INDEX

Chapter No. Contents Page No.

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

2 OVERVIEW OF THE ORGANISATION 2-3

3 INTERNSHIP PART 4 - 21

1 Introduction to VLSI System Design 4-5

2 Combinational Logic Design 6

3 Sequential Logic Design 7

4 Synchronous Logic Design 8

5 Asynchronous Logic Design 9

6 Latches & Flip Flops (Memory Elements) 10

7 Design of CPLDs (PLA, PAL, PROM) 11 - 12

Advanced Digital Design - Memory Device (RAM,

8 13
ROM, SRAM, DRAM)

9 VLSI System Design Flow 14 - 15

10 Mealy Machine 16

11 UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter) 17

12 APB Master 18

13 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) 19

14 SDA & SCL (Serial Data Line & Serial Clock Line) 20

15 SPI Protocol 21-22

4 OUTCOME DESCRIPTION 23

5 CONCLUSION 24

6 REFERENCES 25
 CHAPTER 1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

OBJECTIVES

 Understand basic concept of VLSI.

 Get to know about Combinational, Sequential logic design.
 Learn about Synchronous logic design.
 Get to know about Latches and flip flops.
 To get technical knowledge about vivado software.
 Get to know about Verilog and VHDL coding of different vlsi concepts.
 Role of VLSI designing in day to day life.

GOALS

 Knowing practical knowledge about VLSI designing.

 Works well with others
 Gain essential background knowledge.
 Improve technical skills.
 Develop research skills.
 Improve coding skills in Verilog.
 Increase the capability for solving the problems.
 Knowledge of professional journals and newsletters.
 Knowledge of key professional.
 Improve professional ethics and values.
 CHAPTER 2
OVERVIEW OF THE ORGANISATION
ABOUT THE COMPANY:

Contents:

 Introduction of the Organization

 Organizational Structure
 Roles and responsibilities of the employees in which the intern is placed.
 Performance of the Organization in terms of turnover, profits, market reach .

 Introduction of the Organization

Skilldzire Technologies Private Limited is an unlisted private company incorporated on

16 October, 2020. It is classified as a private limited company and is located in Ranga
Reddi, Telangana. Its authorized share capital is INR 1.00 lac and the total paid-up capital is
INR 1.00 lac.

 Organizational Structure:
SCRWWO operates within the broader framework of South Central Railways but
has its own distinct organizational structure. The leadership team comprises individuals with
expertise in women's welfare, social development, and railway operations. Various
departments focus on specific aspects such as health, education, empowerment, and
community engagement. This structured approach ensures that SCRWWO can effectively
 address the diverse needs of its stakeholders.

SkillDzire is a sought-after real time learning platform that bridges the gap between
industry experts and students. It offers a plethora of advanced courses,specifically
designed to meet various industry’s standards.
With the help of industry experts, the brand has curated a host of Technical and Non-
technical courses like:

 Electrical Online Course

 Mechanical Online
 Course Civil Online Course
 Cyber security
 Medical Terminology Strategic
 HR Management
 Digital Marketing Investment Banking
 Unlike other e-learning platforms, SkillDzire focuses on imbibing interactive features
in its courses to help students grasp knowledge at a cellular level. By offering
Online LiveSessions, grooming sessions, Technical Quizzes, VirtualIndustry Visits,
Doubt Checking, etc., the brand aims at holistically priming students for success.

 Future Plans of the Organization.

The future plans of the SkillDzire organization are to develop the
company to outreach the present scale of operation to provide the
students valuable internships and to increase thecourses available with
them to provide students with internships.

 Performance of the Organization in terms of turnover, profits,

market reach and market value.
The market capital of SkillDzire Company Private Limited isRs. 1 lakh. Authorized
capital and paid-up capital are also 1 lakh each. The company registered as a limited company
with shares and a non-governmental company as sub-category. The type of company is
unlistedcompany.
 CHAPTER 3
INTERNSHIP PART

1. INTRODUCTION TO VLSI SYSTEM DESIGN

Topics Covered: Basics of VLSI Technology, Evolution of VLSI, Significance in Modern

Electronics

Description:
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology forms the foundation of modern electronic
systems, enabling the integration of thousands to billions of transistors onto a single chip. At its
core, VLSI involves the fabrication of complex semiconductor devices and circuits on a
microscopic scale, typically using techniques such as photolithography, etching, and doping.
These tiny transistors and interconnects are meticulously arranged to create integrated circuits
(ICs) with diverse functionalities, ranging from microprocessors and memory chips to sensors
and communication modules. VLSI technology encompasses various design and manufacturing
aspects, including semiconductor materials, device physics, circuit design, and layout
optimization.

