goals, and it
is often an important part of a state's overall approach to the international system.
However, diplomacy is just one of many tools that states can use in their foreign
policy, and it is not the only way that states can interact with each other in the
international system.

which actors conduct diplomacy?

States are the main actors that conduct diplomacy. States are sovereign political
entities that have recognized borders and the ability to enter into international
relations with other states. Diplomacy can be conducted directly between states, or it
can be mediated bemiddeld by international organizations or other intermediaries.

In addition to states, other actors, such as international organizations, NGOs, and

civil society groups, can also engage in diplomacy. International organizations are
made up of states that work together on specific issues or problems, and they can
play an important role in conducting diplomacy and resolving conflicts between
states. NGOs and civil society groups are organizations that are not part of a
government, but they can still engage in diplomacy and try to influence the foreign
policy of states or the actions of international organizations.

Overall, diplomacy is an important tool for states and other actors to communicate
and negotiate with each other in the international system, and it is a way to resolve
conflicts and build cooperation between different actors.

What is the United Nations?

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization that was created to promote
peace, cooperation, and understanding among the countries of the world.
(Predecessor was league of nations) It was established after WWII, because people
wanted to find a way to prevent future wars and conflicts. The UN has many different
functions, but its main goal is to help countries work together to solve problems and
make the world a better place.

The UN has several different agencies that work on specific issues, such as improving
living conditions, promoting human rights, and protecting the environment. For
example, the World Health Organization (WHO) works to improve global health, and
the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) helps to improve the lives of children
around the world.

The UN also has a peacekeeping force that can be sent to areas where there is
conflict or fighting in order to help maintain peace. In addition, the UN holds
international conferences and meetings to discuss important issues and try to find
solutions. The UN has 6 main organs including the General Assembly, which is made
up of all the member countries & discusses and makes decisions on a wide range of
issues, and a Security Council, which is responsible for maintaining international
peace and security, Economic and Social Council: This organ is responsible for
promoting international economic and social cooperation and development.

What are autocracies?

Autocracies are systems of government in which a single person, group, or

organization has complete control over the country and its people. This means that
there is no room for disagreement or opposition, and the rulers have absolute power.
Autocracies often do not have fair elections or allow people to have a say in how the
country is run. Instead, the rulers make all the decisions and do not have to answer
to anyone else. (Lack of freedom and a lack of accountability)

What are IGO’s & INGO’s

Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) are organizations that are made up of
governments from different countries. They work to achieve goals that are of
common interest to their member states, and they often have a mandate to address
specific global issues. Some examples of IGOs include the United Nations (UN), the
World Trade Organization (WTO),

International non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are formal, private

organizations that operate independently from governments and are not profit-
oriented. They usually have a philanthropic (help others) or humanitarian purpose
and may be aligned with a broader movement, such as the labor movement or the
environmental movement. NGOs may have a close working relationship with
international governmental organizations (IGOs), such as the United Nations (UN) and
its agencies and may receive support from them. Ex. Doctors Without Borders is an
international medical humanitarian organization that provides emergency medical
care to people in conflict zones and other areas where access to health care is
limited.

Ex. Greenpeace is an environmental organization that works to protect the natural

world and promote sustainability.

Overall, IGOs are formed and governed by governments, while INGOs are formed and
governed by individuals or groups. Both types of organizations can play important
roles in addressing global issues and promoting cooperation among nations.

What is the role of social movements and global civil society in international
relations?

(global) Social movements are groups of people who come together to try and bring
about change on a particular issue, such as protecting the environment or fighting for
human rights. These movements often start at a local or national level, but can also
become global, meaning that they involve people from different countries working
together. Global civil society refers to the organizations and groups that exist outside
of government and work on issues that affect people all around the world. This can
include non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and social movements.

Together, social movements and global civil society help to shape international
relations by bringing attention to important issues and trying to influence decisions
made by governments and international organizations. They do this through a variety
of means, such as lobbying, advocating for change, and using social media and other
tools to raise awareness and apply pressure. By working together and using their
collective voices, social movements and global civil society can help to make the
world a better place for everyone.

Sometimes, social movements and global civil society organizations work with IOs to
achieve their goals. For example, they might try to influence the policies of these
organizations or work with them to implement projects. IOs may also provide funding
or other support to these groups.
However, social movements and global civil society organizations may also disagree
with the actions or policies of IOs and may try to challenge or oppose them. This
helps to keep IOs accountable and ensures that they are working in the best interests
of the public.

Who can represent the EU abroad?

