R-FMA 110

Fundamental Mathematics

R-FMA 110
 DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING

FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS
YEAR 1
R-FMA 110

Level 5
Credit 14

CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE

Copyright ¤ SANTS Private Higher Education Institution Pty. Ltd.

PO Box 72328, Lynnwood Ridge, 0040

2020

¤ All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of research, criticism or
review as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part of this book may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying and recording, without permission in writing from SANTS.
FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE

2020 Edition

Programme coordinator Prof Ina Joubert

SANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Discipline coordinator Mrs Linda le Hanie

SANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Author(s) Dr Judah P. Makonye

University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

Mrs Mariaan Bouwer

SANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Mrs Linda le Hanie

University of Pretoria

Reviewer Dr Tony Mays

University of Pretoria, Unit for Distance Education

Language editor Mr Anton Ferreira

Copywriting & Editing Service

Technical editor Mrs Judith Brown

SANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Graphic artist N/A

Printing BusinessPrint

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FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE

DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING PROGRAMME

1. WELCOME TO THE MODULE
Dear SANTS student,

We welcome you to the Fundamental Mathematics (R-FMA 110) module that forms part
of the Diploma in Grade R Teaching programme and wish you success in your studies.

The purpose of the Diploma in the Grade R Teaching programme is to offer a curriculum
that develops teachers who can acquire and eventually articulate focused knowledge,
skills and general principles appropriate for Grade R teaching, as specified in the Revised
Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (Department
of Higher Education and Training, 2015).

The diploma qualification requires that teachers develop a depth of specialised

knowledge, practical competencies (skills) and experience in a Grade R context. As part
of the diploma qualification, you will need to gain experience in applying what you are
learning during a period of Workplace Integrated Learning (WIL). This means you will
spend some time teaching Grade R learners in an authentic (real) context.

The Diploma in Grade R Teaching qualification programme is aligned with the Revised
Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications, in particular
Appendix C of the policy that outlines the Basic Competencies of a Beginner Teacher
(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015, Government Gazette, No. 38487,
p. 62).

2. OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAMME

At the end of the three-year Diploma in Grade R Teaching programme, you must
demonstrate the following competencies related to your own academic growth and
potential to work with Grade R learners:

x Read, write and speak the language in ways that facilitate your own academic
learning.
x Read, write, and speak the language/s of instruction related to Grade R in ways
that facilitate teaching and learning during play or instruction in the classroom.
x Demonstrate competence in communicating effectively, in general and in relation
to Grade R specialised knowledge in order to mediate and facilitate learning.
x Interpret and use basic mathematics and elementary statistics to facilitate your
own academic learning.
x Use information and communications technology (ICT) in daily life and when
teaching Grade R.
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x Explain the contents and purpose of the national curriculum with particular
reference to Grade R.
x Demonstrate skill in planning, designing, and implementing learning programmes
that are developmentally appropriate and culturally responsive to the Grade R
context.
x Demonstrate competence in identifying and accommodating diversity in the Grade
R classroom, and in early identification of learning and social problems. This
includes planning, designing and implementing learning programmes to
accommodate diversity.
x Demonstrate competence in observing, assessing and recording learner progress
regularly.
x Reflect upon and use assessment results to solve problems and to improve
teaching and learning.
x Conduct yourself responsibly, professionally and ethically in the classroom, the
school and the broader community in which the school is located.
x Display a positive work ethic that benefits, enhances and develops the status of
the teaching profession and of early childhood education more broadly.

3. PROGRAMME STRUCTURE
The diploma is presented on the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) exit level 6
with a minimum total credit of 364, earned over the three years. The table below shows
the curriculum implementation plan of the diploma you are studying. It also tells you how
many credits each module carries. You will also see at which NQF level the study material
has been prepared and which modules you need to pass each year. This three-year
programme has been planned to strengthen the competencies you will need as a
beginner teacher.

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Outline of modules of the Diploma in Grade R Teaching programme

Module name Code NQF L Credits Module name Code NQF L Credits
YEAR 1
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
Introduction to the Language
Academic Literacy R-ALI 110 5 14 and Literacy Landscape in R-LLL 120 5 12
Grade R
Introduction to Mathematics
Fundamental Mathematics R-FMA 110 5 14 R-MAT 120 5 12
Learning in Grade R
Introduction to Life Skills in
Computer Literacy R-CLI 110 5 14 R-LSK 120 5 12
Grade R
Education Studies 1: Education Studies 2:
Theories of Child R-EDS 111 5 12 Theories of Teaching and R-EDS 122 5 12
Development in Context Learning in Context
C-LCX 120
Language of Conversational
C-LCZ 120
Competence: isiXhosa / 5 10
C-LCS 120
isiZulu / Sepedi / Setswana
C-LCT 120
54 48-58
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 1 R-WIL 101 5 16
Sub-total credits for Year 1: 118 -128
YEAR 2
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
R-FLA 221
English Home and First First Additional Language and
R-FLX 221
Additional Language and Literacy Learning in Grade R
R-EHF 211 6 19 R-FLZ 221 5 12
Literacy Learning in Grade 1: Afrikaans / isiXhosa /
R-FLS 221
R1 isiZulu / Sepedi / Setswana
R-FLT 221
R-HLA 211
Home Language and
R-HLX 211 English First Additional
Literacy Learning in Grade
R-HLZ 211 6 16 Language and Literacy R-FLE 221 5 12
R 1: Afrikaans / isiXhosa /
R-HLS 211 Learning in Grade R 1
isiZulu / Sepedi / Setswana
R-HLT 211
Professional Studies 1: The
Professional Studies 2: Grade
Teacher and the Child R-PFS 211 5 12 R-PFS 222 6 14
R Curriculum in Practice
Friendly Environment
Education Studies 3:
Mathematics Learning in
R-MAT 211 6 16 Curriculum, Pedagogy and R-EDS 223 6 14
Grade R 1
Assessment
Life Skills in Grade R 1 R-LSK 211 6 16
60-79 28-40
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 2 R-WIL 202 6 20
Sub-total credits for Year 2: 120 - 127
YEAR 3
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
R-FLA 322
English Home and First First Additional Language and
R-FLX 322
Additional Language and Literacy Learning in Grade R
R-EHF 312 6 19 R-FLZ 322 6 14
Literacy Learning in Grade 2: Afrikaans / isiXhosa /
R-FLS 322
R2 isiZulu / Sepedi / Setswana
R-FLT 322
R-HLA 312
Home Language and
R-HLX 312 English First Additional
Literacy Learning in Grade
R-HLZ 312 6 16 Language and Literacy R-FLE 322 6 14
R 2: Afrikaans / isiXhosa /
R-HLS 312 Learning in Grade R 2
isiZulu / Sepedi / Setswana
R-HLT 312
Mathematics Learning in Education Studies 4:
R-MAT 312 6 16 R-EDS 324 6 14
Grade R 2 Education Policy and Practice
Professional Studies 3:
Professional Studies 4: Critical
Early Years Teacher Identity R-PFS 313 6 14 Issues in Education
R-PFS 324 6 14
and the Profession
Life Skills in Grade R 2 R-LSK 312 6 16
62-81 28-42
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 3 R-WIL 303 6 22
Sub-total credits for Year 3: 126 - 131
Total credits for programme 364 - 386
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Language competencies will be assessed during the course of your programme.

The modules in the programme can be divided into five broad types of learning
(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015, pp. 9–11). Each type of learning
develops a combination or mix of specific knowledge, values and attitudes, competencies
and skills to achieve the overall exit level outcomes of the programme.

The different types of learning are:

Fundamental learning, which includes student personal and academic

development

x This type of learning involves academic literacy, critical literacies for teachers,
fundamental mathematics, computer literacy, digital pedagogies for teachers and
the ability to converse competently in a second official language.

Disciplinary learning

x Disciplinary learning refers to disciplinary or subject matter knowledge and

includes the study of education and its foundations as well as the study of specific
specialised (phase specific) subject matter.

Situational learning

x Situational learning refers to knowledge of the varied learning situations of learners

and specifically learning about the context and environments of the learner and
related educational policies.

Pedagogical learning

x This learning incorporates general pedagogical knowledge referring to the study

of principles, practices and methods of teaching; as well as specialised
pedagogical content or subject knowledge which includes how to present
concepts, methods, strategies, approaches and rules of a specific discipline when
teaching.
x It also includes tools for implementing teaching and learning and assessment in
context.

Practical learning

x This learning involves learning from practice, which includes the study of practice
by analysing different practices across contexts e.g. drawing from case studies,

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observation of lessons and videos; and learning in practice in authentic and

simulated classroom environments.
x Workplace Integrated Learning takes place in the workplace and can include
aspects of learning from practice and learning in practice.

Depending on the purpose of a qualification, particular mixes of the five types of learning
are made. These mixes are called the knowledge mix of a module (Department of Higher
Education and Training, 2015, p. 11) and are related to the NQF level and credit value of
a module. The NQF level of knowledge for this module is set at level 5 and it carries 14
credits. For every credit, you should spend approximately 10 hours mastering the content.
You will thus have to spend at least 140 hours studying the R-FMA 110 material and
doing the assignments and other assessments.

