What is knowledge representation?

Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human

knows things, which is knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various
actions in the real world. But how machines do all these things comes under
knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can describe Knowledge
representation as following:

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o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial

intelligence which concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking
contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a
computer can understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex
real world problems such as diagnosis a medical condition or communicating
with humans in natural language.
o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial
intelligence. Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some
database, but it also enables an intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge
and experiences so that it can behave intelligently like a human.

What to Represent:
Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:

o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains
strings, trumpets are brass instruments.
o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
o Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do
things.
o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the
knowledge base. It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the
Sentences (Here, sentences are used as a technical term and not identical with
the English language).

Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data,

and situations. Following are the types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:

Types of knowledge
Following are the various types of knowledge:

1. Declarative Knowledge:

o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.

o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarativesentences.
o It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge

o It is also known as imperative knowledge.

o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing
how to do something.
o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.

3. Meta-knowledge:

o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:

o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or

subject.
o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness
of approaches, and which are good to work but not guaranteed.

5. Structural knowledge:
 o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.
o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and
grouping of something.
o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.

The relation between knowledge and intelligence:

Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial
intelligence. Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in
AI agents. An agent is only able to accurately act on some input when he has some
knowledge or experience about that input.

Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't
know, then how you will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent
behavior of the agents.

As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the
environment and using knowledge. But if the knowledge part will not present then, it
cannot display intelligent behavior.

AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent
behavior:

o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution
The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and
what components help it to show intelligence. AI system has Perception component by
which it retrieves information from its environment. It can be visual, audio or another
form of sensory input. The learning component is responsible for learning from data
captured by Perception comportment. In the complete cycle, the main components are
knowledge representation and Reasoning. These two components are involved in
showing the intelligence in machine-like humans. These two components are
independent with each other but also coupled together. The planning and execution
depend on analysis of Knowledge representation and reasoning.

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Approaches to knowledge representation:

There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are givenbelow:

1. Simple relational knowledge:

o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each
fact about a set of the object is set out systematically in columns.
o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where
the relationship between different entities is represented.
o This approach has little opportunity for inference.

Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge representation.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23

Player2 58 18
Player3 75 24

2. Inheritable knowledge:

o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of
classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.
o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between
instance and class, and it is called instance relation.
o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.
o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.
o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.
o Example:

3. Inferential knowledge:

o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal

logics.
o This approach can be used to derive more facts.
o It guaranteed correctness.
o Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:
a. Marcus is a man
b. All men are mortal
Then it can represent as;
 man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

4. Procedural knowledge:

o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes
how to do specific things, and how to proceed.
o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP
language and Prolog language.
o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this
approach.
o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.

Requirements for knowledge Representation system:

A good knowledge representation system must possess the following properties.

1. 1. Representational Accuracy:
KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of required knowledge.
2. 2. Inferential Adequacy:
KR system should have ability to manipulate the representational structures to
produce new knowledge corresponding to existing structure.
3. 3. Inferential Efficiency:
The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the most
productive directions by storing appropriate guides.
4. 4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new knowledge easily
using automatic methods.

Techniques of knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:

1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
4. Production Rules
1. Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with
propositions and has no ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means
drawing a conclusion based on various conditions. This representation lays down some
important communication rules. It consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics
which supports the sound inference. Each sentence can be translated into logics using
syntax and semantics.

Syntax:

o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.
o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
o How to write those symbols.

Semantics:

o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.

Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

a. Propositional Logics
b. Predicate logics

Note: We will discuss Prepositional Logics and Predicate logics in later chapters.

Advantages of logical representation:

1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.

2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.
Disadvantages of logical Representation:

1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.
2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be so
efficient.

Note: Do not be confused with logical representation and logical reasoning as logical
representation is a representation language and reasoning is a process of thinking logically.

2. Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In
Semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks.
This network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which describe the
relationship between those objects. Semantic networks can categorize the object in
different forms and can also link those objects. Semantic networks are easy to
understand and can be easily extended.

This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

a. IS-A relation (Inheritance)

b. Kind-of-relation

Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of
nodes and arcs.

Statements:

a. Jerry is a cat.
b. Jerry is a mammal
c. Jerry is owned by Priya.
d. Jerry is brown colored.
e. All Mammals are animal.
In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form
of nodes and arcs. Each object is connected with another object by some relation.

Drawbacks in Semantic representation:

1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the
complete network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case
scenario that after traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in
this network.
2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links)
to store the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic
network.
3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent
quantifier, e.g., for all, for some, none, etc.
4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

Advantages of Semantic network:

1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.

2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.

3. Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its
values to describe an entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides
knowledge into substructures by representing stereotypes situations. It consists of a
collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of any type and sizes. Slots have
names and values which are called facets.

Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames
which enable us to put constraints on the frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called
when data of any particular slot is needed. A frame may consist of any number of slots,
and a slot may include any number of facets and facets may have any number of values.
A frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.

Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day
classes and objects. A single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a
collection of frames which are connected. In the frame, knowledge about an object or
event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame is a type of technology
which is widely used in various applications including Natural language processing and
machine visions.
 Example: 1
Let's take an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science

Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Example 2:
Let's suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is an engineer as a profession, and his
age is 25, he lives in city London, and the country is England. So following is the frame
representation for this:

Slots Filter

Name Peter

Profession Doctor

Age 25

Marital status Single

Weight 78

Advantages of frame representation:

 1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the
related data.
2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI.
3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.
5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

Disadvantages of frame representation:

1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.

2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.
3. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

4. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition
then action". It has mainly three parts:

o The set of production rules

o Working Memory
o The recognize-act-cycle

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then
production rule fires and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the
rule determines which rule may be applied to a problem. And the action part carries out
the associated problem-solving steps. This complete process is called a recognize-act
cycle.

The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-solving
and rule can write knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge match and may
fire other rules.

If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be fired
together, this is called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from
these sets, and it is called a conflict resolution.

Example:

o IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)
o IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).
o IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
o IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).
Advantages of Production rule:

1. The production rules are expressed in natural language.

2. The production rules are highly modular, so we can easily remove, add or modify an
individual rule.

Disadvantages of Production rule:

1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning capabilities, as it does not store the
result of the problem for the future uses.
2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be active hence rule-based
production systems are inefficient.

LOGIC
The knowledge bases consist of sentences. These sentencesare expressed according to thesyntax of the
representation language, which specifies all thesentences that are well formed. For example
“x + y = 4” is a well-formed sentence, whereas “x+y+ =” is not.

A logic must also define the semantics or meaning of sentences. The semantics definesthe truth of each
sentence with respect to each possible world. For example, the semanticsfor arithmetic specifies that the
sentence “x + y =4” is true in a world where x is 2 and yis 2, but false in a world where x is 1 and y is
1.

When we need to be precise, we use the term model. models are mathematical abstractions, each of which
simply fixes the truth or falsehood of every relevant sentence. for example, having x men and y women
sitting at a table playing bridge, and the sentencex + y =4 is true when there are four people in total.
Formally, the possible models are justall possible assignments of real numbers to the variables x and y.
If a sentence αis true inmodelm, we say that m satisfies αor sometimes m is a model of α.

In mathematical notation, we write

α|= β

What is Logic?
Logic is the basis of all mathematical reasoning and all automated
reasoning. The rules of logic specify the meaning of mathematical
statements. These rules help us understand and reason with statements
such as –
∃ x such that x = a2 + b2, where x, a, b∈ Z
Which in Simple English means “There exists an integer that is not the
sum of two squares“.
Importance of Mathematical Logic
The rules of logic give precise meaning to mathematical statements.
These rules are used to distinguish between valid and invalid
mathematical arguments. Apart from its importance in understanding
mathematical reasoning, logic has numerous applications in Computer
Science, varying from the design of digital circuits to the construction of
computer programs and verification of the correctness of programs.
Propositional Logic
What is a Proposition? A proposition is the basic building block of logic.
It is defined as a declarative sentence that is either True or False, but not
both. The Truth Value of a proposition is True(denoted as T) if it is a true
statement, and False(denoted as F) if it is a false statement. For
Example,
1. The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.
2. 1 + 1 = 2
3. „b‟ is a vowel.
All of the above sentences are propositions, where the first two are
Valid(True) and the third one is Invalid(False). Some sentences that do
not have a truth value or may have more than one truth value are not
propositions. For Example,
1. What time is it?
2. Go out and Play
3. x + 1 = 2
4.The above sentences are not propositions as the first two do not have a
truth value, and the third one may be true or false. To represent
propositions, propositional variables are used. By Convention, these
variables are represented by small alphabets such as p,q,r,s . The area of
logic which deals with propositions is called propositional
calculus or propositional logic. It also includes producing new
propositions using existing ones. Propositions constructed using one or
more propositions are called compound propositions. The propositions
are combined together using Logical Connectives or Logical
Operators.
Truth Table
Since we need to know the truth value of a proposition in all possible
scenarios, we consider all the possible combinations of the propositions
which are joined together by Logical Connectives to form the given
compound proposition. This compilation of all possible scenarios in a
tabular format is called a truth table. Most Common Logical
Connectives-
1. Negation
If p is a proposition, then the negation of p is denoted by ¬p , which
when translated to simple English means- “It is not the case that p” or
simply “not p“. The truth value of -p is the opposite of the truth value of p.
The truth table of -p is:
p ¬p