The evolution of VLSI technology has been characterized by continuous innovation and
miniaturization, driven by Moore's Law and relentless engineering efforts. Initially, VLSI chips
contained only a few hundred transistors, primarily used in early computing and control
applications. However, advancements in semiconductor manufacturing processes, such as
photolithography, doping techniques, and material science, have enabled the fabrication of
increasingly complex and compact ICs. Over the decades, the number of transistors per chip has
grown exponentially, leading to the development of powerful microprocessors, memory chips
with higher storage capacities, and specialized integrated circuits for diverse applications,
including artificial intelligence, wireless communication, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices.

The significance of VLSI technology in modern electronics cannot be overstated, as it underpins

virtually every aspect of contemporary digital systems and electronic devices. VLSI advancements
have revolutionized computing, enabling the development of faster, more energy-efficient
processors that drive the performance of smartphones, computers, and servers. Moreover, VLSI
plays a critical role in enabling compact and power-efficient electronic devices, ranging from
wearable gadgets and consumer electronics to automotive electronics and medical implants. As
technology continues to evolve, VLSI innovations will continue to drive progress in electronics,
ushering in new opportunities for connectivity, automation, and digital transformation across
industries.
2. COMBINATIONAL LOGIC DESIGN

Topics Covered: Logic Gates, Boolean Algebra, Combinational Circuits

Description:
Logic gates, Boolean algebra, and combinational circuits are foundational concepts in digital
electronics, forming the building blocks of complex digital systems. Logic gates are fundamental
electronic devices that perform logical operations on one or more binary inputs to produce a single
binary output based on predefined truth tables. Common logic gates include AND, OR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, and XOR gates, each with its unique behavior and functionality. Boolean algebra, developed
by George Boole in the mid-19th century, provides a mathematical framework for representing and
manipulating logical expressions using binary variables and operators such as AND, OR, and NOT.
This algebraic approach allows engineers and designers to analyze, simplify, and optimize complex
logic circuits, making it an indispensable tool in digital system design.

Combinational circuits are digital circuits where the output depends solely on the current input values,
without any internal state or memory elements. These circuits are constructed using combinations of
logic gates and perform specific logical functions based on the input signals. Combinational circuits
are widely used in digital systems for tasks such as arithmetic operations, data encoding and decoding,
multiplexing, and demultiplexing. The design of combinational circuits involves defining the desired
functionality, selecting appropriate logic gates, and optimizing the circuit to meet performance, area,
and power constraints. Boolean algebra serves as a powerful tool in the design and analysis of
combinational circuits, enabling engineers to express complex logic functions concisely and
systematically.

The implementation of combinational circuits plays a crucial role in various applications, including
computer architecture, communication systems, digital signal processing, and control systems. In
computer architecture, combinational circuits are used to perform arithmetic and logic operations in
the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and to decode instructions in the instruction decoder.
3. SEQUENTIAL LOGIC DESIGN

Topics Covered: Flip-Flops, Registers, Counters, Finite-State Machines

Description:
Flip-flops, registers, counters, and finite-state machines are essential components in digital electronics,
playing critical roles in storing, processing, and controlling digital information. Flip-flops are bistable
multivibrator circuits that store a single bit of data, retaining their state until changed by an external
signal. They form the foundation of sequential logic circuits, providing memory elements that enable
the storage of information over time. Registers are collections of flip-flops used to store binary data
temporarily, typically organized into groups of bits corresponding to data widths. Registers are
commonly used for data storage, data transfer between digital circuits, and holding intermediate results
during computation. They are essential components in microprocessors, digital signal processors, and
other digital systems where data processing and manipulation are required.

Counters are sequential logic circuits that generate a sequence of binary numbers in response to clock
pulses. They are composed of flip-flops and combinational logic elements, with each flip-flop
representing a binary digit (bit) of the counter's output. Counters are used in various applications such
as frequency dividers, time delay circuits, and event counters. They are also integral components in
digital clocks, timers, and sequential control systems where the generation and manipulation of digital
sequences are necessary. Finite-state machines (FSMs) are mathematical models used to describe the
behavior of sequential logic circuits. They consist of a set of states, transitions between states, and
input/output symbols. FSMs can be implemented using combinational and sequential logic elements,
with flip-flops used to store the current state of the machine. FSMs find applications in digital control
systems, protocol implementations, pattern recognition, and digital signal processing, providing a
systematic approach to modeling and designing complex sequential systems.
4. SYNCHRONOUS LOGIC DESIGN

Topics Covered: Synchronous Sequential Circuits, Clocked Systems, Clock Domain Crossing,
Synchronization Techniques