The knowledge mix of this level 5 module with the related credits is as follows:

x Disciplinary learning (2 credits); and

x Fundamental learning (12 credits).

Most modules display an integration of the above-mentioned types of learning. Apart from
the knowledge mix, the programme structure is also based on three broad organising
principles. The modules in this programme have been grouped according to these
principles as illustrated in the following table.

Organising principles of the programme structure of the Diploma in Grade R

Teaching programme

Organising principles Modules in programme

Personal and Academic Literacy
academic Fundamental Mathematics
development Computer Literacy
(Fundamental Language of Conversational Competence
modules)
Theoretical and Education Studies 1: Theories of Child Development in
Conceptual Context
Content Education Studies 2: Theories of Teaching and Learning in
Knowledge Context
(Core modules) Education Studies 3: Curriculum, Pedagogy and
Assessment
Education Studies 4: Education Policy and Practice
Professional Studies 1: The Teacher and the Child Friendly
Environment
Professional Studies 2: Grade R Curriculum in Practice
Professional Studies 3: Early Years Teacher Identity and
the Profession
Professional Studies 4: Critical Issues in Education
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Organising principles Modules in programme

Pedagogical Content Introduction to the Language and Literacy Landscape in
Knowledge Grade R
Introduction to Mathematics Learning in Grade R
Mathematics Learning in Grade R 1 and 2
Introduction to Life Skills in Grade R
Life Skills in Grade R 1 and 2

Languages:
Six language options:

English Home and First Additional Language and Literacy

Learning in Grade R 1 and 2
Choose another (additional) language at Home Language
level OR First Additional Language level: Afrikaans,
isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana
Only if Afrikaans is chosen as another language: choose
between isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana as Language
of Conversational Competence (LoCC)

Afrikaans Home Language and Literacy Learning in Grade

R 1 and 2
English First Additional Language 1 and 2
Choose between isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana as
Language of Conversational Competence (LoCC)

isiXhosa Home Language and Literacy Learning in Grade

R 1 and 2
English First Additional Language 1 and 2

isiZulu Home Language and Literacy Learning in Grade R

1 and 2
English First Additional Language 1 and 2

Sepedi Home Language and Literacy Learning in Grade R

1 and 2
English First Additional Language 1 and 2

Setswana Home Language and Literacy Learning in

Grade R 1 and 2
English First Additional Language 1 and 2

Students draw on what they have learnt in the respective (all) modules to learn in and
through practice during Workplace Integrated Learning.
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4. PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE

Purpose

The purpose of this module is to develop students teachers’ mathematical knowledge

and applied competencies so as to advance their personal and academic mathematics
learning and by implication, teaching.

Learning outcomes

At the end of the module students should be able to:

x Understand and be able to apply standard methods and procedures in working
with numbers and operations.
x Understand and be able to apply standard methods and procedures in working
with fractions, decimals, and percentages.
x Understand and be able to apply standard methods and procedures in doing
calculations with ratio, rate, and proportion.

Content

Fundamental Mathematics provides students with mathematical conceptual knowledge

as well as the attendant applicative competencies to enable them to become confident
mathematics users in their daily lives and in teaching mathematics as a subject in a
school context. This fundamental knowledge is necessary for the development and
enhancement of student teachers’ applied mathematical competencies. This module
comprises the following content:
x Understanding the concept of number.
x Laws governing mathematical operations.
x Ancient numeration systems.
x Factors and multiples.
x Fractions.
x Decimals.
x Percentages.
x Understanding and using rate.
x Understanding and using proportion.

Competencies

x Fundamental mathematical knowledge with specific reference to number systems,

number, and operations.
x Applied mathematical competencies.
x Applied mathematical competencies in learning and teaching.

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x Communication and application of numerical information in general and discipline-

specific contexts.

5. WORKING THROUGH THE CURRICULUM AND

LEARNING GUIDE
We developed the Curriculum and Learning Guide (CLG) to help you master the content
through a distance education mode. You will not have full time tutoring or support but
the Student Orientation Booklet, accessible at MySANTS, offers guidelines for distance
learning. Aspects such as plagiarism are also explained in this booklet. Make use of
MySANTS as a support system for any academic queries.

These guidelines will help you to:

x Work consistently throughout the semester;

x Manage your time efficiently;
x Complete assignments on time; and
x Prepare for tests and examinations.

As you read the CLG, draw on your own experiences and the knowledge you already
have. The core text and recommended reading texts included in the CLG will also help
you to deepen your understanding of the content and concepts you are working through.

In the CLG, you will find a glossary (word list). The wordlist will help you understand
difficult concepts by providing the definitions (meaning) of such words.

You will also find icons (small pictures). The icons indicate the type of activity you must
do. If you do each activity as suggested, you ought to advance and consolidate your
understanding of the core concepts in the module. You will find a list of the icons used
in this CLG on the next page.

Reading and writing activities have been designed to help you make connections with
what you already know, master the content and reflect on what you have learnt.
Scenarios (situations resembling an authentic (real-life) context) and dialogues provide
background to what you are learning. The review/self-assessment questions are based
on the learning outcomes.

Doing each activity will help you understand the content. Get a book or file in which you
complete all your activities. Write full sentences and always use your own words to show
your understanding. Working systematically through each activity, according to the
estimated time for each activity as provided, will also help prepare you for assessments
(assignments and the examination).

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Try to find other students to work with. It is easier to share ideas and complete activities
when working in a study group. Doing so, may help you to master the content more
easily.

Commentaries appear at the bottom of some activities. Commentaries are not answers
but rather a reflection to guide your understanding of the activity and to assist you in
knowing whether your own answer is appropriate or not. These commentaries alert you
to aspects you need to consider when doing the activity.

WRITING ACTIVITY
An activity is designed to help you assess your progress and
manage your learning. Sometimes you will have to define,
explain, and/or interpret a concept. Scenarios and dialogues
are often used to contextualise an activity. They will also
help you bridge theory and practice by linking the concept
and real life situations. When responding to the activities,
use your own words to show your understanding. Do not
copy directly from the text of the CLG. At the end of most
activities, you will find commentary that aims to guide your
thinking and assess how well you have understood the
concepts. The activities are numbered for easy reference.
READING ACTIVITY
Reading activities may require you to read additional
material not printed in the Curriculum and Learning Guide.
These readings will be either the full text or part of a core or
recommended journal article. Journal articles will give you
an expanded or alternative view on a concept. You might be
required to explain the concept from a different perspective
or compare what has been stated in the CLG with what you
read in the journal article.
STUDY GROUP DISCUSSION
All study group discussions or peer activities require
preparation BEFORE the discussion. Preparation includes
reading and completing activities in writing. Study group
discussions are an opportunity for reflection and for you to
apply what you have learnt. Sharing your learning
experiences may help you to learn with and from each other.
Study group discussions can be done in your own study
group or with a peer.

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REFLECTION
Reflection means to think deeply or carefully about
something. Reflection activities require you to review
critically what you have learnt and link this with your personal
experiences or what you have observed during Workplace
Integrated Learning (WIL).
REVIEW/SELF-ASSESSMENT
Often questions are provided at the end of each unit to assist
self-assessment. These questions are similar to the type of
questions that you may be asked in assignments or
examinations.

6. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING
As a distance education student, it is your responsibility to engage with the content and
to direct your own learning by managing your time efficiently and effectively.
We designed the following self-directed learning programme template so that you can
plan your time carefully and manage your independent learning. The template will also
help you to keep to due dates and thus complete the assignments on time. Careful time
management and breaking the work up into manageable chunks will help you work
through the content without feeling too stressed. Once you have worked through the
activities you should be able to contribute to discussions in your study group and during
the non-compulsory student academic support sessions with peers and academic tutors.

When completing the template, consider the following:

x This module is offered in the first semester of your first year of study.
x The first semester is 15 - 20 weeks long.
x The module carries 14 credits and has been developed for NQF level 5. It
should take you about 140 hours to work through this module.
x The 140 hours will be spent reading, studying, and completing the activities
in this CLG, as well as the assignments. You will also spend time preparing
and writing the examination.
x The estimated time to read for and complete each activity has been
suggested.
x You will need 5 to 10 hours to complete each assignment. This means you
will need to budget about 20 hours in total.
x You should plan to spend about 10 to 20 hours preparing for the examination
in order to be successful.

Plan your studies and keep pace of your progress by completing the template below.
It is not divided into specific weeks, but into the number of units in the CLG. Depending
on the nature of the content, it is possible to complete two or more units in one week.
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Sometimes, you may only be able to complete one unit in a week. Use the template as
a guide to help you plan and pace yourself as you work through the content, and
activities in each unit.

Add dates to the template indicating when you plan to start working through a particular
unit. In addition, using a SANTS academic calendar will also assist you to pace your
learning. There is also space to indicate the due dates (deadlines) of the assessments.

