AIRFOIL CHARACTERISTICS

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021

BASIC AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WING
Lift – component of force which is normal to the direction of the free-stream an infinite distance ahead of the airfoil.

Drag – component of force parallel to the free-stream direction ahead of the wing.

Axial force – is that component of force parallel to the chord or axis of the wing or body and is equal to the form
drag plus skin friction at zero degree angle of attack.

Normal force – is the component normal to chord line of the wing.

Moment – is the resultant of the moments of all forces on a body about some chordwise reference point.

Resultant force – is the force representing the resultant of the addition of all local aerodynamic and viscous
forces on the wing from which lift and drag force are resolved.

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021

THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF DRAG
Form or pressure drag or “wave drag” – is the airwise force resulting from the pressure distribution when the
wing is at the angle of attack at which no lift is generated.

Skin Friction – is the force created by the tendency of the layer of air next to the surface of the body to
cling to the layer next to it until the free-stream velocity is reached. This shearing action creates a drag on
the surface which is a function of the viscosity, velocity, density and the type of flow (laminar or turbulent)
of the air, as well as the airwise surface dimension.

Drag due to lift or “drag due to normal force” – it is the component of the normal force which is parallel
to the direction of the free-stream. It exists only when the airfoil is in an attitude to supply lift and hence is usually
given the name shown at the heading. This force is called induced drag in the subsonic case but is not so called in the
supersonic case because the type of flow over the lifting surface is of a different character. The term “induced drag” is
sometimes used to describe the drag created in the region of the tips of rectangular wings producing lift in supersonic
flow, however.
ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
BASIC AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WING
𝐴𝑥
𝐿 = 𝑁𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝑁𝑥 𝛼 𝐴𝑦 𝑁𝑦
𝑁𝑦 𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 =
𝑁 𝑁 𝐿 𝑁 𝑅
𝑁𝑦 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑁𝑦
𝐴𝑦 𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝛼
𝐴
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑀
𝐿 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝛼
Freestream Velocity, 𝑉 𝑁𝑥 𝐴𝑥
𝐴𝑦 𝛼 𝐷
𝐴
ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
BASIC AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WING
𝐴𝑥
𝐷 = 𝑁𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 𝑁𝑥 𝛼 𝐴𝑦 𝑁𝑦
𝑁𝑥 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 =
𝑁 𝑁 𝐿 𝑁 𝑅
𝑁𝑥 = 𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑁𝑦
𝐴𝑥 𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝛼
𝐴
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑀
𝐷 = 𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 + 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝛼
𝑁𝑥 𝐴𝑥
Freestream Velocity, 𝑉 𝐴𝑦 𝛼 𝐷
𝐴
ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A TWO-DIMENSIONAL
SYMMETRICAL DOUBLE-WEDGE AIRFOIL
Recalling Approximation Theory (Second Order):
∆𝑃
= 𝐶1 𝜃 + 𝐶2 𝜃 2
𝑞ത
2
𝐶1 =
𝑀1 2 − 1
① ②
2
𝛾𝑀1 4 + 𝑀1 2 − 2 𝛽
𝐶2 = 2
2 𝑀1 2 − 1
𝛼 ③ ④
Where:
∆𝑃
=pressure change across an OSW or EW
𝑞ത Note: 𝜃 =(+) towards
𝜃 =local angle of attack in radians between the surface and freestream Mach number the surface, (-) away
𝑀1 =freestream Mach number from the surface
ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A TWO-DIMENSIONAL
SYMMETRICAL DOUBLE-WEDGE AIRFOIL
The values of 𝜃 to be used in the pressure equation
for each surface are as follows:
𝜃1 = −𝛼 + 𝛽
𝜃2 = −𝛼 − 𝛽