The European Union (EU) is made up of 27 countries that work together to make
decisions and take actions on issues that affect all of them. There are several
different people or groups of people who can represent the EU and speak on its
behalf. Here is a brief overview of each:

1. President of the European Council: This person is responsible for chairing

meetings of the European Council (which is made up of the heads of state or
government of the EU member countries) and setting the agenda for those
meetings. The President of the European Council represents the EU at a high
level and helps to coordinate the work of the EU. (Charles Michel)
2. High Representative/Vice-President of the Commission (HR of the union for
foreign affairs & security policy) (HR/VP): This person is responsible for
representing the EU on foreign and security policy issues. (+ assisting
president commission)
3. President of the European Commission: The European Commission is the
executive branch of the EU, and the President of the European Commission is
responsible for leading and representing the Commission. The President sets
the overall direction of the Commission and makes sure that its work is carried
out. (Ursula von der leyen)
4. EU External Delegations: These are offices that the EU has in countries outside
of the EU. They represent the EU and work on issues such as trade,
development, and cooperation with those countries. (like an embassy but then
for the EU bcs embassy is for countries)
5. EU Special Representatives: These are people who are appointed by the EU to
work on specific issues or crises that require the EU's attention. They
represent the EU and work to find solutions to those issues.
6. Member States: Each of the 27 countries that are members of the EU can also
represent the EU in certain situations. For example, if a country is hosting an
international event, it might represent the EU as a whole.

What is the role of the EEAS and the EU delegations in the conduct of EU Foreign
Policy/Diplomacy?

The EEAS (European External Action Service) is responsible for conducting the EU's
foreign and security policy and for representing the EU on these issues at a high
level. It does this by carrying out a wide range of activities, including:

 Conducting uitvoeren negotiations with other countries on behalf of the EU

 Providing policy advice to the EU's High Representative and other EU decision-
makers
 Coordinating the work of the EU's delegations around the world
 Providing support to EU citizens who are living or traveling abroad

EU delegations, on the other hand, are offices that the EU has in countries outside of
the EU. There are EU delegations in most countries around the world, and they are
responsible for representing the EU and its interests in those countries. EU
delegations work to promote the values and interests of the EU and to strengthen the
EU's relationships with other countries. They also provide important services to EU
citizens who are living or traveling in the country where the delegation is located.

In summary, the EEAS is responsible for conducting the EU's foreign and security
policy, while EU delegations are responsible for representing the EU and its interests
in other countries around the world. Both the EEAS and the EU delegations play
important roles in the conduct of EU foreign policy and diplomacy.

How do security/insecurity affect international relations? How does the concept of

security change over time?

Security is an important aspect of international relations, as it affects the stability

and prosperity of countries and the international system as a whole. Insecurity, on
the other hand, can lead to conflict and instability.

There are many factors that can contribute to security or insecurity in international
relations. These can include issues such as:

 Military threats, including the possession of weapons of mass destruction

massale vernietiging or the buildup of military forces in a region
 Political instability or conflict within or between countries
 Economic instability or inequality
 Environmental degradation aantasting or natural disasters (eg. water and air
pollution)
 Terrorism or other forms of violence

The impact of security or insecurity on international relations can be significant. For

example when a country or region is perceived as being insecure, it can make it
more difficult for that country or region to engage in activities such as trade,
investment, and cooperation with other countries. This is because other countries
may be hesitant to engage in these activities if they feel that there is a risk of
instability or conflict in the region. Insecurity can also lead to conflicts and tensions
between countries, as different countries may have competing interests or concerns
about security issues. For example, if one country is developing nuclear weapons and
this is perceived as a threat to the security of another country, it could lead to
tensions and possibly even conflict between the two countries.

On the other hand, if a country or region is perceived as being secure, it may be

more likely to attract investment, trade, and cooperation, and may be able to
contribute to the stability and prosperity of the international system.

The concept of security can also change over time, as the threats and challenges
facing countries and the international system evolve. For example, in the past,
military threats and the balance of power between countries were the primary
concerns when it came to security. Today, eg. Prior to 9/11, terrorism was not seen
as a major security threat at the international level. However, the attacks of 9/11
brought terrorism to the forefront of the international security agenda and led to a
shift in the way that countries and international organizations approached security.
Also cyber threats, and environmental degradation are also considered major
security concerns nowadays and not in the past.

As the concept of security changes over time, so do the approaches that countries
and international organizations take to address security threats and promote
stability. For example, in the past, military force was often seen as the primary tool
for addressing security threats. Today, however, there is a greater emphasis on using
diplomacy, economic incentives, and other non-violent means to address security
challenges.