Description:

Synchronous Design
Synchronous design is a critical FPGA design implementation method. Synchronous design can be
used to develop stable, reliable FPGA designs that are efficient to implement, test, debug and
maintain. Some of the benefits that can be realized using synchronous design include:
Synchronous Design Advantages
1. Simplification of timing simulation, static timing analysis and constraints
2. Increased isolation of internal FPGA functionality from external board-level timing issue
3. Reduced impacts associated with FPGA component process changes (for example, 0.13 μm
to 90 nm transition)
4. Simplified design reuse
Figure illustrates the concept of synchronous design. Notice the consistent use of registers on all
signals into and out of the design. Synchronous design is the preferred design capture methodology
for the majority of FPGA designs. This example assumes that the same clock is provided to both the
board-level circuits and the FPGA. If different clocks are used, it may be necessary to synchronize
at the clock domain interfaces. This interfacing function is often implemented with two or more
successive flip-flops clocked with the frequency of the clock domain the signals are transitioning
into.

The following checklist provides some guidelines to keep in mind when implementing synchronous
design.
Synchronous Design Checklist
1. Never use gated clocks (avoid derived or divided clocks)
2. Use low-skew global clock resources effectively
3. Use clock enables rather than generating additional clocks
4. Use clock blocks to generate stable phase-controlled clocks
5. Use dedicated clock blocks and routing to minimize skew
6. Avoid gated asynchronous sets/resets
7. Register asynchronous inputs to avoid race conditions
8. Partition hierarchy into structural blocks defined by functionality (this supports simplified
timing constraints and timing analysis)
9. Partition lower-level hierarchical blocks based on clock and function to support local
synthesis optimization techniques
 5. ASYNCHRONOUS LOGIC DESIGN
Topics Covered: Asynchronous Sequential Circuits, Hazard Detection, Race Conditions,
Handshaking Protocols, State Encoding Techniques

Description
Asynchronous design
Virtually all digital design today is based on a synchronous approach. The total system is
designed as the composition of one or more subsystems where each subsystem is a clocked finite
state machine; the subsystem changes from one state to the next on the edges of a regular clock. The
state is held in a set of flip-flops (registers), and combinatorial logic is used to derive the new state
and outputs from the old state and inputs. The new state is copied through the flip-flops on every
rising edge of the clock signal. Special techniques are required whenever a signal crosses into the
domain of a particular clock (either from outside the system or from the domain of a different clock
within the same system), but otherwise the system behaves in a discrete and deterministic way
provided a few rules are followed; these rules include managing the delays of the combinatorial logic
so that the flip-flop set up and hold times are met under all conditions.
Asynchronous design does not follow this methodology; in general there is no clock to govern the
timing of state changes. Subsystems exchange information at mutually negotiated times with no
external timing regulation.
In the beginning
Early digital computers embodied a variety of design styles. Though most designs were based on a
central timing generator which kept all the functions of the machine in lock-step, there were some
examples of asynchronous machines. Examples in the USA include the ORDVAC built at the
University of Illinois and the IAS built by John von Neumann's group at the Institute for Advanced
Study at Princeton University. Both these machines were first operational in 1951-52 and operated
without any central clock. The pioneering British teams preferred the synchronous approach, though
later the MU5 built at Manchester University between 1969 and 1974 used asynchronous control.
Ruled by the clock
For the last two decades asynchronous design has all but disappeared from sight. The clocked
approach has led to dramatic progress in the architectures of machines and in the productivity of
designers. When all the state in a design changes at the same time, verifying the design becomes a
matter of checking the delays in the combinatorial logic functions between the registers. This is a
straightforward process compared with validating an asynchronous circuit, where the design must be
examined in very fine detail for critical races and unstable states, and then the higher levels checked
for liveness and similar properties.
As synchronous techniques have improved, tools have been developed which automate most of the
design processes. The design of a complete chip can now be synthesized from a high level
behavioural description with minimal manual intervention. Synchronous design is at the top of the
learning curve and seems set to continue its domination of digital systems for the forseeable future.
Clock limitations
Though synchronous design has enabled great strides to be taken in the design and performance of
computers, there is evidence that it is beginning to hit some fundamental limitations. A circuit can
only operate synchronously if all parts of it see the clock at the same time, at least to a reasonable
approximation. However clocks are electrical signals, and when they propagate down wires they are
subject to the same delays as other signals. If the delay to particular part of the circuit takes a
significant part of a clock cycle-time, that part of the circuit cannot be viewed as being in step with
other parts.
For some time now it has been difficult to sustain the synchronous framework from chip to chip at
maximum clock rates. On-chip phase-locked loops help compensate for chip-to-chip tolerances, but
above about 50MHz even this isn't enough.
6. LATCHES & FLIP FLOPS (MEMORY
Topics Covered: Principles of Latches and Flip-Flops, Operation, Timing Characteristics,
Typesof Latches and Flip-Flops (D, JK, T), Applications in Digital Circuits