𝜃3 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 ① ②
𝛽
𝜃4 = 𝛼 − 𝛽
Where: 𝛼 ③ ④
𝛼 = angle between the freestream
direction and chord line of the wing
𝛽 = semi-vertex angle of leading and
trailing edge
ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE OVER THE FRONT AND REAR HALVES OF
THE AIRFOIL AT ANGLE OF ATTACK
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 Front
= −
𝑞ത 𝐹
𝑞ത 3
𝑞ത 1
①
Rear
∆𝑃
= 𝐶1 𝜃3 + 𝐶2 𝜃3 2 ②
𝑞ത 3 ③
∆𝑃 2
= 𝐶1 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝐶2 𝛼 + 𝛽
𝑞ത 3 ④
∆𝑃 Upper surface
= 𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 3
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 −
= 𝐶1 𝜃1 + 𝐶2 𝜃1 2 Lifting surface
𝑞ത 1 𝑞ത +
∆𝑃 2
= 𝐶1 −𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝐶2 −𝛼 + 𝛽
𝑞ത 1
Lower surface
∆𝑃
= −𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 1
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE OVER THE FRONT AND REAR HALVES OF
THE AIRFOIL AT ANGLE OF ATTACK
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 Front
= − ①
𝑞ത 𝐹
𝑞ത 3
𝑞ത 1 Rear
∆𝑃 ②
= 𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 3 ③
∆𝑃
= −𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 1
④
Upper surface
∆𝑃
= 𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 𝐹
− −𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2 ∆𝑃 −
Lifting surface
∆𝑃 𝑞ത +
= 𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 𝐹
+𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 − 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 − 𝛽 2 𝐶2
Lower surface
∆𝑃
= 2𝛼𝐶1 + 4𝛼𝛽𝐶2
𝑞ത 𝐹 ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE OVER THE FRONT AND REAR HALVES OF
THE AIRFOIL AT ANGLE OF ATTACK
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 Front
= −
𝑞ത 𝑅
𝑞ത 4
𝑞ത 2 ①
Rear
∆𝑃
= 𝐶1 𝜃4 + 𝐶2 𝜃4 2 ②
𝑞ത 4 ③
∆𝑃 2
= 𝐶1 𝛼 − 𝛽 + 𝐶2 𝛼 − 𝛽
𝑞ത 4 ④
∆𝑃 Upper surface
= 𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 4
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 −
= 𝐶1 𝜃2 + 𝐶2 𝜃2 2 Lifting surface
𝑞ത 2 𝑞ത +
∆𝑃 2
= 𝐶1 −𝛼 − 𝛽 + 𝐶2 −𝛼 − 𝛽
𝑞ത 2
Lower surface
∆𝑃
= −𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 2
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE OVER THE FRONT AND REAR HALVES OF
THE AIRFOIL AT ANGLE OF ATTACK
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 Front
= − ①
𝑞ത 𝑅
𝑞ത 4
𝑞ത 2 Rear
∆𝑃 ②
= 𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 4 ③
∆𝑃
= −𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 2
④
Upper surface
∆𝑃
= 𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 𝑅
− −𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2 ∆𝑃 −
Lifting surface
∆𝑃 𝑞ത +
= 𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 𝑅
+𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 − 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 − 𝛽 2 𝐶2
Lower surface
∆𝑃
= 2𝛼𝐶1 − 4𝛼𝛽𝐶2
𝑞ത 𝑅 ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
NORMAL FORCE COEFFICIENT
𝑁
The normal force coefficient 𝐶𝑁 = 𝑞𝑆
ത
will be the total difference between the upper and lower pressure difference
(divided by 2 to retain the coefficient form based on the total plan-form area).
𝑁 1 ∆𝑃 1 ∆𝑃
𝐶𝑁 = = +
𝑞ത 𝑆 2 𝑞ത 𝐹
2 𝑞ത 𝑅

