SECTION 6: AC POWER

FUNDAMENTALS
ENGR 202 – Electrical Fundamentals II
2 Instantaneous Power

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Instantaneous Power
3

 Instantaneous power:
 Power supplied by a source or absorbed by a load or
network element as a function of time
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡
 The nature of this instantaneous power flow is
determined by the impedance of the load
 Next, we’ll look at the instantaneous power delivered to
loads of different impedances
 Instantaneous power is a useful place to start our
discussion of power, but is not how we typically
characterize power

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Instantaneous Power – Resistive Load
4

 The voltage across the resistive load is

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿

 Current through the resistor is

𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿
𝑅𝑅
 The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor is
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿 ⋅ cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿
𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝2 2
𝑉𝑉
𝑝𝑝
2
1
𝑝𝑝𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿 = 1 + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 2

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Instantaneous Power – Resistive Load
5

𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝2
𝑝𝑝𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 1 + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿
2𝑅𝑅

 Making use of the rms voltage

2
2 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑝𝑝𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 1 + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿
2𝑅𝑅
2
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑝𝑝𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 1 + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿
𝑅𝑅

 The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor

has a non-zero average value and a double-
frequency component

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Instantaneous Power – Resistive Load
6

 Power delivered to the resistive load has a non-zero

average value and a double-frequency component

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Instantaneous Power – Capacitive Load
7

 Now consider the power absorbed by a purely capacitive

load
 Again, 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿
 The current flowing to the load is
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿 + 90°
where
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 = = = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 1/𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
 The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitive load is
𝑝𝑝𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡
𝑝𝑝𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿 + 90°
K. Webb ENGR 202
 Instantaneous Power – Capacitive Load
8

1
𝑝𝑝𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝2 cos −90° + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿 + 90°
2
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝2
𝑝𝑝𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ⋅ cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿 + 90°
2

 In terms of rms voltage

2
𝑝𝑝𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ⋅ cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿 + 90°

 This is a double frequency

sinusoid, but, unlike for the
resistive load, the average value
is zero

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Instantaneous Power – Inductive Load
9

 Now consider the power absorbed by a purely inductive

load
 Now the load current lags by 90°
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿 − 90°
where
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 = =
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
 The instantaneous power delivered to the inductive load is
𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿 ⋅ cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿 − 90°
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
K. Webb ENGR 202
 Instantaneous Power – Inductive Load
10

𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝2 1
𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = cos 90° + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿 − 90°
𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 2
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝2
𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = ⋅ cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿 − 90°
2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

 In terms of rms voltage

2
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = ⋅ cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿 − 90°
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

 As for the capacitive load, this is

a double frequency sinusoid with
an average value of zero

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Instantaneous Power – General Impedance
11

 Finally, consider the instantaneous power absorbed by a

general RLC load
 Phase angle of the current is determined by the angle
of the impedance
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛽𝛽
 The instantaneous power is
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛽𝛽
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝛿𝛿 + 𝛽𝛽
2
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿 − 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Instantaneous Power – General Impedance
12

 Using the following trig identity

cos 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 = cos 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝐵𝐵 + sin 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵
we get
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 [cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 + cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿
+ sin 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 sin 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿 ]

and
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 1 + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿
+𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 sin 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 sin 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Instantaneous Power – General Impedance
13

 Letting
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 and 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 sin 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽
we have
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 1 + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿
+𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋 sin 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿
 There are two components to the power:
𝑝𝑝𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 1 + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿
is the power absorbed by the resistive component of the load, and
𝑝𝑝𝑋𝑋 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋 sin 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿
is the power absorbed by the reactive component of the load

K. Webb ENGR 202

14 Real & Reactive Power

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Real Power
15

 According to previous expressions, power delivered

to a resistance has a non-zero average value
 Purely resistive load or a load with a resistive
component
 This is real power, average power, or active power
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽
 Real power has units of watts (W)
 Real power is power that results in work (or heat
dissipation)
K. Webb ENGR 202
 Power Factor
16

 The phase angle 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 represents the phase difference between the

voltage and the current
 This is the power factor angle
 The angle of the load impedance
 Note that the real power is a function of the cosine of the power factor
angle
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽
 This is the power factor

𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽

 For a purely resistive load, voltage and current are in phase

𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 = cos 0° = 1
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Power Factor
17

 For a purely capacitive load, current leads the voltage by 90°

𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 = cos −90° = 0
𝑃𝑃 = 0
 This is referred to as a leading power factor
 Power factor is leading for loads with capacitive reactance
 For a purely inductive load, current lags the voltage by 90°
𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 = cos 90° = 0
𝑃𝑃 = 0
 Loads with inductive reactance have lagging power factors
 Note that power factor is defined to always be positive
0 ≤ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. ≤ 1