DATE
UNIT IN CLG CONTENT IN CLG
PLANNED

The concept of number

UNIT 1 Laws governing mathematical

NUMBER AND operations
OPERATIONS
Ancient numeration systems

Factors, multiples and prime numbers

Fractions
UNIT 2
FRACTIONS, DECIMAL
Decimals
NUMBERS AND
PERCENTAGES
Percentages

Understanding and using ratio

UNIT 3
RATE, RATIO AND Understanding and using rate
PROPORTION

Understanding and using proportion

ASSIGNMENT 1

ASSIGNMENT 2

EXAMINATION

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7. CORE READING
There is no core reading for this module but it has a Fundamental Mathematics Workbook
which contains activities and exercises based on the content in the CLG to develop and
strengthen your own personal academic knowledge and skills.

8. RECOMMENDED READING
As a distance education student, you cannot only rely on your CLG and the reader. We
recommend that you also study other sources such as approved mathematics school text
books for example the following, so that you have broader insight into the study material:

1. Solutions for All Grade 4

http://macmillan.co.za/public/media/books/9781431009725.pdf?v=1531257959

2. Solutions for All – Grade 5

http://www.macmillan.co.za/public/media/books/9781431009763.pdf?v=1523437588

3. Solutions for All – Grade 6

https://www.macmillan.co.za/public/media/books/9781431009800.pdf?v=1509864189

4. Solutions for All – Grade 7

http://macmillan.co.za/public/media/books/9781431014422.pdf?v=1454905064

5. Solutions for All Grade 8

http://macmillan.co.za/public/media/books/9781431014446.pdf?v=1530132261

9. ASSESSMENT OF THE MODULE

The SANTS assessment policy is included in the Student Orientation Booklet and is also
available on MySANTS. The policy provides information regarding the types of
assessment you will need to do. It includes information about progression rules, perusal
of marks, or requests for remarking assessments.

In this module, both formative and summative assessment are done over a period of time
(continuous assessment). The activities in the Curriculum and Learning Guide (CLG) are
varied and are aimed at assisting you with self-directed learning. Reflecting on what you
are learning and discussing it in a study group is always helpful. The personal reflection
is aimed at revision, reinforcement, and self-assessment while informal peer assessment
takes place during the group discussions.

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9.1 Summary of assessment

The following table provides a summary of the assessment for this module:

TYPES OF FORM OF ASSESSMENT WEIGHTING

ASSESSMENT
Formative assessment Two written assignments (100 marks 60%
each)
Summative assessment Examination (50 marks) 40%
TOTAL 100%

9.2 Self-assessment

An activity aimed at self-assessment is included at the end of each unit. Before you
complete the self-assessment activity, reflect on what you have learnt in the unit. Revise
the main concepts and if there is any topic or concept, of which you are unsure, go back
to the relevant unit and revise it.

9.3 Assignments
To support you in your self-directed learning and to keep track of your own progress, we
will provide guidelines or the memoranda on MySANTS after the assignments have been
marked and returned.

In order to demonstrate that you have gained the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes
described in the learning outcomes of the module, you need to do the following:

x Complete and submit each assignment (100 marks) before the due date.
x Submit both assignments that constitute 60% of your final promotion mark to
qualify for admission to the examination.

The task brief (specific information regarding what to do and how to prepare for each
assignment) will be explained in the assignment itself. These assignments are provided
at the beginning of the first semester together with your CLG for this module. The
assignments are also available on MySANTS.

9.4 Semester examination

At the end of the semester, you have the opportunity to sit for a formal summative
assessment. This includes the following:

x Write a formal examination, out of 50 marks that will constitute 40% of your
final promotion mark. Please read the SANTS Assessment Policy that deals
with all aspects of the general assessment and the examination policy.
x A minimum of 40% in the examination is required to qualify for a
supplementary examination.

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10. PLAGIARISM WARNING FOR STUDENTS

Plagiarism is a form of academic misconduct that can lead to educational or disciplinary
action and has severe consequences - in some cases civil or criminal prosecution.

You are guilty of plagiarism if you copy from another person’s work (e.g. a book, an article,
a website or even another student’s assignment) without acknowledging the source and
thereby pretending it is your own work. You would not steal someone’s purse so why steal
his/her work or ideas? Submitting any work that you have written but have already used
elsewhere (thus not “original”), is also a form of plagiarism (auto-plagiarism). An example
is when you submit the same assignment or a part of it for two different modules.

Avoiding plagiarism by being academically honest is not difficult. Here is what you should
do:

x Submit only your own and original work.

x When using another person’s actual words, sentences or paragraphs, Indicate
exactly which parts are not your own (even if presented in the CLG). You must
do this by referencing in accordance with the Harvard style - a recognised
system specified by SANTS, and you must use quotation marks (“...”).
x You must also reference precisely when using another person’s ideas, opinions
or theory. You must do so even if you have paraphrased using your own words.
x You must acknowledge any information or images that you have downloaded
from the Internet by providing the URL link (web address) and the date on
which the item was accessed (downloaded).
x Never allow any student to use or copy any work from you and then to present
it as their own.
x Never copy what other students have done to present as your own.
x Prepare original assignments for each module and do not submit the same
work for another module.
x Always list any student who contributed to a group assignment. Never submit
the work as if only you worked on the assignment.

The Examination Regulations and Procedures policy contains the following in Section
7.10:
Students may not act in a dishonest way with regard to any test or examination
assessment, as well as with regard to the completion and/or submission of any
other academic task or assignment. Dishonest conduct includes, among other
things, plagiarism, as well as the submission of work by a student for the purpose
of assessment, when the work in question is, with the exception of group work as
decided by the Academic Committee, the work of somebody else either in full or
in part, or where the work is the result of collusion between the student and another
person or persons.

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All cases of suspected plagiarism will be investigated and if you are found guilty, there
are serious consequences. Disciplinary action that may result includes:

x You may lose marks for the assignment/activity. Your marks may be reduced
by as much as 50%. You may even be given zero.
x The module may be cancelled and you will have to enrol again. This is a great
waste of time and money.
x Your registration for that entire year may be cancelled. That means not all the
marks you achieved in all the modules you enrolled for will count anything.
x In some cases, prosecutions in courts of law may be instituted.

Plagiarism is considered such a serious academic crime that you are required to sign the
standard document (Declaration of Original Work) to every assignment that you submit
by either using the assignment booklet or electronic submission. The Declaration of
Original Work is printed on the cover of the assignment booklets.

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CONTENT
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING PROGRAMME ..................................................... ii
1. WELCOME TO THE MODULE .............................................................................. II
2. OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAMME ................................................................... II
3. PROGRAMME STRUCTURE ............................................................................... III
4. PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE ........................................................................... VIII
5. WORKING THROUGH THE CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE ................. IX
6. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING .............................................................................. XI
7. CORE READING ................................................................................................ XIII
8. RECOMMENDED READING ............................................................................. XIII
9. ASSESSMENT OF THE MODULE ..................................................................... XIII
9.1 Summary of assessment ........................................................................... xiv
9.2 Self-assessment ........................................................................................ xiv
9.3 Assignments .............................................................................................. xiv
9.4 Semester examination............................................................................... xiv
10. PLAGIARISM WARNING FOR STUDENTS ........................................................ XV

FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS ................................................................................. 1

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
2. STRUCTURE AND OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE ............................................ 2
3. GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................... 3

UNIT 1: NUMBER AND OPERATIONS.......................................................................... 4

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 4
2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 1 ...................................... 5

SECTION 1: THE CONCEPT OF NUMBER ................................................................... 6

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 6
2. NUMBER TERMS ................................................................................................. 6
3. TYPES OF NUMBERS .......................................................................................... 8
3.1 Cardinal numbers ......................................................................................... 8
3.2 Ordinal numbers ......................................................................................... 10
3.3 Nominal numbers ....................................................................................... 12

SECTION 2: LAWS GOVERNING MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS ......................... 13

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 13
2. LAWS THAT GOVERN MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS ................................... 14
2.1 Commutative law ........................................................................................ 14
2.2 Associative law ........................................................................................... 15
2.3 Distributive law ........................................................................................... 17
2.4 Order of operations .................................................................................... 19
3. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 21

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SECTION 3: ANCIENT NUMERATION SYSTEMS ...................................................... 21

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 21
2. NUMERATION SYSTEMS .................................................................................. 22
2.1 The Egyptian numeration system ............................................................... 22
2.2 The Babylonian numeration system ........................................................... 24
2.3 The Roman numeration system ................................................................. 25
2.4 The Hindu-Arabic numeration system ........................................................ 26

SECTION 4: FACTORS, MULTIPLES AND PRIME NUMBERS ................................. 29

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 29
2. FACTORS ........................................................................................................... 29
2.1 Find the factors of numbers ........................................................................ 30
2.2 Highest Common Factor ............................................................................ 31
3. MULTIPLES ........................................................................................................ 32
3.1 Find multiples of numbers .......................................................................... 32
3.2 Lowest Common Multiple ........................................................................... 33
4. PRIME NUMBERS .............................................................................................. 35
4.1 Find the prime numbers ............................................................................. 35
4.2 Calculating prime factors of a number ........................................................ 36

UNIT 2: FRACTIONS, DECIMAL NUMBERS, AND PERCENTAGES......................... 39

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 39
2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 2 .................................... 40