Description:
Latches and flip-flops are fundamental building blocks in digital electronics, crucial for storing and
synchronizing data in various applications. Latches are simpler memory elements that can store data
temporarily, while flip-flops are more sophisticated, offering clocked operation and stable output. The
basic types of latches include SR (Set-Reset), D (Data or Delay), JK, and T (Toggle) latches. Each type has
its unique characteristics and applications. SR latches, for instance, have two inputs (S and R) and can be
in one of two stable states, making them useful for memory storage and basic sequential circuits. D
latches, on the other hand, are controlled by a single input (D) and are commonly used in synchronous
systems for data storage and delay applications.

Flip-flops, on the other hand, are more advanced memory elements that include additional features like
clocked operation and edge-triggering. The most common types of flip-flops are D, JK, T, and RS flip-flops.
D flip-flops, like their latch counterparts, store a single bit of data and are widely used in digital systems
for synchronization and data storage. JK flip-flops are versatile, offering functionalities beyond those of
SR flip-flops by eliminating the ambiguous state present in SR flip-flops. T flip-flops, or toggle flip-flops,
are used in counters and frequency dividers due to their ability to toggle their output state based on the
clock signal.

In digital circuit design, selecting the appropriate latch or flip-flop type is crucial to ensure proper
functionality and performance. Factors such as speed, power consumption, setup time, and hold time
must be considered when choosing between latches and flip-flops for a given application. Additionally,
the choice between asynchronous and synchronous operation depends on the specific requirements of
the system. While latches offer simplicity and are suitable for certain applications where timing is less
critical, flip-flops provide more precise control over data storage and synchronization, making them
indispensable in complex digital systems such as microprocessors, memory units, and communication
devices.
 7. DESIGN OF CPLDS (PLA, PAL, PPROM)

Topics Covered: Programmable Logic Arrays (PLAs), Programmable Array Logic (PAL),
Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM), Architectures, Programming Methods,
Applicationsin Digital Design

Description:
Programmable Logic Arrays (PLAs), Programmable Array Logic (PAL), and Programmable Read-Only
Memory (PROM) are essential components in digital design, offering flexibility and reconfigurability in
designing complex logic circuits. PLAs are integrated circuits that contain an array of programmable AND
and OR gates, allowing designers to implement custom logic functions. This architecture enables the
realization of a wide range of digital functions by programming the interconnections between the inputs,
outputs, and internal logic elements. PAL devices, similar to PLAs, consist of an array of programmable
AND gates followed by fixed OR gates, simplifying the implementation of combinatorial logic functions.
These devices are programmed by selectively connecting or disconnecting internal fuses or antifuses,
altering the logic behavior of the circuit.
Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) devices offer a different approach to programmable logic,
providing configurable memory elements that can be programmed to store custom logic functions.
PROMs utilize a matrix of fusible links or antifuses, which are selectively blown or connected during
programming to establish the desired logic configuration. Once programmed, PROMs retain their
configuration permanently or until they are erased using specialized equipment. This flexibility makes
PROMs suitable for applications where the logic functions may need to be updated infrequently or
remain fixed for an extended period.In digital design, PLAs, PALs, and PROMs find applications across
various domains, including logic synthesis, prototyping, and embedded systems development. These
programmable devices offer designers the flexibility to rapidly iterate on designs, optimize logic
functions, and accommodate changes in requirements without the need for custom fabrication. They
are commonly used in applications such as microcontroller peripherals, field- programmable gate
arrays (FPGAs), control systems, and signal processing circuits, where custom logic implementations
are necessary to meet specific performance, size, or power constraints. Additionally, these
programmable architectures serve as educational tools for teaching digital logic design concepts and
facilitating hands-on experimentation with logic circuits.
8. ADVANCED DIGITAL DESIGN - MEMORY DEVICE (RAM, ROM, SRAM, DRAM)
Topics Covered: Random Access Memory (RAM), Read-Only Memory (ROM), Static Random Access Memory
(SRAM), Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM), Principles of Operation, Architectures, Applications,
Advanced Memory Technologies, Emerging Trends

Description:
Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read-Only Memory (ROM) are fundamental types of memory
used in digital systems, each with unique characteristics and applications. RAM is a type of volatile
memory that allows data to be read from or written to randomly, enabling fast access to stored
information. It is commonly used as the main memory in computers and other digital devices, providing
temporary storage for executing programs and storing data during operation. ROM, on the other hand,
is non-volatile memory that retains its contents even when power is turned off. It is pre-programmed
during manufacturing and typically contains firmware, boot loaders, and other essential software
required for system initialization and operation.