T F

F T

Example, Negation of “It is raining today”, is “It is not the case that is
raining today” or simply “It is not raining today”.
2. Conjunction
For any two propositions p and q , their conjunction is denoted by p∧q ,
which means “ p and q “. The conjunction p∧q is True when
both p and q are True, otherwise False. The truth table of p∧q is:
p q p∧q

T T T

T F F
p q p∧q

F T F

F F F

Example, Conjunction of the propositions p – “Today is Friday” and q –

“It is raining today”, p∧q is “Today is Friday and it is raining today”. This
proposition is true only on rainy Fridays and is false on any other rainy
day or on Fridays when it does not rain.
3. Disjunction
For any two propositions p and q , their disjunction is denoted by p∨q ,
which means “p or q “. The disjunction p∨q is True when either p or q is
True, otherwise False. The truth table of p∨q is:
p q p∨q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

Example, Disjunction of the propositions p – “Today is Friday” and q – “It

is raining today”, p∨q is “Today is Friday or it is raining today”. This
proposition is true on any day that is a Friday or a rainy day(including
rainy Fridays) and is false on any day other than Friday when it also does
not rain.
4. Exclusive Or
For any two propositions p and q , their exclusive or is denoted
by p⊕q , which means “either p or q but not both”. The exclusive
or p⊕q is True when either p or q is True, and False when both are true
or both are false. The truth table of p⊕q is:
p q p⊕q

T T F

T F T

F T T

F F F
Example, Exclusive or of the propositions p – “Today is Friday” and q –
“It is raining today”, p⊕q is “Either today is Friday or it is raining today,
but not both”. This proposition is true on any day that is a Friday or a
rainy day(not including rainy Fridays) and is false on any day other than
Friday when it does not rain or rainy Fridays.
5. Implication
For any two propositions p and q , the statement “if p then q ” is called
an implication and it is denoted by p→q . In the implication p→q , p is
called the hypothesis or antecedent or premise and q is called
the conclusion or consequence. The implication is p→q is also called
a conditional statement. The implication is false when p is true and q is
false otherwise it is true. The truth table of p→q is:
p q p→q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

One might wonder that why is p→q true when p is false. This is
because the implication guarantees that when p and q are true then the
implication is true. But the implication does not guarantee anything when
the premise p is false. There is no way of knowing whether or not the
implication is false since p did not happen. This situation is similar to the
“Innocent until proven Guilty” stance, which means that the
implication p→q is considered true until proven false. Since we cannot call
the implication p→q false when p is false, our only alternative is to call it
true.
This follows from the Explosion Principle which says: “A False
statement implies anything” Conditional statements play a very important
role in mathematical reasoning, thus a variety of terminology is used to
express p→q , some of which are listed below.
“If p, then “q”p is sufficient for q””q when p””a necessary condition for p is
q””p only if q””q unless ≠p””q follows from p”
Example, “If it is Friday then it is raining today” is a proposition which is
of the form p→q . The above proposition is true if it is not Friday(premise
is false) or if it is Friday and it is raining, and it is false when it is Friday
but it is not raining.
6. Biconditional or Double Implication
For any two propositions p and q , the statement “p if and only if(iff) q ”
is called a biconditional and it is denoted by p↔q . The
statement p↔q is also called a bi-implication. p↔q has the same truth
 value as (p→q)∧(q→p) The implication is true when p and q have same
truth values, and is false otherwise. The truth table of p↔q is:
p q p↔q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

Some other common ways of expressing p↔q are:

“p is necessary and sufficient for q””if p then q, and conversely””p if q”
Example, “It is raining today if and only if it is Friday today.” is a
proposition which is of the form p↔q . The above proposition is true if it
is not Friday and it is not raining or if it is Friday and it is raining, and it is
false when it is not Friday or it is not raining. Exercise:
1) Consider the following statements:
 P: Good mobile phones are not cheap.
 Q: Cheap mobile phones are not good.
 L: P implies Q
 M: Q implies P
 N: P is equivalent to Q

Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence

Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are
made by propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or
false. It is a technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical
form.

Example:

1. a) It is Sunday.
2. b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
3. c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
4. d) 5 is a prime number.

Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

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o Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.

 o In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and
we can use any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R,
etc.
o Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
o Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical
connectives.
o These connectives are also called logical operators.
o The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional
logic.
o Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
o A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also
called a valid sentence.
o A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
o A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called
o Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions
such as "Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not
propositions.

Syntax of propositional logic:

The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge
representation. There are two types of Propositions:

a. Atomic Propositions
b. Compound propositions

o Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It

consists of a single proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must
be either true or false.

Example:

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1. a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.