SECTION 1: FRACTIONS ............................................................................................ 41

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 41
2. UNDERSTANDING TYPES OF VARIABLES ...................................................... 42
2.1 Discrete variables ....................................................................................... 42
2.2 Continuous variables .................................................................................. 44
3. TYPES OF FRACTIONS ..................................................................................... 45
3.1 Proper fractions .......................................................................................... 45
3.2 Improper fractions ...................................................................................... 46
3.3 Mixed numbers ........................................................................................... 46
3.4 Unitary and non-unitary fractions ............................................................... 46
3.5 Equivalent fractions .................................................................................... 46
4. MANIPULATING FRACTIONS ............................................................................ 48
4.1 Conversions between improper fractions and mixed numbers ................... 48
4.2 Adding like fractions ................................................................................... 50
4.3 Adding unlike fractions ............................................................................... 53
4.4 Adding and subtracting unlike fractions using equivalence ........................ 56
4.5 Multiplying fractions .................................................................................... 60
4.6 Dividing fractions ........................................................................................ 63

SECTION 2: DECIMALS .............................................................................................. 65

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 65
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2. CONVERTING FRACTIONS TO DECIMAL NUMBERS ...................................... 67

3. CONVERTING DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS ...................................................... 71

SECTION 3: PERCENTAGES ...................................................................................... 72

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 72
2. BASIC PERCENTAGES CONCEPTS ................................................................. 72
3. CALCULATIONS WITH PERCENTAGES ........................................................... 75

UNIT 3: RATE, RATIO AND PROPORTION ................................................................ 80

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 80
2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 3 .................................... 81

SECTION 1: UNDERSTANDING AND USING RATIO................................................. 82

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 82
2. UNDERSTANDING RATIO ................................................................................. 82
2.1 Types of ratios ............................................................................................ 82
2.1.1 Part-to-whole ratios ....................................................................... 83
2.1.2 Part-to-part ratios ........................................................................... 83
2.1.3 Rates as ratios............................................................................... 83
2.2 Using ratio to solve problems ..................................................................... 83
2.2.1 Ratio using two quantities .............................................................. 84
2.2.2 Ratio of more than two numbers .................................................... 92

SECTION 2: UNDERSTANDING AND USING RATE .................................................. 93

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 93
2. UNDERSTANDING RATE ................................................................................... 94
3. USING RATE TO SOLVE PROBLEMS................................................................ 95

SECTION 3: UNDERSTANDING AND USING PROPORTION .................................... 98

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 98
2. UNDERSTANDING PROPORTION .................................................................... 99
2.1 Direct proportion ......................................................................................... 99
2.2 Indirect proportion .................................................................................... 101
2.3 Compound proportion............................................................................... 103

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 106

ACTIVITIES 1 TO 49

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FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS

1. INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the module: Fundamental Mathematics. This module will enhance your
own mathematical competencies as a preservice teacher. Fundamental Mathematics
focuses on mathematics concepts that you have to understand and know before you can
teach the subject. Because numbers, operations and relationships forms the basis for
mathematics learning and application in real life, this module will focus on this content
area of mathematics although a few applications in other content areas are also included.

We live in a numerate society where mathematics impacts all spheres of our social lives.
Every citizen uses mathematics in his or her daily life. The ordinary citizen uses
mathematics to measure, count, and calculate in order to make informed decisions about
using resources such as money or time. Mathematics is also important in professions
such as science, commerce, economics, and even in the social sciences not only
because it helps to solve mathematics-related problems, but also because it trains people
to think and to solve real-world social problems. Therefore, it is important that you must
have a working knowledge of mathematics.

This module introduces you to basic mathematical concepts and provides some
examples you can apply in real life. Keep your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook at
hand, as most activities will refer you to exercises in the Workbook which will help you to
develop and strengthen your own mathematical concepts and skills.

Mathematics is an important subject in any school curriculum around the world and in
South Africa. In order to teach, and as a preservice teacher, you need to be proficient
and competent in the basic mathematical concepts that you will study in this module.

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2. STRUCTURE AND OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE

FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS

UNIT 1 UNIT 2
Number and Operations Fractions, Decimal Numbers,
and Percentages
Learning outcomes: At the end
of this unit, you should be able Learning outcomes: At the end
to: of this unit, you should be able to:
x Explain different types of x Demonstrate understanding
numbers. and calculate with common
x Apply rules governing fractions.
mathematical operations. x Explain and calculate with
x Know and understand ancient decimal fractions.
numeration systems. x Explain and calculate
x Understand and use the percentages.
Hindu-Arabic numeration
system.
x Differentiate between and
calculate factors and multiples.

UNIT 3
Ratio, Rate, and Proportion

Learning outcomes: At the end of this

unit, you should be able to:
x Explain rate, ratio and proportion.
x Calculate and solve ratio, rate and
proportion problems.

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3. GLOSSARY
Understanding these terms will assist you when working through this module.

Basic theorem of - The idea that all numbers can be expressed as a product of
arithmetic prime factors.
BODMAS - Is an acronym that stands for Bracket, Of, Division,
Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction. This law guides the
order of operations in calculations.
Cardinal numbers - The number used to answer the question: ‘How many?
Decimal fraction - A fraction whose denominator is a power of 10.
Decimal number - This is a number expressed in the base 10 numeration
system with digits 0 to 9, a decimal comma may be used if
there are fractional parts.
Direct proportion - When one quantity increases as another increases or
decreases when another decreases.
Equivalent - Fractions which are of the same value.
fractions
Factor - A number that divides into another without a remainder.
Fraction - A number which part of a whole.
Hindu-Arabic - The decimal numeration system that uses the digits 0, 1, 2,
numeration 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
system

Improper fraction - A fraction in which the numerator is larger than the

denominator.

Indirect proportion - When one quantity increases as another decreases or

decreases when another increases.

Like fractions - Fractions with the same denominator.

Multiple - A number found by multiplying by another number.

Nominal numbers - Numbers used for naming.

Numeration - The way of writing down numbers.

Ordinal numbers - Numbers used for ranking.

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Part-to-part ratio - This occurs when we compare one part to another part of
the whole.

Part-to-whole ratio - This occurs when we compare a part of the whole to the
whole.

Percentage - A number expressed as part of a hundred.

Place value - The idea that the value of a digit depends on its position in a
number.

Prime number - A number with only two factors, itself and one (“1”).

Proper fraction - A fraction in which the numerator is smaller than the

denominator.

Proportion - If two quantities always have the same ratio in relation to

each other we say they are in proportion.

Rate - The ratio that compares two different kinds of quantities

such as km per hour (km/h) or litres per km.

Ratio - A ratio tells us how much of one quantity there is compared

to another quantity.

UNIT 1: NUMBER AND OPERATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces the features of the number concept as well as numeration. The
number concept is central to mathematics in that it quantifies what is being studied. The
genesis of the number concept lies buried in history. This unit firstly discusses what
number is and the basic types of numbers. It then discusses the numeration systems of
the early civilizations of Egypt, Babylon and Rome. This study helps you to understand
the struggle to record numbers, which culminated in the pre-eminence (domination) of
the Hindu-Arabic numeration system we use today.

In this unit, we also discuss the laws that govern mathematical calculations as well as the
law of precedence (order of operations). Factors and multiples are a further study of the
characteristics of numbers. This leads to the study of Highest Common Factor (HCF) and
Lowest Common Multiple (LCM). These concepts are important in problem solving

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involving numbers. Last but not least, the characteristics of the Hindu-Arabic numeration
system including place value are studied.

2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 1

Unit 1 consists of the following four sections.

UNIT 1
NUMBER AND OPERATIONS

SECTION 1 SECTION 2
The Concept of Number Laws Governing
Mathematical Operations
Learning outcomes: By the
end of this section, you should Learning outcomes: By the
be able to: end of this section, you should
x Differentiate between be able to:
cardinal and ordinal x Explain and use
numbers. commutative, associative,
x Explain what nominal and distributive laws.
numbers are. x Explain and use the order of
operations correctly.

SECTION 3 SECTION 4
Ancient Numeration Systems Factors, Multiples and Prime
Numbers
Learning outcomes: By the
end of this section, you should Learning outcomes: By the
be able to: end of this section, you should
x Describe the features of be able to:
Hindu-Arabic, Egyptian, x Find factors and multiples of
Babylonian and Roman given numbers.
numeration systems. x Explain what is meant by a
x Apply the Hindu-Arabic prime number.
numeration system. x Determine the highest
x Describe the place value common factor (HCF) and
features of the Hindu-Arabic lowest common multiple
numeration system. (LCM) of given numbers.

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SECTION 1: THE CONCEPT OF NUMBER

1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of number is most important in mathematics. This is because mathematics
is a quantitative subject in which it is important for people to count, measure, add,
subtract, multiply, and divide as they solve problems in their own environment or in the
world that is necessary or of interest. All these activities depend on the knowledge of the
concept of number.

30 minutes
1
Reflect on your own knowledge of numbers.
x Do you know the difference between a number and a digit?
x Can you distinguish between a number and a numeral?
x What is a number name?
Write your responses down and try to use your own examples to explain.