Within the realm of RAM, there are two primary types: Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) and
Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM). SRAM stores data using flip-flops, which retain their
state as long as power is supplied, offering fast access times and low power consumption. It is
commonly used in cache memory, register files, and other high-speed memory applications where
speed and low latency are critical. DRAM, on the other hand, utilizes capacitors to store data and
requires periodic refresh cycles to maintain its contents. While DRAM offers higher storage densities
and lower cost per bit compared to SRAM, it typically has longer access times and higher power
consumption, making it suitable for main memory in computers and other memory-intensive
applications.

Advanced memory technologies such as Flash memory, Phase Change Memory (PCM), and
Magnetoresistive Random-Access Memory (MRAM) are emerging as alternatives to traditional RAM
and ROM technologies, offering advantages such as non-volatility, faster access times, and higher
endurance. Flash memory, for instance, is widely used in solid-state drives (SSDs), USB flash drives,
and memory cards due to its high storage density and non-volatile nature. PCM and MRAM are
promising technologies that combine the speed of SRAM with the non-volatility of ROM, making
them suitable for a wide range of applications, including embedded systems, IoT devices, and high-
performance computing. As the demand for faster, more reliable, and energy-efficient memory
solutions continues to grow, these advanced memory technologies are expected to play a significant
role in shaping the future of digital systems and computing.
9. VLSI SYSTEM DESIGN FLOW
Topics Covered: Design Methodologies, Design Abstraction Levels, Design Flow Stages,
Verification and Validation

Description:
Design methodologies in digital electronics encompass a range of systematic approaches used to
develop complex digital systems efficiently and reliably. These methodologies provide structured
frameworks for designers to follow, guiding them through the process of specification, design,
implementation, and verification. Design methodologies can vary widely depending on the specific
requirements of the project, the complexity of the system, and the available design tools and resources.
Common methodologies include top-down design, bottom-up design, and iterative design, each with
its strengths and weaknesses. Top-down design starts with a high-level system specification and
progressively refines it into detailed design specifications, while bottom-up design begins with
individual components and assembles them into a larger system. Iterative design involves repeated
cycles of refinement and testing to achieve the desired functionality and performance.

Design abstraction levels provide a means of managing the complexity of digital system design by
dividing the system into distinct layers or levels of abstraction. These levels range from the highest
level of abstraction, which focuses on system architecture and functionality, down to the lowest level
of abstraction, which deals with the physical implementation details of individual components.
Common abstraction levels include system-level design, behavioral design, register-transfer level
(RTL) design, gate-level design, and physical design. Each abstraction level allows designers to focus
on different aspects of the system while hiding unnecessary details, facilitating modular design, and
enabling design reuse.

The design flow stages represent the sequential steps involved in the design, implementation, and
verification of digital systems. These stages typically include specification, architectural design, RTL
design, synthesis, verification, and validation. During the specification stage, the requirements and

constraints of the system are defined, guiding subsequent design decisions. The architectural design
stage involves defining the high-level structure and functionality of the system, while RTL design
focuses on specifying the behavior of individual components using hardware description languages
(HDLs) such as Verilog or VHDL. Synthesis transforms the RTL description into a netlist of logical
gates and interconnections, which can be further optimized for area, power, and timing. Verification
and validation ensure that the implemented design meets the specified requirements and behaves
correctly under various operating conditions, involving techniques such as simulation, formal
verification, and hardware testing.
 10. MEALY MACHINE
Topics Covered: Mealy Machine Operation, State Transition Diagrams, Output Generation

Description:
Mealy machines, a type of finite state machine, are pivotal in digital circuitry and automata theory due
to their dynamic output generation based on both current states and inputs. Unlike Moore machines
that rely solely on states for output, Mealy machines offer a more flexible approach, making them
suitable for various applications such as protocol modeling, traffic light control, and data processing.
In Mealy machines, the transition between states is determined not only by the current state but also
by the input signal, leading to a more responsive and adaptable behavior.