2. b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
 o Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by
combining simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical
connectives.

Example:

1. a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."

2. b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

Logical Connectives:
Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a
sentence logically. We can create compound propositions with the help of logical
connectives. There are mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:

1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be

either Positive literal or negative literal.
2. Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a
conjunction.
Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called
disjunction, where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.
4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications
are also known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q
5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence,
example If I am breathing, then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.

Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic

Connectives:
Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all
possible scenarios. We can combine all the possible combination with logical
connectives, and the representation of these combinations in a tabular format is
called Truth table. Following are the truth table for all logical connectives:

Truth table with three propositions:

We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth
table is made-up of 8n Tuples as we have taken three proposition symbols.

Precedence of connectives:
Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional
connectors or logical operators. This order should be followed while evaluating a
propositional problem. Following is the list of the precedence order for operators:

Precedence Operators

First Precedence Parenthesis

Second Precedence Negation

Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)

Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)

Fifth Precedence Implication

Six Precedence Biconditional

Note: For better understanding use parenthesis to make sure of the correct interpretations.
Such as ¬R∨ Q, It can be interpreted as (¬R) ∨ Q.

Logical equivalence:
Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions
are said to be logically equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are
identical to each other.
Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as
A⇔B. In below truth table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical
hence A is Equivalent to B

Properties of Operators:

o Commutativity:
o P∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or
o P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
o Associativity:
o (P ∧ Q) ∧ R= P ∧ (Q ∧ R),
o (P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
o Identity element:
o P ∧ True = P,
o P ∨ True= True.
o Distributive:
o P∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).
o P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).
o DE Morgan's Law:
o ¬ (P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
o ¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).
o Double-negation elimination:
o ¬ (¬P) = P.

Limitations of Propositional logic:

o We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional

logic. Example:
a. All the girls are intelligent.
b. Some apples are sweet.
o Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
 o In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their
properties or logical relationships.

Predicate Logic
Predicate Logic deals with predicates, which are propositions, consist of variables.

Predicate Logic - Definition

A predicate is an expression of one or more variables determined on some specific

domain. A predicate with variables can be made a proposition by either authorizing
a value to the variable or by quantifying the variable.

The following are some examples of predicates.

o Consider E(x, y) denote "x = y"
o Consider X(a, b, c) denote "a + b + c = 0"
o Consider M(x, y) denote "x is married to y."

Quantifier:
The variable of predicates is quantified by quantifiers. There are two types of
quantifier in predicate logic - Existential Quantifier and Universal Quantifier.

Existential Quantifier:
If p(x) is a proposition over the universe U. Then it is denoted as ∃x p(x) and read as
"There exists at least one value in the universe of variable x such that p(x) is true. The
quantifier ∃ is called the existential quantifier.

There are several ways to write a proposition, with an existential quantifier, i.e.,

(∃x∈A)p(x) or ∃x∈A such that p (x) or (∃x)p(x) or p(x) is true for some x
∈A.

Universal Quantifier:
If p(x) is a proposition over the universe U. Then it is denoted as ∀x,p(x) and read as
"For every x∈U,p(x) is true." The quantifier ∀ is called the Universal Quantifier.

There are several ways to write a proposition, with a universal quantifier.

∀x∈A,p(x) or p(x), ∀x ∈A Or ∀x,p(x) or p(x) is true for all x ∈A.

Negation of Quantified Propositions:

When we negate a quantified proposition, i.e., when a universally quantified
proposition is negated, we obtain an existentially quantified proposition,and when
an existentially quantified proposition is negated, we obtain a universally quantified
proposition.

The two rules for negation of quantified proposition are as follows. These are also
called DeMorgan's Law.

Example: Negate each of the following propositions:

1.∀x p(x)∧ ∃ y q(y)

Sol: ~.∀x p(x)∧ ∃ y q(y))

≅~∀ x p(x)∨∼∃yq (y) (∴∼(p∧q)=∼p∨∼q)
≅ ∃ x ~p(x)∨∀y∼q(y)

2. (∃x∈U) (x+6=25)

Sol: ~( ∃ x∈U) (x+6=25)

≅∀ x∈U~ (x+6)=25
≅(∀ x∈U) (x+6)≠25

3. ~( ∃ x p(x)∨∀ y q(y)

Sol: ~(∃ x p(x)∨∀ y q(y))

≅~∃ x p(x)∧~∀ y q(y) (∴~(p∨q)= ∼p∧∼q)
≅ ∀ x ∼ p(x)∧∃y~q(y))

Propositions with Multiple Quantifiers:

The proposition having more than one variable can be quantified with multiple
quantifiers. The multiple universal quantifiers can be arranged in any order without
altering the meaning of the resulting proposition. Also, the multiple existential
quantifiers can be arranged in any order without altering the meaning of the
proposition.