We will start this section by explaining a few number terms.

2. NUMBER TERMS
We see numbers everywhere around us. Numbers appear, for example, in newspapers,
advertisements, on houses, road signs, car number plates, telephone numbers, fax
numbers, etc. The pages of this Curriculum and Learning Guide are also numbered! Let
us look at some important number terms.

IMPORTANT NUMBER TERMS

How many?

Number – A number is an idea that indicates

the quantity or the “how-many-ness”
of something. Number

Digit – The digits that we use in our number system are: 1; 2; 3; 4;

5; 6; 7; 8; 9; and 0. We use digits to write numbers down.

Number name – The number written in words.

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Here is an example to explain.

The student thinks:

In this case, 625 is an idea of how many students from Kwa-

Last year 625 Zulu Natal (KZN) enrolled at SANTS. This is what number
new SANTS means – it gives an idea of the “how-many-ness”, for
students enrolled
example, the KZN SANTS students for last year were more
in KZN.
than 600 but less than 650.

If the student wants to write this number in symbols, he or she will use the digits 6, 2,
and 5 to write the number: 625.

If the student writes the number in words – we call it a number name. The number name
for 625 is: Six hundred and twenty-five.

45 minutes
2
Compare your responses to the above reflection activity to what you have learnt so
far.

1. Were your original responses to the questions correct? If not, how will you
improve your answers?
2. Use the number 1 200 with your own example (from real life) to distinguish
between a number, a numeral and a number name.

You will learn more about digits and how it is used to write down numbers in our current
number system in Section 3 of this Unit.

Now that you know how to distinguish between a number, digit and number name, let us
look at some basic types of numbers.

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3. TYPES OF NUMBERS
In this section, you learn about three basic types of numbers, namely cardinal numbers,
ordinal numbers, and nominal numbers. We discuss each of these below.

3.1 Cardinal numbers

When we ask the question “how many?” the answer we get is a cardinal number.
These are whole numbers which are related to counting. Cardinal numbers are also
known as "counting numbers," because they show quantity.

Example: Here are five coins:

The cardinal number five (5) is associated with the number of objects in this set.

Sets that are in one-to-one correspondence, which are also referred to as matching sets,
have the same cardinal number (see the next example):

A
x
B
y
C
z
D
t
E
w

These two sets share the same cardinal number, i.e. 5. Sets that have the same cardinal
number are called equivalent sets.

Let us look at another example. Imagine the set of tea-cups and their saucers. Do the
sets of cups and saucers match? Why do you say so? What cardinal number is
associated with them?

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Cardinal numbers are whole numbers only used for counting or numeration and do
not include fractions or decimal numbers.

Successive: means
The picture below shows that cardinal numbers occur in a constant numbers following on
series. This implies that successive cardinal numbers differ by one. from each other.

In the picture above, successive cardinal numbers are shown with a corresponding
number of counters in each case. Cardinal numbers tell the quantity of counters in each
case.

The figure below shows a residential location with 20 houses numbered from 1 to 20.

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The cardinal number associated with these houses is 20. As defined earlier, cardinal
numbers are numbers that tell how many of something there are, such as one, two, three,
four, or five. In this case there are 20 houses in this residential location. Twenty (20)
speaks of the quantity.

45 minutes
3
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.1, numbers 1.1.a and 1.2.

We discuss ordinal numbers next.

3.2 Ordinal numbers

Ordinal numbers tell us the order of things in a series — first, second, third, etc. Ordinal
numbers do not show quantity. They tell us the order, rank, or position of an item in
relation to others and do not answer the question: ‘how many?’

In the next picture, from left to right, the girl is second (2nd) and the two puppies are third
(3rd) and fourth (4th).

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Source: Mathsisfun.com (2017a).

In the following example of houses below, the second (2nd) row of houses is numbered
seven to twelve.

ROW

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

Here are some more examples of how ordinal numbers are used in daily life:

x After writing a mathematics test, Janet got the highest mark in the class. She was
therefore ranked first (1st).
x Jessica is one of five children. She is the second (2nd) child in the family.
x The Grade 5 learners are lined up in front of their classroom. Martha is tenth (10th)
in line.
x I live in the seventh (7th) house in the street. My best friend lives in the third (3rd)
house in the same street.

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45 minutes
4
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.1, numbers 1.1.b; 1.3; 1.4 and 1.5

Now that you know about cardinal and ordinal numbers, let us look at nominal numbers.

3.3 Nominal numbers

A nominal number is a number used only as a name or to identify something (not as an

actual value or position). Nominal numbers do not show quantity, order or rank. They are
used only to identify something.

Here are some examples using nominal numbers:

Harry’s soccer jersey number is ‘12’:

The number of this mobile device is ‘082 345 2219’:

The model of this BMW is ‘X5’. The number plate is ‘MXX 5502’:

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Nominal numbers, therefore, help us identify and distinguish and do not quantify
amounts, order, rank, or position.

1 hour
5
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.1, numbers 1.1.c; 1.6 and 1.7.

Take your response to your next academic support session. Discuss your answers
in your group. Reflect on your own answer and write down what you have learnt
from others in your group.

Section 1 dealt with different types of numbers i.e. cardinal number, ordinal numbers and
nominal numbers. In Section 2 we will examine the laws (rules) that govern mathematical
operations.

SECTION 2: LAWS GOVERNING MATHEMATICAL

OPERATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION
The commutative, associative and distributive laws are very important because they help
us to carry out calculations. These laws apply to number calculations with operations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Knowledge of the three laws
also help us carry out calculations with numbers that are easier to handle first. This greatly
simplifies some calculations.

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Binary: means two. In

Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are called mathematics, binary operations is
simply a rule for combining two
binary operations because they always work with two values to create a new value.
numbers at a time to get an answer.

NOTE: There are some operations that are not binary because we only work with one
number. Examples are squares and square roots. For example 32 = 9. We read 32 as
“3-squared”, which means 3 × 3. Thus, “the square of 3 is 9”. Another example is
√16 = 4. We read √16 as “the square root of 16”. Therefore, the square root of 16 is 4.
You calculate the square root by finding a number which, multiplied by itself will give the
original number. In this case it is 4 because 4 × 4 = 16.

The precedence laws of numbers prescribes the order of operations if a calculation

includes more than one operation.

Next, we look at laws that govern mathematical operations.

2. LAWS THAT GOVERN MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS

2.1 Commutative law

The commutative law of numbers applies to addition and multiplication. The commutative
law refers to the order of numbers and is based on the principle that it does not matter
which number we start with when we carry out calculations because we always get the
same answer.

The commutative law, in addition, is as follows:

If ‘a’ and ‘b’ are any numbers, then:

Commutative law for addition:
a+b = b+a

Let us look at how the commutative law can be applied when we add ‘6’ and ‘3’:

+ = +

6 + 3 = 3 + 6
9 = 9

The answer is the same irrespective of which number we start the calculation with (the
order in which we add numbers does not matter).

The same is true when we apply the commutative law in multiplication.

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If ‘a’ and ‘b’ are any numbers, then:

Commutative law for multiplication:
a×b = b×a

Let us look at how the commutative law can be applied when we multiply ‘2’ and ‘4’ using
row by column (across and down):

2×4 = 4×2

8 = 8

The answer is the same irrespective of which number we start the calculation with (the
order in which we multiply numbers does not matter).

1 hour and 45 minutes

6
1. Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.2, numbers 1.1 and 1.2.
2. Do you think the commutative law may also apply to subtraction and division?
Why or why not? Use your own examples to prove your answer.

Next, we discuss the associative law of numbers.

2.2 Associative law

The associative law of numbers applies to addition and multiplication and refers to the
way we group (or associate) numbers when performing a calculation. In addition and
multiplication, it does not matter how we group numbers because we always obtain the
same result. So the associative laws state that it does not matter which numbers we use
first to perform the operation, the way we group the numbers will always produce the
same result.

Let us look at an example where we apply the associative laws for addition:

If ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ are any numbers, then

Associative laws for addition:
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

=
Adapted from Mathsisfun.com (2017b).

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NOTE: Numbers in brackets are always calculated first. In the illustrated example:

(6 + 3) + 4 = 6 + (3 + 4)
9+4=6+7
13 = 13

Here are more addition examples:

Let us use 2, 4, and 9 in an addition sum. It does not matter if we combine the sum like
this:

(2 + 9) + 4 = 11 + 4 = 15

or like this:

2 + (9 + 4) = 2 + 13 = 15.

The result of addition computations remains the same despite the numbers we choose
to add first.

The same principle applies when we multiply, that is, the result remains the same despite
the number we choose to multiply first.

If ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ are any numbers, then

Associative law for multiplication:
(a × b) × c = a × (b × c)

Let us use 2, 3, and 4 in a multiplication calculation:

Adapted from Mathsisfun.com (2017b).