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Reactive Power
18

 The other part of instantaneous power is the power

delivered to the reactive component of the load
𝑝𝑝𝑋𝑋 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 sin 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 sin 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2𝛿𝛿
 Unlike real power, this component of power has zero
average value
 The amplitude is the reactive power
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 sin 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

 Units are volts-amperes reactive, or var

 Power that flows to and from the load reactance
 Does not result in work or heat dissipation
K. Webb ENGR 202
 RMS Phasors
19

 Up to this point:
 Phasor magnitude has been peak amplitude

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 ↔ 𝐕𝐕 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 ∠𝜙𝜙

 For AC power systems:

 Phasor magnitude is the RMS value

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 ↔ 𝐕𝐕 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝜙𝜙

 Simplifies calculation of AC power quantities

K. Webb ENGR 202

20 Complex Power

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Complex Power
21

 Complex power is defined as the product of the rms voltage phasor

and conjugate rms current phasor

𝑺𝑺 = 𝑽𝑽𝑰𝑰∗

where the voltage has phase angle 𝛿𝛿

𝑽𝑽 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝛿𝛿
and the current has phase angle 𝛽𝛽
𝑰𝑰 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝛽𝛽 → 𝑰𝑰∗ = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠ − 𝛽𝛽
 The complex power is
𝑺𝑺 = 𝑽𝑽𝑰𝑰∗ = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝛿𝛿 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠ − 𝛽𝛽
𝑺𝑺 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠ 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Complex Power
22

 Complex power has units of volts-amperes (VA)

 The magnitude of complex power is apparent
power
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
 Apparent power also has units of volts-amperes
 Complex power is the vector sum of real power (in
phase with 𝑽𝑽) and reactive power (±90° out of
phase with 𝑽𝑽)
𝑺𝑺 = 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Complex Power
23

 Real power can be expressed in terms of complex power

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑺𝑺
or in terms of apparent power
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑆𝑆 ⋅ cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑆𝑆 ⋅ 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓.
 Similarly, reactive power, is the imaginary part of complex power
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑺𝑺
and can also be related to apparent power
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑆𝑆 ⋅ sin 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽
 And, power factor is the ratio between real power and apparent power
𝑃𝑃
𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 =
𝑆𝑆

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Power Convention – Load Convention
24

 Applying a consistent sign convention allows us to easily

determine whether network elements supply or absorb
real and reactive power
 Passive sign convention or load convention
 Positive current defined to enter the positive voltage
terminal of an element

 If 𝑃𝑃 > 0 or 𝑄𝑄 > 0, then real or reactive

power is absorbed by the element
 If 𝑃𝑃 < 0 or 𝑄𝑄 < 0, then real or reactive
power is supplied by the element

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Power Absorbed by Passive Elements
25

 Complex power absorbed by a resistor

𝑉𝑉
𝑺𝑺𝑹𝑹 = 𝑽𝑽𝑰𝑰∗𝑹𝑹 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 ∠ − 𝛿𝛿
𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉 2
𝑺𝑺𝑹𝑹 =
𝑅𝑅
 Positive and purely real
 Resistors absorb real power
 Reactive power is zero
 Complex power absorbed by a capacitor
𝑺𝑺𝑪𝑪 = 𝑽𝑽𝑰𝑰∗𝑪𝑪 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝛿𝛿
𝑺𝑺𝑪𝑪 = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑉𝑉 2
 Negative and purely imaginary
 Capacitors supply reactive power
 Real power is zero
K. Webb ENGR 202
 Power Absorbed by Passive Elements
26

 Complex power absorbed by an inductor

𝑉𝑉
𝑺𝑺𝑳𝑳 = 𝑽𝑽𝑰𝑰∗𝑳𝑳 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 ∠ − 𝛿𝛿
−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑉𝑉 2
𝑺𝑺𝑳𝑳 = 𝑗𝑗
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
 Positive and purely imaginary
 Inductors absorb reactive power
 Real power is zero

 In summary:
 Resistors absorb real power, zero reactive power
 Capacitors supply reactive power, zero real power
 Inductors absorb reactive power, zero real power

K. Webb ENGR 202

27 Example Problems

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Determine:
 Complex, real, and reactive power
delivered to the load
 Voltage across each element
 Power associated with each element
 Power factor

K. Webb ENGR 202

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35 Power Triangle

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 Power Triangle
36

 Complex power is the vector sum of real power (in

phase with 𝑽𝑽) and reactive power (±90° out of phase
with 𝑽𝑽)
𝑺𝑺 = 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
 Complex, real, and reactive powers can be represented
graphically, as a power triangle

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 sin 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 var

𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 W

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 Power Triangle
37

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 sin 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 var

𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 W

 Quickly and graphically provides power information

 Power factor and power factor angle
 Leading or lagging power factor

 Reactive nature of the load – capacitive or inductive

K. Webb ENGR 202

 Lagging Power Factor
38

 For loads with inductive reactance

 Impedance angle is positive
 Power factor angle is positive
 Power factor is lagging