The proposition which contains both universal and existential quantifiers, the order
of those quantifiers can't be exchanged without altering the meaning of the
proposition, e.g., the proposition ∃x ∀ y p(x,y) means "There exists some x such that
p (x, y) is true for every y."

Example: Write the negation for each of the following. Determine whether the
resulting statement is true or false. Assume U = R.

1.∀ x ∃ m(x2<m)
Sol: Negation of ∀ x ∃ m(x2<m) is ∃ x ∀ m (x2≥m). The meaning of ∃ x ∀ m (x2≥m) is
that there exists for some x such that x2≥m, for every m. The statement is true as
there is some greater x such that x2≥m, for every m.

2. ∃ m∀ x(x2<m)

Sol: Negation of ∃ m ∀ x (x2<m) is ∀ m∃x (x2≥m). The meaning of ∀ m∃x (x2≥m) is

that for every m, there exists for some x such that x 2≥m. The statement is true as for
every m, there exists for some greater x such that x2≥m.

First-Order Logic in Artificial intelligence

In the topic of Propositional logic, we have seen that how to represent statements
using propositional logic. But unfortunately, in propositional logic, we can only
represent the facts, which are either true or false. PL is not sufficient to represent the
complex sentences or natural language statements. The propositional logic has very
limited expressive power. Consider the following sentence, which we cannot
represent using PL logic.

o "Some humans are intelligent", or

o "Sachin likes cricket."

To represent the above statements, PL logic is not sufficient, so we required some

more powerful logic, such as first-order logic.

First-Order logic:
o First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial
intelligence. It is an extension to propositional logic.
o FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a
concise way.
o First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate
logic. First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information
about the objects in a more easy way and can also express the relationship
between those objects.
o First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world
contains facts like propositional logic but also assumes the following things in
the world:
o Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits,
wumpus, ......
 o Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or
n-any relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes
between
o Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
o As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
a. Syntax
b. Semantics

Syntax of First-Order logic:

The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in
first-order logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We
write statements in short-hand notation in FOL.

Basic Elements of First-order logic:

Following are the basic elements of FOL syntax:

Constant 1, 2, A, John, Mumbai, cat,....

Variables x, y, z, a, b,....

Predicates Brother, Father, >,....

Function sqrt, LeftLegOf, ....

Connectives ∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔

Equality ==

Quantifier ∀, ∃

Atomic sentences:

o Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These
sentences are formed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with
a sequence of terms.
 o We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term
n).

Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).

Complex Sentences:

o Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using

connectives.

First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:

o Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.

o Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms
together in a statement.

Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x is
the subject of the statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.

Quantifiers in First-order logic:

o A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and
quantification specifies the quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.
o These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range and
scope of the variable in the logical expression. There are two types of
quantifier:
a. Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)
b. Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).

Universal Quantifier:
Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the
statement within its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular
thing.
The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted
A.

Note: In universal quantifier we use implication "→".

If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:

o For all x
o For each x
o For every x.

Example:
All man drink coffee.

Let a variable x which refers to a cat so all x can be represented in UOD as below:

∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).

It will be read as: There are all x where x is a man who drink coffee.

Existential Quantifier:
Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the statement
within its scope is true for at least one instance of something.

It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When it is

used with a predicate variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.
Note: In Existential quantifier we always use AND or Conjunction symbol (∧).

If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:

o There exists a 'x.'

o For some 'x.'
o For at least one 'x.'

Example:
Some boys are intelligent.

∃x: boys(x) ∧ intelligent(x)

It will be read as: There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent.

Points to remember:
o The main connective for universal quantifier ∀ is implication →.
o The main connective for existential quantifier ∃ is and ∧.

Properties of Quantifiers:
o In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.
o In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
o ∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

Some Examples of FOL using quantifier:

1. All birds fly.
In this question the predicate is "fly(bird)."
And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as follows.
∀x bird(x) →fly(x).

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2. Every man respects his parent.

In this question, the predicate is "respect(x, y)," where x=man, and y= parent.
Since there is every man so will use ∀, and it will be represented as follows:
∀x man(x) → respects (x, parent).

3. Some boys play cricket.

In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where x= boys, and y= game. Since
there are some boys so we will use ∃, and it will be represented as:
∃x boys(x) → play(x, cricket).

4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science.

In this question, the predicate is "like(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.
Since there are not all students, so we will use ∀ with negation, so following
representation for this:
¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)].

5. Only one student failed in Mathematics.

In this question, the predicate is "failed(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.
Since there is only one student who failed in Mathematics, so we will use following
representation for this:
∃(x) [ student(x) → failed (x, Mathematics) ∧∀ (y) [¬(x==y) ∧ student(y)
→ ¬failed (x, Mathematics)].