In the example, 8 × 3 = 2 × 12 = 24. Thus, the answer remains 24 despite the numbers
we choose to multiply first.
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Let us look at another multiplication example:

4 × (3 × 5) = 4 × 15 = 60 is the same as (4 × 3) × 5 = 12 × 5 = 60

Note that at times it is easier to add or multiply by interchanging the order of numbers to
make the calculations simpler for oneself. For example, if you want to calculate the
following: 19 + 46 + 4. It is easier to complete the calculation by rearranging the numbers
in the following way: 19 + (46 + 4) = 19 + 50 = 69.

If the multiplication calculation were: 2 × 18 × 5. It is easier to complete the calculation

by rearranging the numbers in the following way: (2 × 5) × 18 = 10 × 18 = 180

1 hour and 45 minutes

7
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.3, numbers 1.1 and 1.2.

We discuss distributive law next.

2.3 Distributive law

The distributive law concerns how we work with two operations such as addition and
multiplication in a calculation. The distributive law applies to calculations that use
addition, multiplication and subtraction.

Look at the following example:

3 × (2 + 4) 3×2+3×4
Adapted from Mathsisfun.com (2017b).

This illustration shows that three (3) groups of (2 + 4) is the same as three (3) groups of
2 written (3 x 2) + 3 groups of 4 written (3 x 4). This can be generalised as:

Distributive law for multiplication over If ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ are any numbers, then
addition: a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c

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Let us look at another example:

4 × (3 + 5) = (4 × 3) + (4 × 5) (using the distributive law)

= 12 + 20 (multiply what is inside the brackets)
= 32 (adding 12 and 20)

The order of numbers does not change the result.

The distributive law helps to do difficult multiplication calculations. For example, if we

need to calculate 6 × 304, we can do so in the following way:

6 × 304 = 6 × (300 + 4) (re-write 304 by expanding it as 300 + 4)

= (6 × 300) + (6 × 4) (use the distributive law)
= 1 800 + 24 (multiply what is inside the brackets)
= 1 824 (adding 1 800 and 24)

Does the distributive law also work for subtraction?

Distributive law for multiplication over If ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ are any numbers, then
subtraction: a x (b – c) = a x b – a x c

For example: 7 × 98 = 7 × (100 – 2) (re-write 98 as 100 – 2)

= (7 × 100) – (7 × 2) (use the distributive law)
= 700 – 14 (multiply what is inside the brackets)
= 686 (subtract 14 from 700)

1 hour and 45 minutes

8
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.4, numbers 1.1; 1.2 and 1.3.

Next, we deal with the order of operations when we do calculations involving different
binary operations in the same problem. The rule that is followed in this regard is often
referred to as the BODMAS rule. This rule will be discussed under the order of
operations.

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2.4 Order of operations

Number operations are always binary in that we always calculate using two numbers to
get the answer. To avoid confusion, mathematicians agreed to follow precedence laws
when doing calculations. Precedence comes from the word “preceding”, which refers to
ranking in order of importance or priority. BODMAS is the precedence law we apply that
guides the ranking and order we follow when carrying out calculations where a problem
involves more than two operations. To avoid the confusion of obtaining different answers
when we carry out calculations on the same problem involving different operations, the
precedence law of BODMAS is applied. BODMAS stands for:

Order
1st B Brackets first
2nd O Orders (i.e. Powers and Square Roots or “Of”, etc.)
3rd DM Division and Multiplication (from left-to-right)
4th AS Addition and Subtraction (from left-to-right)

Let us calculate ‘5 + 2 x 3 ‒ 1’ in two different ways. The sum consists of three operations:
addition (+), subtraction (‒), and multiplication (×).

Calculation 1 Calculation 2

5 + 2 × 3 ‒1 5 + 2 × 3 ‒1
=7×3‒1 =5+6‒1
= 21 ‒ 1 = 11 ‒ 1
= 20 = 10

From the above calculations, the same problem resulted in two different answers. Both
calculations seem logical but which one is correct? However, one of the two calculations
followed the precedence law and the other did not. Calculation 1 violates the BODMAS
rule since addition was performed before multiplication. Calculation 2 applied the
precedence rule (BODMAS) correctly, making the answer correct.

Now let use examples to show how the BODMAS rule works:

a. CALCULATE WHAT IS IN BRACKETS FIRST

Example: 6 × (5 + 4)

6 × (5 + 4) = 6 × 9 (simplify the bracket first i.e. 5 + 4)

= 54 (multiply 9 × 6)

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b. SIMPLIFY EXPONENTS (POWERS, ROOTS) BEFORE MULTIPLYING,

DIVIDING, ADDING OR SUBTRACTING

Example:

4 × 52 = 4 × 25 = 100 is correct

But 4 × 52 = 202 = 400 is incorrect

c. MULTIPLY OR DIVIDE BEFORE YOU ADD OR SUBTRACT

Example:

3+5×4 = 3 + 20 = 23 is correct

But 3 + 5 × 4 = 8×4 = 32 is incorrect

d. GO LEFT TO RIGHT (operations on the same level)

Example (multiplication and division):

24 ÷ 6 × 3 = 4 × 3 = 12 is correct

But 24 ÷ 6 × 3 = 24 ÷ 18 = 1 is incorrect

Example (addition and subtraction):

30 – 20 + 10 = 10 + 10 = 20 is correct

But 30 – 20 + 10 = 30 – 30 = 0 is incorrect

We can conclude that division and multiplication rank equally (and go left to right), and
addition and subtraction rank equally (and go left to right).

3 hours and 30 minutes

9
1. Consider the ‘go left to right’ examples given above.
x Provide reasons why the second calculation in each case is incorrect.
x Use your own examples to illustrate the importance of the ‘go left to right’
rule to a fellow student, colleague or member in your family or community.
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2. Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:

Exercise 1.5, numbers 1.1; 1.2; 1.3; 1.4 and 1.5.
3. At your next academic support session or in your own study group, discuss your
answers to Exercise 1.5, number 1.5 in groups. Compare your answers and
reflect on why you did not all get the same answers if this is applicable. Do
corrections if required.

3. CONCLUSION
In this section, you learnt about laws governing mathematical operations. These laws
show us that mathematical calculations are structured in a logical way and that they follow
a logical order that enables us to always arrive at the same answer when we do
calculations correctly. The concepts you have learnt in this section form an important
basis for studying other number topics such as fractions, decimals, percentages, ratio,
rate and others which you will explore in Unit 2. Rules of the order of operations are
important when applying mathematics in problem-solving.

The next section discusses how the number concept and numeration developed from
ancient civilisations.

SECTION 3: ANCIENT NUMERATION SYSTEMS

1. INTRODUCTION
The use of numerals dates very far back in the history of The Ishango bone is a bone tool, dated to
the Upper Paleolithic era. It is a dark
humankind. In 1960, a Belgian explorer discovered the brown length of bone, the fibula of a
Ishango bone in the Congo. The bone, which was later baboon, with a sharp piece of quartz
affixed to one end, perhaps for engraving.
dated to the Palaeolithic era, featured a series of
etchings or what seemed to be tally marks. This
suggested to mathematicians that it could have been
used either as a tally system, or a form of a
mathematical calculator that is not fully understood
(Heller, 2017).

The supernatural ability to count separated early man from all other mammals. David
Osborn in his “History of Numbers” wrote, “The necessity for numbers became more
apparent when humans started to build their own houses, as opposed to living in caves
and the like” (as cited in Heller, 2017, p. 55). These different human habitats led to the
invention of different numeration systems. The Egyptians derived their numeral from

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hieroglyphics, the Romans used the Roman numerals, the Greeks used the Attic
systems, and so on. Next, we explore how different numeration systems worked.

2. NUMERATION SYSTEMS
The Egyptian, Babylonian, Roman and Hindu-Arabic numerations systems are
discussed. The existence of such numeration systems predates the Hindu-Arabic system
that has influenced current numeration systems that we use.

2.1 The Egyptian numeration system

Around 300 B.C., the Egyptians created numerals from their hieroglyphic writing system
(Heller, 2017). The hieroglyphic system looked like this:

Source: Brocard, 2006.

The symbols became unhelpful for the mathematical calculations they needed to do when
they began developing grand-scale buildings. This need led to the invention of distinct
symbols for units of 1, 10, 100, 1000, etc. (Heller, 2017).

The Egyptian numeration system was repetitive and additive, which resulted in numbers
being difficult to represent and read. Heller (2017) suggests that the Egyptian numerical
symbols did not necessarily advance mathematics even though it was an improvement
on the use of the hieroglyphic symbols. Below are the symbols Egyptians used.

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Value Egyptian Numeral Description

1 Staff or Vertical Stroke

10 Heel Bone or Arch

100 Scroll or Coiled Rope

1 000 Lotus Flower

10 000 Pointed Finger

100 000 Whale or Tadpole

1 000 000 Astonished Person

= 3 244
So, with an
additive
system --->>>
= 21 237

Or to write
43 628 as an
Egyptian
numeral -->>

Adapted from Jones (2010).

You will notice that the Egyptian numeration system has no figure for zero (Musa, 2014).

Next, we look at the Babylonian numeration system.