Visualizing the behavior of Mealy machines often involves state transition diagrams, which graphically
represent the machine's states, transitions, and output generation. Each state is depicted as a node, with
transitions represented by directed edges labeled with the input condition and the corresponding output
action. State transition diagrams serve as a valuable tool for designers and engineers to comprehend
the machine's operation, aiding in the analysis, verification, and optimization of complex systems.
Through these diagrams, designers can anticipate the sequence of states and outputs generated in
response to specific input sequences, ensuring the Mealy machine functions accurately and efficiently
in practical scenarios.
11. UART (UNIVERSAL ASYNCHRONOUS RECEIVER-

Topics Covered: UART Operation, Framing, Baud Rate Generation, Error Detection

Description:
Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter (UART) is a fundamental component in serial
communication, widely employed in microcontrollers, embedded systems, and communication
interfaces. Its operation entails transmitting and receiving data asynchronously, without requiring a
shared clock signal between the sender and receiver. The UART communication process begins with
framing, where data is encapsulated within distinct frames comprising start and stop bits, ensuring
synchronization between the sender and receiver. Typically, a UART frame consists of a start bit,
followed by the data bits (usually 7 or 8), an optional parity bit for error detection, and one or more
stop bits, collectively forming a structured unit of information transmission.

The baud rate, or signaling rate, dictates the speed at which data is transmitted and received in UART
communication. Baud rate generation is crucial in maintaining communication integrity, as both the
transmitter and receiver must operate at the same baud rate to correctly interpret the transmitted data.
Baud rate generation involves configuring the UART's clock source and divider settings to achieve the
desired transmission speed. Precise baud rate generation ensures reliable data transfer and
synchronization between devices, preventing data loss or corruption due to timing discrepancies.

Error detection mechanisms play a vital role in ensuring the accuracy and integrity of data transmitted
via UART. Common error detection techniques include parity checking and cyclic redundancy check
(CRC), which enable the receiver to identify and flag any discrepancies or corruption in the received
data. Parity checking involves appending an additional parity bit to each transmitted byte, with the
receiver verifying the parity to detect transmission errors. Similarly, CRC involves computing a
checksum based on the transmitted data, which the receiver can compare against its own computed
checksum to detect any data corruption during transmission. These error detection mechanisms
enhance the reliability of UART communication, enabling robust data exchange in various
applications.
 12. APB MASTER
Topics Covered: APB Operation Principles, Bus Protocols, Timing Diagrams, Transaction Types

Description:
The Advanced Peripheral Bus (APB) is a widely used bus architecture in System-on-Chip (SoC)
designs, particularly in ARM-based systems. Its operation principles revolve around efficient
communication between the CPU and peripheral devices, facilitating data transfer and control signals.
APB employs a master-slave configuration, where the CPU acts as the master, initiating transactions
with peripheral devices functioning as slaves. This architecture ensures a streamlined flow of data and
commands, optimizing system performance and resource utilization.

Bus protocols govern the communication between the master and slave devices on the APB bus. The
APB protocol defines the rules and procedures for initiating, transferring, and completing transactions
between the CPU and peripherals. It encompasses aspects such as address decoding, data transfer
formats, and timing requirements to ensure reliable and synchronized communication. By adhering to
the APB protocol, designers can maintain compatibility and interoperability among different
components within the SoC, fostering seamless integration and functionality.

Timing diagrams provide a visual representation of the timing characteristics and signal transitions
during APB transactions. These diagrams illustrate the sequence of events, such as address assertion,
data transfer, and acknowledgment signals, occurring within a transaction cycle. Timing diagrams play
a crucial role in system verification, enabling designers to validate the timing constraints and ensure
proper synchronization between the master and slave devices. Understanding the timing diagrams
allows engineers to optimize system performance, minimize latency, and troubleshoot any potential
issues related to signal timing or protocol violations. Additionally, various transaction types, such as
read, write, and burst transactions, are depicted in timing diagrams, providing insights into the different
modes of data transfer supported by the APB bus architecture.
13. ALU (ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT)
Topics Covered: ALU Architecture, Instruction Set Design, Arithmetic and Logic Operations

Description:
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) serves as the computational heart of a CPU, responsible for
performing arithmetic and logic operations on binary data. ALU architecture typically consists of
various functional units, including adders, subtractors, shifters, and logic gates, interconnected to
execute a wide range of operations efficiently. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) design heavily
influences ALU architecture, as it defines the set of instructions a CPU can execute and the operands
used for these operations. The design of an ALU must accommodate the instructions specified in the
ISA, ensuring compatibility and efficient execution of arithmetic and logic operations.

Instruction set design plays a crucial role in determining the functionality and performance of the ALU
within a CPU. It involves selecting a suitable set of instructions that strike a balance between versatility
and efficiency, considering factors such as computational complexity, hardware resources, and
programming convenience. The instruction set typically includes operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, bitwise AND, OR, XOR, and shift operations. These instructions
are encoded into binary machine language and decoded by the CPU to control the ALU's operation,
orchestrating the flow of data and instructions within the processor.