Free and Bound Variables:

The quantifiers interact with variables which appear in a suitable way. There are two
types of variables in First-order logic which are given below:

Free Variable: A variable is said to be a free variable in a formula if it occurs outside

the scope of the quantifier.

Example: ∀x ∃(y)[P (x, y, z)], where z is a free variable.

Bound Variable: A variable is said to be a bound variable in a formula if it occurs

within the scope of the quantifier.

Example: ∀x [A (x) B( y)], here x and y are the bound variables.

Resolution in FOL
Resolution
Resolution is a theorem proving technique that proceeds by building refutation proofs, i.e.,
proofs by contradictions. It was invented by a Mathematician John Alan Robinson in the year
1965.

Resolution is used, if there are various statements are given, and we need to prove a conclusion
of those statements. Unification is a key concept in proofs by resolutions. Resolution is a single
inference rule which can efficiently operate on the conjunctive normal form or clausal form.

Clause: Disjunction of literals (an atomic sentence) is called a clause. It is also known as a unit
clause.

Conjunctive Normal Form: A sentence represented as a conjunction of clauses is said to

be conjunctive normal form or CNF.

Note: To better understand this topic, firstly learns the FOL in AI.

The resolution inference rule:

The resolution rule for first-order logic is simply a lifted version of the propositional rule.
Resolution can resolve two clauses if they contain complementary literals, which are assumed to
be standardized apart so that they share no variables.

Where li and mj are complementary literals.

This rule is also called the binary resolution rule because it only resolves exactly two literals.

Example:
We can resolve two clauses which are given below:

[Animal (g(x) V Loves (f(x), x)] and [￢ Loves(a, b) V ￢Kills(a, b)]

Where two complimentary literals are: Loves (f(x), x) and ￢ Loves (a, b)

These literals can be unified with unifier θ= [a/f(x), and b/x] , and it will generate a resolvent
clause:

[Animal (g(x) V ￢ Kills(f(x), x)].

Steps for Resolution:

1. Conversion of facts into first-order logic.
2. Convert FOL statements into CNF
3. Negate the statement which needs to prove (proof by contradiction)
 4. Draw resolution graph (unification).

To better understand all the above steps, we will take an example in which we will apply
resolution.

Example:

a. John likes all kind of food.

b. Apple and vegetable are food
c. Anything anyone eats and not killed is food.
d. Anil eats peanuts and still alive
e. Harry eats everything that Anil eats.
Prove by resolution that:
f. John likes peanuts.

Step-1: Conversion of Facts into FOL

In the first step we will convert all the given statements into its first order logic.

Step-2: Conversion of FOL into CNF

In First order logic resolution, it is required to convert the FOL into CNF as CNF form makes
easier for resolution proofs.

o Eliminate all implication (→) and rewrite

a. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
b. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
c. ∀x ∀y ¬ [eats(x, y) Λ ¬ killed(x)] V food(y)
d. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
e. ∀x ¬ eats(Anil, x) V eats(Harry, x)
f. ∀x¬ [¬ killed(x) ] V alive(x)
g. ∀x ¬ alive(x) V ¬ killed(x)
h. likes(John, Peanuts).
 o Move negation (¬)inwards and rewrite
. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
a. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
b. ∀x ∀y ¬ eats(x, y) V killed(x) V food(y)
c. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
d. ∀x ¬ eats(Anil, x) V eats(Harry, x)
e. ∀x ¬killed(x) ] V alive(x)
f. ∀x ¬ alive(x) V ¬ killed(x)
g. likes(John, Peanuts).
o Rename variables or standardize variables
. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
a. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
b. ∀y ∀z ¬ eats(y, z) V killed(y) V food(z)
c. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
d. ∀w¬ eats(Anil, w) V eats(Harry, w)
e. ∀g ¬killed(g) ] V alive(g)
f. ∀k ¬ alive(k) V ¬ killed(k)
g. likes(John, Peanuts).
o Eliminate existential instantiation quantifier by elimination.
In this step, we will eliminate existential quantifier ∃, and this process is known
as Skolemization. But in this example problem since there is no existential quantifier so
all the statements will remain same in this step.
o Drop Universal quantifiers.
In this step we will drop all universal quantifier since all the statements are not implicitly
quantified so we don't need it.
. ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
a. food(Apple)
b. food(vegetables)
c. ¬ eats(y, z) V killed(y) V food(z)
d. eats (Anil, Peanuts)
e. alive(Anil)
f. ¬ eats(Anil, w) V eats(Harry, w)
g. killed(g) V alive(g)
h. ¬ alive(k) V ¬ killed(k)
i. likes(John, Peanuts).