1 1
𝐶𝑁 = 2𝛼𝐶1 + 4𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝐶1 − 4𝛼𝛽𝐶2
2 2
𝐶𝑁 = 𝛼𝐶1 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛼𝐶1 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2
4𝛼
𝐶𝑁 = 2𝛼𝐶1 =
𝑀1 2 − 1
Where:
2
𝐶1 =
𝑀1 2 − 1 ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE OVER THE UPPER AND LOWER HALVES OF
THE AIRFOIL AT ANGLE OF ATTACK
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 Front
= −
𝑞ത 𝑈
𝑞ത 1
𝑞ത 2
①
Rear
∆𝑃
= −𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2 ②
𝑞ത 1 ③
∆𝑃
= −𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 2 ④
∆𝑃 Upper surface
= −𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 𝑈
− −𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2 −
∆𝑃
∆𝑃 Lifting surface
= −𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2 𝑞ത +
𝑞ത 𝑈
+𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 − 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 − 𝛽 2 𝐶2
Lower surface
∆𝑃
= 2𝛽𝐶1 − 4𝛼𝛽𝐶2
𝑞ത 𝑈
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE OVER THE UPPER AND LOWER HALVES OF
THE AIRFOIL AT ANGLE OF ATTACK
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 Front
= −
𝑞ത 𝐿
𝑞ത 3
𝑞ത 4
①
Rear
∆𝑃
= 𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2 ②
𝑞ത 3 ③
∆𝑃
= 𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 4 ④
∆𝑃 Upper surface
= 𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2
𝑞ത 𝐿
− 𝛼𝐶1 − 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2 −
∆𝑃
∆𝑃 Lifting surface
= 𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 + 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽 2 𝐶2 𝑞ത +
𝑞ത 𝐿
−𝛼𝐶1 + 𝛽𝐶1 − 𝛼 2 𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 − 𝛽 2 𝐶2
∆𝑃 Lower surface
= 2𝛽𝐶1 + 4𝛼𝛽𝐶2
𝑞ത 𝐿
FORM DRAG COEFFICIENT (SYMMETRICAL DOUBLE-WEDGE
AIRFOIL)
1 ∆𝑃 1 ∆𝑃 For small 𝛽 in radian, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 ≈ 𝛽:
𝐶𝐷𝐹 ′ = +
2 𝑞ത 𝑈
2 𝑞ത 𝐿 4β2
𝐶𝐷𝐹 = 𝐶𝐷𝐹 ′β =
1 1
𝐶𝐷𝐹 ′ = 2𝛽𝐶1 + 4𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 2𝛽𝐶1 − 4𝛼𝛽𝐶2 𝑀1 2 − 1
2 2
𝐶𝐷𝐹 ′ = 𝛽𝐶1 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 𝛽𝐶1 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 Where:

4𝛽 2
𝐶𝐷𝐹 ′ = 2𝛽𝐶1 = 𝐶1 =
2
𝑀1 − 1 𝑀1 2 − 1

The coefficient obtained is based on the maximum

thickness of the airfoil. Since it is desired to base all
coefficients on planform area, an additional factor
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 is introduced.
𝐶𝐷𝐹 = 𝐶𝐷𝐹 ′tanβ
ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
DRAG DUE TO NORMAL FORCE/DUE TO LIFT
𝐷𝐿 = 𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝐶𝐷𝐿 = 𝐶𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

For small 𝛼 in radian, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 ≈ 𝛼:

𝐶𝐷𝐿 = 𝐶𝑁 𝛼
Where:
4𝛼
𝐶𝑁 =
𝑀1 2 − 1

4𝛼 2
𝐶𝐷𝐿 =
𝑀1 2 − 1

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021

ADDITIONAL DRAG DUE TO SKIN FRICTION
The additional drag due to skin friction is dependent on several parameters. Whether or not the flow is laminar or
turbulent will depend on the type and strength of shock waves created ahead of the point in section as well as on the
local Reynolds number. This matter is the subject of considerable research, but the skin friction force may be
approximated by use of the coefficient developed by Blasius (laminar) and von Karman (turbulent).