Which gaps are there in global governance?

Sometimes, there might be some areas where there are no clear rules or ways for
countries to work together to solve problems. These are called "gaps in global
governance." These gaps can make it difficult for countries to come up with solutions
to global problems, and it can be hard to find ways to fill these gaps because
different countries might have different ideas about what the best solutions are.

There are several gaps in global governance, which refers to the mechanisms and
processes by which countries and other actors in the international system address
global challenges and issues. Some of the key gaps in global governance include:

 Power imbalances: There are often imbalances of power between different

countries and regions in the international system, which can make it difficult
for global governance mechanisms to be effective.
 Lack of participation: Some countries or groups may not be adequately
represented in global governance processes or may not have the same level
of influence as other actors.
 Fragmentation: There are many different global governance mechanisms and
institutions, and they can often operate indepedently, which can make it
difficult to coordinate efforts and address global challenges effectively.
 Limited scope: Some global governance mechanisms may only address certain
issues or challenges, and may not have the authority or resources to address
broader problems. For example, there might be an international organization
that is specifically focused on addressing environmental issues, but it might
not have the authority or resources to address other issues that are related to
the environment, such as economic or social issues. In this case, the scope of
the organization's work might be limited to environmental issues
 Legitimacy: There may be questions about the legitimacy of certain global
governance mechanisms, particularly if they are seen as being dominated by
certain countries or groups.

Overall, these gaps in global governance can make it difficult to address global
challenges effectively, and can undermine the stability and prosperity of the
international system. Efforts to address these gaps and improve global governance
are an important focus for many countries and international organizations.

How do we categorize voting systems?

1. Plurality voting systems: These systems allow voters to choose their preferred
candidate, and the candidate who receives the most votes wins. Examples of
plurality voting systems include single member plurality systems, two-round
systems, alternative vote, and block vote. Plurality voting systems tend to be
simple and allow voters to choose individual candidates, but they can also
exclude minorities and lead to many "wasted" votes for candidates who have
no chance of being elected.
2. Proportional representation systems: These systems aim to ensure an
adequate representation of the range of public opinion, and the number of
seats won by a political party is proportional to the number of votes received.
Examples of proportional representation systems include party list systems
and single transferable vote systems. Proportional representation systems
 reduce the number of "wasted" votes and favor minorities, but they are also
more likely to lead to coalition governments and fragmentation of the party
system.
3. Hybrid or alternative member model systems: These systems are a
combination of plurality voting and proportional representation, with some
seats elected on the basis of simple majority and some on the basis of
proportional representation. An example of a hybrid system is the use of two
rounds of elections in constituencies where the first round does not produce
an absolute majority. Hybrid systems attempt to mitigate the disadvantages of
purer voting systems, but they can also have disadvantages of their own.

How do democracies differ?

Democracies differ in a number of ways, including the extent to which they are
representative, the level of participation of citizens in the political process, and the
degree to which individual rights and freedoms are protected. Here are a few ways in
which democracies can differ:

1. Representative vs. direct: Some democracies are more representative,

meaning that citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf,
rules should be accountable to the ruled. Other democracies are more direct,
allowing citizens to participate more directly in the decision-making process
through mechanisms such as referendums or initiatives. Here all should be
involved in crucial decision-making
2. Presidential vs. parliamentary: Some democracies have a presidential system
of government, in which the executive branch is separate from the legislature.
In parliamentary systems, the executive branch is drawn from the legislature
and is responsible to it.
3. Federal vs. unitary: Some democracies have a federal system of government,
in which power is divided between a central government and regional or state
governments. In unitary systems, power is centralized in the national
government.
4. Liberal vs. illiberal: Some democracies are more liberal, meaning that they
place a strong emphasis on individual rights and freedoms, free & fair
elections, universal suffrage. Other democracies may be more illiberal, have
elections but relatively little protection of rights and liberties, and state control
over the means of communication.
5. Classical vs elitist theory of democracy
Classical: based on the idea that all citizens have an equal right to participate
in the political process and to have a say in decisions that affect them. It is
often associated with the concept of "one person, one vote," and it
emphasizes the importance of majority rule.
Elitist: only certain individuals or groups, such as the wealthy or highly
educated, should have a say in political decision-making. This theory is based
on the belief that these elites are more qualified or better equipped to make
decisions on behalf of the larger population.

There are many other ways in which democracies can differ, and the specific
characteristics of a democracy will depend on the unique political, social, and
cultural context in which it exists.