Note: Statements "food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)" and "eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)" can be
written in two separate statements.

o Distribute conjunction ∧ over disjunction ¬.

This step will not make any change in this problem.
Step-3: Negate the statement to be proved

In this statement, we will apply negation to the conclusion statements, which will be written as
¬likes(John, Peanuts)

Step-4: Draw Resolution graph:

Now in this step, we will solve the problem by resolution tree using substitution. For the above
problem, it will be given as follows:

Hence the negation of the conclusion has been proved as a complete contradiction with the
given set of statements.

Explanation of Resolution graph:

o In the first step of resolution graph, ¬likes(John, Peanuts) , and likes(John, x) get
resolved(canceled) by substitution of {Peanuts/x}, and we are left with ¬ food(Peanuts)
o In the second step of the resolution graph, ¬ food(Peanuts) , and food(z) get resolved
(canceled) by substitution of { Peanuts/z}, and we are left with ¬ eats(y, Peanuts) V
killed(y) .
o In the third step of the resolution graph, ¬ eats(y, Peanuts) and eats (Anil,
Peanuts) get resolved by substitution {Anil/y}, and we are left with Killed(Anil) .
o In the fourth step of the resolution graph, Killed(Anil) and ¬ killed(k) get resolve by
substitution {Anil/k}, and we are left with ¬ alive(Anil) .
o In the last step of the resolution graph ¬ alive(Anil) and alive(Anil) get resolved.

Probability
 We assign a probability measure P(A) to an event A. This is a value
between 0 and 1 that shows how likely the event is. If P(A) is close to 0, it is
very unlikely that the event A occurs. On the other hand, if P(A)(A) is close
to 1, A is very likely to occur. The main subject of probability theory is to
develop tools and techniques to calculate probabilities of different events.
Probability theory is based on some axioms that act as the foundation for
the theory, so let us state and explain these axioms.

Probability: Probability can be defined as a chance that an uncertain event will occur. It
is the numerical measure of the likelihood that an event will occur. The value of
probability always remains between 0 and 1 that represent ideal uncertainties.

1. 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1, where P(A) is the probability of an event A.

1. P(A) = 0, indicates total uncertainty in an event A.

1. P(A) =1, indicates total certainty in an event A.

We can find the probability of an uncertain event by using the below formula.

o P(¬A) = probability of a not happening event.

o P(¬A) + P(A) = 1.

Event: Each possible outcome of a variable is called an event.

Sample space: The collection of all possible outcomes is called sample space.

Random variables: Random variables are used to represent the events in the real
world.

Prior probability: The prior probability of an event is probability computed before

observing new information.

Posterior Probability: The probability that is calculated after all evidence or

information has taken into account. It is a combination of prior probability and new
information.
Axiom 1: Probability of Event

The first one is that the probability of an event is always between 0 and 1. 1 indicates
definite action of any of the outcome of an event and 0 indicates no outcome of the event is
possible.

Axiom 2: Probability of Sample Space

For sample space, the probability of the entire sample space is 1.

Axiom 3: Mutually Exclusive Events

And the third one is- the probability of the event containing any possible outcome of two
mutually disjoint is the summation of their individual probability.

1. Probability of Event
The first axiom of probability is that the probability of any event is between 0 and 1.

As we know the formula of probability is that we divide the total number of outcomes in the
event by the total number of outcomes in sample space.

And the event is a subset of sample space, so the event cannot have more outcome than
the sample space.

Clearly, this value is going to be between 0 and 1 since the denominator is always greater
than the numerator.

2. Probability of Sample Space

The second axiom is that the probability for the entire sample space equals 1.
3. Mutually Exclusive Event

hese Mutually exclusive events mean that such events cannot occur together or in other
words, they don‟t have common values or we can say their intersection is zero/null. We can
also represent such events as follows:

This means that the intersection is zero or they do not have any common value. For
example, if the

Event A: is getting a number greater than 4 after rolling a die, the possible outcomes
would be 5 and 6.

Even B: is getting a number less than 3 on rolling a die. Here the possible outcomes
would be 1 and 2.

Clearly, both these events cannot have any common outcome. An interesting thing to note
here is that events A

and B are not complemented of each other but yet they’re mutually exclusive.
---------------------------------------------------------------
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Probabilistic reasoning in Artificial intelligence
Uncertainty:
Till now, we have learned knowledge representation using first-order logic and
propositional logic with certainty, which means we were sure about the predicates. With
this knowledge representation, we might write A→B, which means if A is true then B is
true, but consider a situation where we are not sure about whether A is true or not then
we cannot express this statement, this situation is called uncertainty.

So to represent uncertain knowledge, where we are not sure about the predicates, we
need uncertain reasoning or probabilistic reasoning.