Arithmetic and logic operations form the core functions of the ALU, enabling it to perform
fundamental mathematical calculations and logical evaluations. Arithmetic operations involve
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, allowing the ALU to manipulate numerical data and
perform computations. Logic operations, on the other hand, include bitwise AND, OR, XOR, and shift
operations, enabling the ALU to manipulate binary data and perform logical comparisons. Through a
combination of arithmetic and logic operations, the ALU executes instructions fetched from memory,
transforming input data into the desired output, thereby enabling the CPU to execute complex
algorithms and programs.
 14. SDA & SCL (SERIAL DATA LINE & SERIAL CLOCK LINE)

Topics Covered: Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C) Communication Protocol, Bus Arbitration,Addressing,

Data Transfer Protocols

Description:
The Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C) communication protocol is a widely used serial communication
standard for interconnecting integrated circuits in embedded systems, consumer electronics, and
various other applications. At its core, I2C facilitates bidirectional data transfer between multiple
devices over a shared bus, utilizing a master-slave architecture. Bus arbitration is a key aspect of I2C
protocol, ensuring orderly communication when multiple devices attempt to access the bus
simultaneously. In I2C, the bus is controlled by one or more master devices that initiate and coordinate
communication with one or more slave devices. Bus arbitration mechanisms, such as clock stretching
and arbitration protocols, enable the master device to manage bus access and resolve conflicts, ensuring
efficient and conflict-free communication between devices.

Addressing is another essential aspect of the I2C protocol, allowing devices on the bus to be uniquely
identified and addressed during communication. Each I2C device is assigned a unique 7-bit or 10-bit
address, enabling the master device to select and communicate with specific slave devices on the bus.
Addressing in I2C can be static or dynamic, depending on the configuration and requirements of the
system. Static addressing involves assigning fixed addresses to each device, while dynamic addressing
allows devices to be assigned addresses dynamically, facilitating plug-and-play functionality and
device enumeration in larger systems.
Data transfer protocols in I2C dictate the format and timing of data transmission between master and
slave devices on the bus. I2C supports both simple and multi-byte data transfers, with each transaction
consisting of address bytes, data bytes, and optional control bytes. Start and stop conditions are used
to initiate and terminate data transfer sessions, while acknowledgment signals indicate successful
receipt of data by the receiving device. Furthermore, I2C supports various data transfer modes,
including standard mode (up to 100 kbit/s), fast mode (up to 400 kbit/s), and high-speed mode (up to
3.4 Mbit/s), providing flexibility and scalability for different applications and performance
requirements.
 15. SPI PROTOCOL

Topics Covered:
1. Introduction to SPI Protocol
2. Basic Working of SPI
3. Key Components of SPI Communication
4. SPI Modes and Clock Polarity
5. Data Transmission in SPI
6. Advantages and Disadvantages of SPI
7. Applications of SPI
1.Introduction to SPI Protocol
The Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) protocol is a synchronous serial
communication protocol primarily used for short-distance communication in
embedded systems. It allows for fast data exchange between a master device and
one or more peripheral devices, commonly used in microcontrollers, sensors,
and memory devices.
2. Basic Working of SPI
SPI operates using a master-slave architecture where one master device controls
multiple slave devices. The master generates the clock signal, which
synchronizes the data exchange. Each device is connected via dedicated lines for
data, clock, and a slave select signal, which the master uses to activate specific
devices as needed.
3. Key Components of SPI Communication
SPI communication uses four main lines:
 MOSI (Master Out Slave In): The line used to send data from the master
to the slave.
 MISO (Master In Slave Out): The line through which the slave sends data
back to the master.
 SCLK (Serial Clock): The clock signal generated by the master to
synchronize data transmission.
 SS (Slave Select): A line used by the master to select a specific slave for
communication, ensuring that only one slave is active at a time.
4. SPI Modes and Clock Polarity
SPI has four modes based on clock polarity (CPOL) and clock phase (CPHA).
These settings determine the behavior of the clock and the timing of data capture
and transmission, offering flexibility in communication with different devices.
The four modes provide options for adjusting when data is sampled and
transmitted, either on the rising or falling edge of the clock signal.
5. Data Transmission in SPI
SPI is a full-duplex protocol, allowing data to be sent and received
simultaneously. Data is transmitted in a continuous stream of bits, with each bit
synchronized by the clock. The master controls the speed of data transfer by
adjusting the clock frequency, which can be customized based on device
requirements.
6. Advantages and Disadvantages of SPI
Advantages of SPI include high-speed communication, simplicity in
implementation, and support for full-duplex data transfer. However, SPI’s
disadvantages include the need for multiple slave select lines, which can
increase wiring complexity, especially in systems with many devices. SPI also
lacks error-checking mechanisms, which can limit reliability in certain
applications.
7. Applications of SPI
SPI is widely used in systems where high-speed communication is essential, such
as memory modules (e.g., EEPROM, flash memory), display screens, and sensors.
It is ideal for use in embedded systems and consumer electronics due to its fast
data transfer rate and flexibility with multiple slave devices.
 CHAPTER 4
OUTCOME DESCRIPTION
SkillDzire's VLSI internship program is designed to offer a comprehensive learning
experience in the field of Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI). Through a structured
curriculum, participants will engage in hands-on activities and projects aimed at
developing their skills in various aspects of VLSI design and verification.