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021

TOTAL DRAG COEFFICIENT (SYMMETRICAL DOUBLE WEDGE
AIRFOIL)
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝐹 + 𝐶𝐷𝐿 + 𝐶𝐷𝑓

4β2 4𝛼 2
𝐶𝐷 = + + 𝐶𝐷𝑓
𝑀1 2 − 1 𝑀1 2 − 1

4 β2 + 𝛼 2
𝐶𝐷 = + 𝐶𝐷𝑓
𝑀1 2 − 1

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021

MOMENT AND CENTER OF PRESSURE (SYMMETRICAL DOUBLE
WEDGE AIRFOIL)
1 1 𝛽𝐶2 ∙ 𝑐
𝐶𝑚0.5 = 0.25 2𝛼𝐶1 + 4𝛼𝛽𝐶2 − 0.25 2𝛼𝐶1 − 4𝛼𝛽𝐶2 𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 =
2 2 2𝐶1
𝐶𝑚0.5 = 0.25 𝛼𝐶1 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 − 0.25 𝛼𝐶1 − 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2
Note that for a symmetrical double wedge airfoil:
𝐶𝑚0.5 = 0.25 𝛼𝐶1 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 − 𝛼𝐶1 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2
𝛽(𝑟𝑎𝑑. ) ≅ 𝜏
𝐶𝑚0.5 = 0.25 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2 + 2𝛼𝛽𝐶2
𝐶𝑚0.5 = 0.25 4𝛼𝛽𝐶2
𝐶𝑚0.5 = 𝛼𝛽𝐶2

Obtaining the center of pressure location ahead of the mid-chord

point:
𝐶𝑚0.5 ∙ 𝑐
𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 =
𝐶𝑁
𝛼𝛽𝐶2 ∙ 𝑐
𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 =
2𝛼𝐶1
GENERAL CONTOURS THAT INCLUDE THE MOST PRACTICAL TYPES

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021

FORM DRAG COEFFICIENT (OTHER CROSS-SECTIONAL SHAPES)
The form drag coefficient for any given type of a cross-section may be expressed directly as a function of the thickness
ratio:
𝐾1 𝜏 2
𝐶𝐷𝐹 =
𝑀1 2 − 1 Type 𝐾1
Double Wedge 4
Where:
𝑡 Biconvex 5.33
τ = ratio of maximum thickness to chord length, 𝑐
Modified Double Wedge
1 6
𝐾1 = a constant which depends only on the cross-sectional shape 𝑎∗ = 3
Modified Double Wedge - 2
General 𝑎∗
𝑎∗ = is the fraction of the chord length
of the wedge shape at each end
ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
OPTIMUM ANGLE OF ATTACK AND MAXIMUM N/D RATIO
The normal force-drag ratio is determined rather than the lift-drag ratio because of the simplicity of the normal force
expression as compared with that of the lift. Form nominal values of lift-drag ratios, the lift-drag ratio will be no more
𝐿
than 5 percent lower than the normal force-drag ratio. The optimum angle of attack for highest 𝐷 ratio will also be
𝑁
slightly higher than that for maximum 𝐷.

𝑁 𝐷
The optimum angle of attack for maximum is found by differentiating the expression to determine the slope as a
𝐷 𝑁
𝐷
function of angle of attack and setting this expression equal to zero because the optimum angle occurs where is a
𝑁
minimum.

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021

OPTIMUM ANGLE OF ATTACK AND MAXIMUM N/D RATIO
𝑑 𝐷
=0 𝐾1 𝜏 2 4𝛼 2
𝑑𝛼 𝑁
𝑑 𝑀1 2 − 1 𝑀1 2 − 1 𝐶𝐷𝑓
𝑑 𝐶𝐷 + + =0
=0 𝑑𝛼 4𝛼 4𝛼 4𝛼
𝑑𝛼 𝐶𝑁
𝑀1 2 − 1 𝑀1 2 − 1 𝑀1 2 − 1
𝑑 𝐶𝐷𝐹 + 𝐶𝐷𝐿 + 𝐶𝐷𝑓
=0
𝑑𝛼 𝐶𝑁
𝑑 𝐾1𝜏2 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 2 − 1
𝐾1 𝜏 2 4𝛼 2 +𝛼+ =0
+ + 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑑𝛼 4𝛼 4𝛼
𝑑 𝑀1 2 − 1 𝑀1 2 − 1
=0
𝑑𝛼 4𝛼 𝑑 𝐾1𝜏2 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 2 − 1
2 𝛼 −1 + 𝛼 + 𝛼 −1 = 0
𝑀1 − 1 𝑑𝛼 4 4