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 sin 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 var

𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 W

 𝑄𝑄 is positive
 The load absorbs reactive power
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 Leading Power Factor
39

 For loads with capacitive reactance

 Impedance angle is negative
 Power factor angle is negative
 Power factor is leading

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 W
𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 sin 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 var

 𝑄𝑄 is negative
 The load supplies reactive power
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40 Power Factor Correction

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 Power Factor Correction
41

 The overall goal of power distribution is to supply power to

do work
 Real power
 Reactive power does not perform work, but
 Must be supplied by the source
 Still flows over the lines
 For a given amount of real power consumed by a load, we’d
like to
 Reduce reactive power, 𝑄𝑄
 Reduce 𝑆𝑆 relative to 𝑃𝑃, that is
 Reduce the p.f. angle, and
 Increase the p.f.
 Power factor correction
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 Power Factor Correction – Example
42

 Consider a source driving an inductive load

 Determine:
 Real power absorbed by the load
 Reactive power absorbed by the load
 p.f. angle and p.f.
 Draw the power triangle
 Current through the resistance is
120 𝑉𝑉
𝑰𝑰𝑹𝑹 = = 40 𝐴𝐴
3Ω
 Current through the inductance is
120 𝑉𝑉
𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳 = = 60∠ − 90° 𝐴𝐴
𝑗𝑗𝑗 Ω
 The total load current is
𝑰𝑰 = 𝑰𝑰𝑹𝑹 + 𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳 = 40 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴 = 72.1∠ − 56.3° 𝐴𝐴
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 Power Factor Correction – Example
43

 The power factor angle is

𝜃𝜃 = 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽 = 0° − −56.3°
𝜃𝜃 = 56.3°
 The power factor is
𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = cos 𝜃𝜃 = cos 56.3°
𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = 0.55 lagging
 Real power absorbed by the load is
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 120 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 72.1 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 0.55
𝑃𝑃 = 4.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Alternatively, recognizing that real power is power absorbed by the
resistance
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 120 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 40 𝐴𝐴 = 4.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

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 Power Factor Correction – Example
44

 Reactive power absorbed by the load is

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 120 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 72.1 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 0.832
𝑄𝑄 = 7.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 This is also the power absorbed by the load inductance
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = 120 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 60 𝐴𝐴 = 7.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Apparent power is
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 120 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 72.1 𝐴𝐴 = 8.65 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Or, alternatively
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑄𝑄2
𝑆𝑆 = 4.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2 + 7.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2 = 8.65 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

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 Power Factor Correction – Example
45

 The power triangle:

 Here, the source is supplying
4.8 kW at a power factor of
0.55 lagging 𝑄𝑄 = 7.2 kvar

 Let’s say we want to reduce 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛽𝛽

the apparent power 𝑃𝑃 = 4.8 kW
supplied by the source
 Deliver 4.8 kW at a p.f. of 0.9 lagging

 Add power factor correction

 Add capacitors to supply reactive power
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 Power Factor Correction – Example
46

 For 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. = 0.9, we need a

power factor angle of
𝜃𝜃′ = cos −1 0.9 = 25.8°

 This corresponds to a reactive power of

𝑄𝑄′ = 𝑃𝑃 tan 𝜃𝜃′ = 4.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ⋅ tan 25.8°
𝑄𝑄′ = 2.32 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 This means that the required reactive power absorbed
(negative, so it is supplied) by the capacitors is
𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 = 2.32 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 7.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = −4.88 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

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 Power Factor Correction – Example
47

 Reactive power absorbed by the capacitor is

𝑉𝑉 2
𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 =
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
 So the required capacitive reactance is
𝑉𝑉 2 120 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = = = −2.95 Ω
𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 −4.88 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 The addition of −𝑗𝑗𝑗.95 Ω provides the desired power factor
correction

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 Power Factor Correction – Example
48

 Before power factor correction, current supplied to the load was

𝐈𝐈 = 72.1∠ − 56.3° 𝐴𝐴

 Current through the added capacitor:

𝐕𝐕 120∠0°
𝐈𝐈𝐂𝐂 = = = 40.7∠90° 𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 −𝑗𝑗𝑗.95 Ω

 After power factor correction, current to the load is

𝐈𝐈 = 𝐈𝐈𝐑𝐑 + 𝐈𝐈𝐋𝐋 + 𝐈𝐈𝐂𝐂 = 40∠0° + 60∠ − 90° + 40.7∠90°
𝐈𝐈 = 44.4∠ − 25.8° 𝐴𝐴

 Power factor correction has reduced current to the load:

72.1 − 44.4
Δ𝐼𝐼 = ⋅ 100% = 38%
72.1

 In practice, losses would be reduced

 𝐼𝐼2 𝑅𝑅 losses in resistances between source and load

K. Webb ENGR 202