Following are some leading causes of uncertainty to occur in the real world.

1. Information occurred from unreliable sources.

2. Experimental Errors
3. Equipment fault

Probabilistic reasoning:
Probabilistic reasoning is a way of knowledge representation where we apply the
concept of probability to indicate the uncertainty in knowledge. In probabilistic
reasoning, we combine probability theory with logic to handle the uncertainty.

In the real world, there are lots of scenarios, where the certainty of something is not
confirmed, such as "It will rain today," "behavior of someone for some situations," "A
match between two teams or two players." These are probable sentences for which
we can assume that it will happen but not sure about it, so here we use
probabilistic reasoning.

Need of probabilistic reasoning in AI:

o When there are unpredictable outcomes.

Conditional probability:
Conditional probability is a probability of occurring an event when another event has
already happened.

Let's suppose, we want to calculate the event A when event B has already occurred, "the
probability of A under the conditions of B", it can be written as:
Where P(A⋀B)= Joint probability of a and B

P(B)= probability of B.

Example:

In a class, there are 70% of the students who like English and 40% of the students who
likes English and mathematics, and then what is the percent of students those who like
English also like mathematics?

Solution:

Let, A is an event that a student likes Mathematics

B is an event that a student likes English.

Hence, 57% are the students who like English also like Mathematics.

Bayes' theorem in Artificial intelligence

Bayes' theorem:
 Bayes' theorem is also known as Bayes' rule, Bayes' law, or Bayesian reasoning, which
determines the probability of an event with uncertain knowledge.

In probability theory, it relates the conditional probability and marginal probabilities of two
random events.

Bayes' theorem was named after the British mathematician Thomas Bayes. The Bayesian
inference is an application of Bayes' theorem, which is fundamental to Bayesian statistics.

It is a way to calculate the value of P(B|A) with the knowledge of P(A|B).

Bayes' theorem allows updating the probability prediction of an event by observing new
information of the real world.

Example: If cancer corresponds to one's age then by using Bayes' theorem, we can determine
the probability of cancer more accurately with the help of age.

Bayes' theorem can be derived using product rule and conditional probability of event A with
known event B:

As from product rule we can write:

1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(A|B) P(B) or

Similarly, the probability of event B with known event A:

1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(B|A) P(A)

Equating right hand side of both the equations, we will get:

The above equation (a) is called as Bayes' rule or Bayes' theorem. This equation is basic of
most modern AI systems for probabilistic inference.

It shows the simple relationship between joint and conditional probabilities. Here,

P(A|B) is known as posterior, which we need to calculate, and it will be read as Probability of
hypothesis A when we have occurred an evidence B.

P(B|A) is called the likelihood, in which we consider that hypothesis is true, then we calculate the
probability of evidence.

P(A) is called the prior probability, probability of hypothesis before considering the evidence

P(B) is called marginal probability, pure probability of an evidence.

In the equation (a), in general, we can write P (B) = P(A)*P(B|Ai), hence the Bayes' rule can be
written as:
Where A1, A2, A3,........, An is a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.

Applying Bayes' rule:

Bayes' rule allows us to compute the single term P(B|A) in terms of P(A|B), P(B), and P(A). This is
very useful in cases where we have a good probability of these three terms and want to
determine the fourth one. Suppose we want to perceive the effect of some unknown cause, and
want to compute that cause, then the Bayes' rule becomes:

Example-1:

Question: what is the probability that a patient has diseases meningitis with a stiff neck?

Given Data:

A doctor is aware that disease meningitis causes a patient to have a stiff neck, and it occurs 80%
of the time. He is also aware of some more facts, which are given as follows:

o The Known probability that a patient has meningitis disease is 1/30,000.

o The Known probability that a patient has a stiff neck is 2%.

Let a be the proposition that patient has stiff neck and b be the proposition that patient has
meningitis. , so we can calculate the following as:

P(a|b) = 0.8

P(b) = 1/30000

P(a)= .02

Hence, we can assume that 1 patient out of 750 patients has meningitis disease with a stiff neck.

Example-2:

Question: From a standard deck of playing cards, a single card is drawn. The probability
that the card is king is 4/52, then calculate posterior probability P(King|Face), which
means the drawn face card is a king card.

Solution:
P(king): probability that the card is King= 4/52= 1/13

P(face): probability that a card is a face card= 3/13

P(Face|King): probability of face card when we assume it is a king = 1

Putting all values in equation (i) we will get:

Application of Bayes' theorem in Artificial intelligence:

Following are some applications of Bayes' theorem:

o It is used to calculate the next step of the robot when the already executed step is given.
o Bayes' theorem is helpful in weather forecasting.
o It can solve the Monty Hall problem.