Interns will delve into RTL (Register Transfer Level) coding, where they will learn to
describe digital circuits using hardware description languages such as Verilog and VHDL.
They will gain proficiency in designing and implementing digital circuits at the register
transfer level, laying the foundation for more complex design tasks.

Verification methodologies are another crucial aspect of the internship curriculum.

Participants will learn about industry-standard verification techniques such as simulation,
formal verification, and hardware emulation. They will apply these methodologies to
verify the correctness and functionality of their digital designs, ensuring they meet the
specified requirements and standards.

Synthesis is a key step in the VLSI design flow, where the RTL code is transformed into
a gate-level netlist. Interns will gain hands-on experience with synthesis tools and
techniques, learning how to optimize their designs for area, power, and performance.

Physical design involves the layout and placement of transistors and interconnects to meet
timing and other design constraints. Interns will explore physical design concepts such as
floorplanning, placement, routing, and design for manufacturability (DFM). They will use
industry-standard tools to implement their designs at the physical level, gaining insight
into the challenges and considerations involved in designing for modern semiconductor
technologies.

By the end of the internship program, participants will have acquired a deep understanding
of VLSI concepts and methodologies, as well as practical experience with industry-
standard tools and workflows. They will be well-equipped to pursue careers in the
semiconductor industry, whether in design, verification, or related fields
 CHAPTER 5:
CONCULSION

In conclusion, the VLSI System Design course offers a comprehensive and

immersive exploration of various aspects crucial to designing complex integrated
circuits. Participants dive into the intricacies of combinational and sequential logic
design, asynchronous and synchronous logic design, memory elements such as latches
and flip-flops, and advanced digital design concepts like RAM, ROM, SRAM, and
DRAM. Through hands-on projects and practical exercises, participants not only deepen
their theoretical understanding but also build practical skills in analysing, designing, and
optimizing digital circuits for diverse applications in industries like telecommunications,
consumer electronics, automotive, and aerospace. The interdisciplinary nature of the
program, coupled with a focus on memory elements and programmable devices, equips
participants with the tools to navigate the complexities of semiconductor technology
confidently and innovate in the realm of electronic design. With a solid foundation in
VLSI design principles, participants are empowered to address the challenges of modern
electronic systems with clarity and proficiency, driving forward innovative solutions and
advancements in the field.

FUTURE SCOPE::
1. Understanding The VLSI System Design Flow Is Crucial For Navigating The
Complex Landscape Of Semiconductor Design Effectively, With Participants
Gaining Insights Into Design Methodologies, Abstraction Levels, Design Flow
Stages, And Verification And Validation Processes

2. Week 6 Delves into Latches And Flip-flops, Providing Participants With A

Comprehensive Understanding Of These Memory Elements' Principles, Operation,
Timing Characteristics, And Applications In Digital Circuits, Empowering Them
To Design Efficient And Reliable Memory Structures For Complex VLSI Systems

3. Participants Immerse In Hands-on Exercises And Design Projects Throughout The

Course, Equipping Them With Practical Skills To Analyze, Design, And Optimize
Digital Circuits For Various Applications In Industries Like Telecommunications,
Consumer Electronics, Automotive, And Aerospace, Setting The Stage For Real-
world Application Of Vlsi Technology
 CHAPTER 6
REFERENCES

1. https://www.wikipedia.org/
2. https://educationalgames.nobelprize.org/educational/physics/integrat
ed_circuit/history/index.html.
3. https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/first-commercial-
mos-ic-
introduced/#:~:text=General%20Microelectronics%20introduced
%20the%20first,for%20Victor%20Comptometer%20in%201965.
4.Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology".
Scientific American. 229 (2): 48–59.
Bibcode:1973SciAm.229b..48H.
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR
24923169.
5. Jain, B. K. (August 2009). Digital Electronics - A Modern Approach
by B KJain. ISBN 9788182202153. Retrieved 2 May 2017.
6. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/vlsi_design/index.htm