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2.2 The Babylonian numeration system

This system was invented 3 000 years ago. As the name suggest, it was invented by
Babylonians. Musa (2014) explained that the numerals were symbols inscribed unto
tablets of clay using wedge-shaped wooden puns (styli). He proposes that although the
Babylonians understood the idea of zero, they never had a digit for it. Zero wasn’t seen
as a number but merely a ‘lack of a number’. The Babylonians used a space and later on

used the symbol ‘ ’, to acknowledge the nonexistence of a digit (Musa, 2014).

The Babylonian system was a positional base 60 system. A base is the number of different digits or
combination of digits and letters that a
Our own decimal system (Hindu-Arabic) is a positional system of counting uses to represent
numbers. For example, the most common
system with ten special symbols (0 to 9) which means we base used today is the decimal system.
Because "dec" means 10, it uses the 10
have to learn 10 symbols to use our decimal numbers. digits from 0 to 9.
The Babylonians only had to learn two symbols to
produce their base 60 positional system.

Babylonian numeration symbols

Babylonian Symbol Number Our numeral

One 1

Ten 10

Place marker 0

Here are the 59 symbols built from these symbols.

Adapted from O’Connor & Robertson (2000).

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Next, we look at the Roman numeration system.

2.3 The Roman numeration system

Roman numerals were introduced a thousand years ago and, like the Babylonian system,
has no symbol for zero (Musa, 2014). According to Musa (2014), Roman numerals
involve a system based on finger-counting and some of the early numerals closely
resembled fingers placed in different positions. The symbol I for 1 was deduced from one
finger. Five fingers held up indicate the quantity five of anything that is being counted.
“The V then was the hand outstretched vertically with the spaces between the thumb and
the first finger forming the symbol” (Kuzman, 1998, p. 8). The symbols are read from left
to right. According to Heller (2017, p. 55), “Romans used an additive system:
V + I + I = VII (7) or C + X + X + I (121), and also a subtractive system: IX (I before X =
9), XCIV (X before C = 90 and I before V = 4, 90 + 4 = 94)”. The Romans used a special
method of showing numbers, based on the following symbols:

1 5 10 50 100 500 1 000

I V X L C D M

The Roman numeration system is still in use today and can be seen on, among other
things, clock faces:

Source: Museums Victoria Collections (n.d.).

Below are basic combination of numbers:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
X XX XXX XL L LX LXX LXXX XC

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

C CC CCC CD D DC DCC DCCC CM

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3 hours
10
Reflect on the above numeration systems.

1. Why do you think each of the above numeration systems were invented?
2. Compare the Egyptian and the Babylonian numeration systems in terms of the
number of symbols, functionality and possible uses.
x Write down similarities and differences.
x Are these numeration systems still used today? Do your own research
and then try to provide reasons for your answer.
3. Do we still use the Roman numeration system today? If so, provide examples
from your own environment.

You will learn about the Hindu-Arabic system next.

2.4 The Hindu-Arabic numeration system

Gans (2013) wrote, “… the Arabic numerals were first invented in India by Hindus around
600 AD” (as cited in Musa, 2014, p. 48). The Persian mathematician, Al-Khwarizmi,
therefore named them the “Hindu” numerals. The Europeans later called them “Arabic”
numerals because they were introduced in Europe by the Arabs of North Africa
(Musa, 2014). The system originally had nine symbols from 1 to 9, before zero was
invented (Heller, 2017). The idea of a mark to represent “nothing” or “zero” was never
considered, as people back then only used mathematics for simple calculations and for
counting. The advent of the idea of a zero enabled complex and advanced calculations
(Heller, 2017). This marked the origin of the base 10 numbers used today.

Zhang and Norman (1995) propose that Hindu-Arabic numerals are more efficient for
calculation than many other types. For example, 68 × 21 is much easier to calculate than
LXXIII × XXIV though they both represent the same entities. They also mention the
representational effect, noting that “different representations of a common abstract
structure can cause dramatically different cognitive behaviours...” (Zhang & Norman,
1995, p. 1).

The Hindu-Arabic system is also more efficient in information encoding (Zhang &
Norman, 1995) because the system can be easily read and written. They state that, “at
the level of bases, the base 10 of the Arabic system is a manageable size” (Zhang &
Norman, 1995, p. 21). For example, the multiplication tables that need to be memorized
for this system is far more accessible when compared to other systems like the
Babylonian system with base 60. Zhang and Norman (1995) argued that what makes the

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Hindu-Arabic system special and widely accepted is its property to integrate

representation and calculation into a single system.

It has the following features:

x The Hindu-Arabic system comprises 10 symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.

x The system uses place value in increasing powers of ten. It is a positional system
using base 10.
x Computations can be done easily and efficiently with this system.

THE BASE-TEN CONCEPT

The Hindu-Arabic system enables us to use groupings of 10 that make counting faster
and assists us to understand the place value of digits. For example: A set of dots is given.
The dots represent bottle tops.

We can simplify the counting by grouping the bottle tops in groups/rows of 10. This is
shown below.

One row of 10 bottle tops

6 rows of 10 3 single ones

The number of dots is 6 × 10 + 3 = 60 + 3 = 63

Note that the number 63 denotes 6 tens and 3 units corresponding to ‘6 tens + 3 units’
= ‘63’.

PLACE VALUES AND VALUES OF DIGITS IN NUMBERS

Basically, in the Hindu-Arabic system, the place values and values of the digits become
ten times larger when you move to the left and ten times smaller when you move to the
right. This is illustrated in the following table.

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×10 ×10 ×10 ×10 ×10 ×10 ×10 ×10 ×10 ×10

M H Th T Th Th H T U t h th tth

thousandths

thousandths
hundredths
Thousands

Thousands

Thousands

Hundreds
Hundred
Millions

tenths
Units
Tens
Ten

Ten
Consider the table below to understand the relationship between the place value of a
digit and the place value of a digit on its immediate right or left in the place value table.

Move to the right Move to the left

1 M ÷ 10 = 1 H Th 1 U × 10 = 1 T
1 H Th ÷ 10 = 1 T Th 1 T × 10 = 1 H
1 T Th ÷ 10 = 1 Th 1 H × 10 = 1 Th
1 Th ÷ 10 = 1 H 1 Th × 10 = 1 T Th
1 H ÷ 10 = 1 T 1 T Th × 10 = 1 H Th
1 T ÷ 10 = 1 U 1 H Th × 10 = 1 M

From a mathematical point of view, there is an important difference between the place
value of a digit and value of a digit. Consider the number 4 321, which can be written in
words as: four thousand three hundred and twenty-one.

Th H T U
4 3 2 1

In this number, the place value of:

x 4 is thousands while the value of 4 is 4 000

x 3 is hundreds while the value of 3 is 300
x 2 is tens while the value of 2 is 20
x 1 is units while the value also is 1

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Any number can be written in expanded notation.

For example:
4 321 = 4 000 + 300 + 20 + 1

3 hours
11
Do the following activities from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.6, numbers 1.1 – 1.5 and Exercise 1.7, numbers 1.1 – 1.3.

In Section 3 we have looked at ancient numeration systems and also learnt about our
own numeration system, the Hindu-Arabic system which we are still using today. In
Section 4 we will look at factors and multiples of numbers and also learn about prime
numbers.

SECTION 4: FACTORS, MULTIPLES AND PRIME

NUMBERS

1. INTRODUCTION
Factors and multiples are important concepts when we study numbers. They are also
important when carrying out operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of fractions.

2. FACTORS
Factors are the numbers you multiply to obtain another number. The answer you get if
you multiply two numbers (factors) is called a product. For example, in the equation,
2 × 3 = 6, 2 and 3 are factors of 6. When we multiply them we get 6, six is called a product
of 2 and 3.

Another definition of a factor of a number is a number that divides into another without
leaving a remainder. For example, 4 is a factor of 24. Let us see how to find the factors
of numbers.

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2.1 Find the factors of numbers

A number can have many factors. Let’s take a look at the factors of 12 and 24 as
examples.

Determining factors of 12:

If 1 × 12 = 12 then 1 and 12 are factors of 12.

Factor Factor Product

If 2 × 6 = 12 then 2 and 6 are factors of 12.

Factor Factor Product

If 3 × 4 = 12 then 3 and 4 are factors of 12.

Factor Factor Product

Note that each of the factors of 12 has a “partner”. The “partner” factors of 12 are shown
in the diagram below. How many factors does 12 have? From the partner diagram, we
can see that 12 has 6 factors:
NOTE:
3 × 4 = 12
2 × 6 = 12
1 2 3 4 6 12 1 × 12 = 12

Therefore, ALL the factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12.

Determining factors of 24:

We will use factor pairs to determine the factors of 24 as follows:

As you compute these factors ask yourself a question: “What whole number do I multiply
by 1 to get 24?” When you get the number, then the factor pair is 1 and 24. You proceed
to 2, 3 and so on. If there is no such number then it is not a factor of 24, e.g. 7 has no
any other whole number to multiply with to get 24.

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1 2 3 4 6 8 12 24

Therefore, the factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24.

1 hour
12
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.8, numbers 1.1 and 1.2.

If you work with more than one number, they may have common factors. Sometimes
you will be required to find the highest common factor (HCF).