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021

OPTIMUM ANGLE OF ATTACK AND MAXIMUM N/D RATIO

𝑑 𝐾1 𝜏 −1 2 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 2 − 1 −𝐾1 𝜏 2 + 4𝛼 2 − 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 2 − 1 = 0

𝛼 +𝛼+ 𝛼 −1 = 0
𝑑𝛼 4 4
4𝛼 2 = 𝐾1 𝜏 2 + 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 2 − 1
𝐾1 𝜏2 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 2 − 1
− 𝛼 −2 + 1 − 𝛼 −2 = 0 𝐾1 𝜏 2 + 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 2 − 1
4 4
𝛼2 =
2
4
𝐾1 𝜏 2 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 − 1
− +1− =0
4𝛼 2 4𝛼 2 𝐾1 𝜏 2 + 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 2 − 1
𝛼 = 𝛼𝑜𝑝𝑡. (𝑟𝑎𝑑. ) =
−𝐾1 𝜏2 + 4𝛼 2 − 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 − 1 2 4
=0
4𝛼 2

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021

OPTIMUM ANGLE OF ATTACK AND MAXIMUM N/D RATIO
𝑁
Substituting expression for optimum angle of attack in the maximum 𝐷 ratio formula:
𝐶𝑁 1
=
𝐶𝐷 𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝐾1 𝜏 2 + 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 2 − 1

𝑁
The expression for optimum angle of attack is related to the maximum 𝐷 ratio by the relation:
1
𝐶𝑁
2 2
𝐾1 𝜏 + 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 − 1 𝐶𝐷 𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝛼𝑜𝑝𝑡. (𝑟𝑎𝑑. ) = 𝛼𝑜𝑝𝑡. (𝑟𝑎𝑑. ) =
4 2
1
𝛼𝑜𝑝𝑡. (𝑟𝑎𝑑. ) =
𝐶𝑁
𝐾1 𝜏2 2
+ 𝐶𝐷𝑓 𝑀1 − 1 2
𝐶𝐷 𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝛼𝑜𝑝𝑡. (𝑟𝑎𝑑. ) =
2
ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
MOMENT AND CENTER OF PRESSURE (OTHER CROSS-SECTIONAL
SHAPES)
𝐶𝑚0.5 = 2𝐶2 𝐴′ 𝛼 𝐴𝑐𝑠
Type 𝐴′ = 2
Where: 𝑐
𝐴𝑐𝑠 𝑡𝑐 𝛽 𝜏
′
𝐴 = 2 = 2= Double Wedge
𝑐 2𝑐 2 2
2𝜏
𝛽 = 2𝐴′ Biconvex
3
𝐶2 𝐴′ 𝑐 1 2𝜏
𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 = Modified Double Wedge 𝑎∗ = 3
𝐶1 3

Modified Double Wedge - General (1 − 𝑎∗ )𝜏

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021

EXAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 1
Find 𝐶𝑁 , 𝐶𝐷 , 𝐶𝐿 , 𝐶𝑚0.5 , and 𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 of a symmetrical double-wedge airfoil of 6% thickness-to-chord ratio at 8-degree
angle of attack in a supersonic stream of Mach 1.8. Total skin friction drag coefficient is 0.0053.
Given: Solution:
Symmetrical Double-Wedge Airfoil 4𝛼 4 β2 + 𝛼 2
𝜏 = 6% = 0.06 𝐶𝑁 = 𝐶𝐷 = + 𝐶𝐷𝑓
2
𝛼 = 8° 𝑀1 − 1 𝑀1 2 − 1
𝑀1 = 1.8 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝐶𝐷𝑓 = 0.0053 4 8° 180° 2
𝐶𝑁 = 2 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
4 0.06 + 8°
(1.8)2 −1 180°
Required: 𝐶𝐷 = + 0.0053
𝐶𝑁 = 0.3731670907 (1.8)2 −1
𝐶𝑁 , 𝐶𝐷 , 𝐶𝐿 , 𝐶𝑚0.5 , 𝐶. 𝑃.0.5
𝐶𝐷 = 0.06702535986

ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021

EXAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 1
Find 𝐶𝑁 , 𝐶𝐷 , 𝐶𝐿 , 𝐶𝑚0.5 , and 𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 of a symmetrical double-wedge airfoil of 6% thickness-to-chord ratio at 8-degree
angle of attack in a supersonic stream of Mach 1.8. Total skin friction drag coefficient is 0.0053.
Given: Solution:
Symmetrical Double-Wedge Airfoil 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐷𝐹 + 𝐶𝐷𝑓
𝜏 = 6% = 0.06
𝛼 = 8° 4𝛽 2
𝑀1 = 1.8 𝐶𝐴 = + 𝐶𝐷𝑓
𝐶𝐷𝑓 = 0.0053 𝑀1 2 − 1

(4) 0.06 2
Required: 𝐶𝐴 = + 0.0053
𝐶𝑁 , 𝐶𝐷 , 𝐶𝐿 , 𝐶𝑚0.5 , 𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 (1.8)2 −1
𝐶𝐴 = 0.01492140471
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝑁 cos α − 𝐶𝐴 sin 𝛼
𝐶𝐿 = 0.3731670907 cos 8° − 0.01492140471 sin 8°
ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
𝐶𝐿 = 0.3674587961
EXAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 1
Find 𝐶𝑁 , 𝐶𝐷 , 𝐶𝐿 , 𝐶𝑚0.5 , and 𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 of a symmetrical double-wedge airfoil of 6% thickness-to-chord ratio at 8-degree
angle of attack in a supersonic stream of Mach 1.8. Total skin friction drag coefficient is 0.0053.
Given: Solution:
Symmetrical Double-Wedge Airfoil 2 𝐶𝑚0.5 = 𝛼𝛽𝐶2
𝜏 = 6% = 0.06 𝐶1 =
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝛼 = 8° 𝑀1 2 − 1 𝐶𝑚0.5 = 8° 0.06 1.617729592
𝑀1 = 1.8 180°
2
𝐶𝐷𝑓 = 0.0053 𝐶1 = 𝐶𝑚0.5 = 0.01355265974
(1.8)2 −1
𝛽𝐶2 ∙ 𝑐
𝐶1 = 1.33630621 𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 =
Required: 2 2𝐶1
𝐶𝑁 , 𝐶𝐷 , 𝐶𝐿 , 𝐶𝑚0.5 , 𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 𝛾𝑀1 4 + 𝑀1 2 − 2 0.06 1.617729592 𝑐
𝐶2 = 2 𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 =
2 𝑀1 2 − 1 2 1.33630621
1.4 (1.8)4 + 1.8 2 − 2 2 𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 0.03631793926𝑐
𝐶2 = 𝐶. 𝑃.0.5 = 3.631793926% c
2 1.8 2 − 1 2
𝐶2 = 1.617729592
ENGR. JIM JOSHUA PANARES 2021
EXAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 2
For the given symmetrical supersonic airfoil (𝜏=6%) below, determine the form drag coefficient. The freestream flow
has a Mach number of 2.

Given: Solution:
Modified Double Wedge 𝑥 1.08 𝑐𝑚 𝐾1 𝜏 2
𝜏 = 6% = 0.06
𝑎∗ =
𝑐 0.06 − 8 𝑐𝑚 𝐶𝐷𝐹 =
𝑡
𝑎∗ = 2 𝑀1 2 − 1
𝑀1 = 2 From 𝜏 = 𝑐 and 𝑐 = 8 + 2𝑥: 1.08 𝑐𝑚
𝑐 − 8 𝑐𝑚 0.06 7.2 0.06 2
Required: 2 ∗
𝑎 = 0.2777777778 𝐶𝐷𝐹 =
𝑎∗ = 2 2−1
𝐶𝐷𝐹 𝑐
𝑡 2 𝐶𝐷𝐹 = 0.01496491898
𝜏 − 8 𝑐𝑚 𝐾1 = ∗
2 𝑎
𝑎∗ = 𝑡 2
𝐾1 =
𝜏 0.2777777778
𝐾1 = 7.2