2.2 Highest Common Factor

A greatest or highest common factor (HCF) is defined as the biggest/largest number that
divides exactly into two or more numbers. It is simply the biggest of the common factors.
You have to realise the difference between a multiple, which is bigger or equal to the
number, and a factor, which is smaller or equal than the number. Another name for the
highest common factor is the "Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)". It is the "greatest" thing
for simplifying fractions!

Let us start with an example of finding the greatest common factor of 12 and 16:

Source: Mathsisfun.com (2017d).

In this example, 1, 2 and 4 are common factors but 4 is the highest common factor (HCF).

Let us find the highest common factors of 36 and 60:

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The factors of 36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, and 36.

The factors of 60 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, and 60.

The common factors are those that are found in both lists.
x The common factors of 12 and 36 are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12.
x So, the highest common factor (HCF) of 36 and 60 is 12.

It is also possible to find the HCF of more than two numbers. The idea of the HCF helps
to simplify fractions to their lowest terms as well as factorisation in algebra. For example,
if we need to simplify the fraction , we need to find the HCF of 36 and 120; which is
12. Then we divide 36 by 12 and also 120 by 12; to get . You will learn more about
simplification of fractions in Section 1 of Unit 2.

1 hour
13
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.9, numbers 1.1 and 1.2.

Now that you know how to find factors of numbers, let us look at multiples.

3. MULTIPLES
When a number is multiplied by 1; 2; 3; 4; … multiples of this number are formed. Any
number has an infinite number of multiples. The multiples of 5 are:

5; 10; 15; 20; 25; … (5 × 1 = 5; 5 × 2 = 10, etc.)

3.1 Find multiples of numbers

Let us find multiples of numbers.

Example: Multiples of 2
Multiples of 2 are: ‘2’, ‘4’, ‘6’, ‘8’ … (2 × 1 = 2; 2 × 2 = 4; 2 × 3 = 6, etc.)

Example: Multiples of 6
Multiples of 6 are: ‘6’, ‘12’, ‘18’, ‘24’ (6 × 1 = 2; 6 × 2 = 12; 6 × 3 = 18 etc.)

Example: Multiples of 24
Multiples of 24 are: ‘24’, ‘48’, ‘72’, (24 × 1 = 24; 24 × 2 = 48; 24 × 3 = 72 etc.)

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2 hours
14
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.10, numbers 1.1; 1.2 and 1.3.

If you can find multiples of numbers, you can also find common multiples and the lowest
common multiple or two or more numbers.

3.2 Lowest Common Multiple

The lowest (least) common multiple (LCM) is the smallest of the common multiples. In
other words, it is the smallest number that is not zero which is a multiple of two or more
numbers.

Do you still remember how to find a multiple? The multiples of a number are obtained if
you multiply that number by other numbers (a helpful way is to multiply the number
by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.). See paragraph 3.1 above. The times tables generates multiples of
a number.

When you write down the multiples of two (or more) numbers, the numbers that are
common in both lists are called common multiples of those numbers.

Let’s look at the common multiples of 4 and 5:

The multiples of 4 is the set {4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32,36,40,44,...}

The multiples of 5 is the set {5,10,15,20,25,30,35,40,45,50,...}

In this example, 20 and 40 appear in both sets. Therefore the common multiples of 4 and
5 are: 20, 40, (and 60, 80, etc.). These common multiples are infinite in number.

In our foregoing example, the smallest of the common multiples in the set {20, 40, 60, 80,
100…} is 20, so the LCM (lowest common multiple) of 4 and 5 is 20.

Let’s look at another example:

Find the lowest common multiple (LCM) of 3 and 5:

Let’s list the multiples of 3 and 5
The multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 …and the multiples of 5 are 5, 10, 15, 20 …
From the above sets of multiples of 3 and 5, the lowest common multiple (LCM) of the
two numbers is 15.

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FINDING THE LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE OF MORE THAN TWO NUMBERS

The process of finding the LCM for two numbers is the same as that of finding the LCM
for more than two numbers.

Example 1: Let’s find the least common multiple for 3, 4 and 8.

The multiples of 3 are: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15,18, 21, 24, 27 ...,

Multiples of 4 are: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, ...

Multiples of 8 are: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, ....

From the above, 24 is the LCM of 3, 4 and 8.

Example 2: Let’s find the least common multiple for 8, 16 and 32.

The multiples of 8 are 8; 16; 24; 32; ...

The multiples of 16 are 16; 32; 48; 64; ...

The multiples of 32 are 32; 64; 96; ...

From the above, 32 is the LCM of 8, 16 and 32.

The idea of the LCM, often referred to as common denominator, is quite important when
adding and subtracting fractions with different denominators. For example, in order to
add + , we need to find the LCM of 3 and 5 to use it to be able to add the unlike
fractions (fractions with different denominators); you will learn more about this in Section
1 of Unit 3.

1 hour and 30 minutes

15
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.11, numbers 1.1; 1.2 and 1.3.

Next, we look at prime numbers.

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4. PRIME NUMBERS
A prime number is a natural number with only two factors: 1 and itself. For example, 5
can only be divided by 1 or 5, so 5 is a prime number.

A number that is not a prime number can be divided by more numbers (factors) than 1
and itself. These numbers are called composite numbers. For example, 8 can be
divided by 1, 2, 4 and 8 and is referred to as a composite number.

NOTE: The number ‘1’ is not a prime number.

4.1 Find the prime numbers

Do the next activity to find the prime numbers between 0 and 50.

2 hours
16
1. How many prime numbers are there between 1 and 50? Write down your guess.
2. Use the definition of a prime number given above to find the prime numbers
between 1 and 50. Remember that prime numbers only have 1 and itself as
factors.
3. Now write down the composite numbers (numbers with more factors than 1 and
itself) between 1 and 50.

Commentary:
To find the prime numbers between 1 and 50, simply:

x Write down the numbers between 1 and 50, ten in a row;

x Circle 2 and cancel the multiples of 2; circle 3 and cancel the multiples of 3;
circle 5 … etc., until only the prime numbers are left;
x Count the number of prime numbers and write them down.

NOTE: This method to find the prime numbers is called the ‘Sieve of Eratosthenes’
which is an ancient algorithm (quick method) for finding prime numbers.

The following are prime numbers between 1 and 50: {2; 3; 5; 7; 11; 13; 17; 19; 23; 29;
31; 37; 41; 43; 47}. The other numbers between 1 and 50 (except for 1) are composite
numbers.

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4.2 Calculating prime factors of a number

Now that you understand what a factor of a number is and what prime numbers are, let
us combine these two concepts and introduce prime factors of numbers.

A prime factor of a number is a factor of the number, which is also a prime number.

We can use a “factor tree” to find the prime factors of numbers. Let us use a factor tree
to find the prime factors of 36.

36

12 × 3

4×3

2×2

The circled factors 2 and 3 are also prime numbers because they do not have any further
factors but 1 and itself. This implies that the prime factors of 36 are 2 and 3, and that 36
can be written as a product of prime factors: 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3.

This same procedure for finding the prime factors of any number using a factor tree is
depicted next.

120 Step 1: Divide your whole number by any

set of factor pair.
12 × 10
Step 2: Circle any prime numbers.

6×2 2×5 Step 3: Continue dividing by factor pairs

until all you have left are prime
numbers.
2×3
Step 4: Write your answer in numerical
order.

∴ 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 120
or 23 × 3 × 5 = 120

The idea that all numbers can be expressed as the product of prime factors is so
important that it is called ‘The Basic Theorem of Arithmetic’. This theorem states that any
natural number greater than one can be written as a product of prime factors.

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1 hour and 30 minutes

17
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 1.12, numbers 1.1; 1.2; 1.3; 1.4 and 1.5.

To revise what you have learnt in this unit, complete the following review activity.

2 hours
18
1. Mary, Jason and Peter completed the following calculation: 72 − (8 x 7) + 9. This
is how the respectively did the calculation:

Mary Jason Peter

72 − 8 × 7 + 9 72 − 8 × 7 + 9 72 − 8 × 7 + 9
= 64 × 16 = 64 × 7 + 9 = 72 – 56 + 9
= 1 024 = 448 + 9 = 24 + 9
= 457 = 33

x Analyse the calculations of Mary, Jason and Peter. Did any of the learners do
the calculation correctly?
x Identify the error(s) in the above calculations. Refer to the BODMAS rule and
give each learner feedback in the form of a brief explanation on the mistakes
that were made.
x Do the calculation correctly to show how the calculation should have been
done.
2. Your friend mistakenly wrote down the multiples of 12 as: 1; 2; 3; 4; 6 and 12.
Show how will you explain to the friend that those are not the multiples of 12 and
how will you explain to your friend to find the multiples?

Commentary:
The BODMAS rule needs to be followed in the first calculation. There are no brackets,
thus multiplication must be done first. Therefore, 72 − 8 × 7 + 9 = 72 – 56 + 9. Then
addition and subtraction can follow from left to right. Thus, 72 – 56 + 9 = 16 + 9 =
25. Both Mary and Jason made mistakes with the order of operations (BODMAS
rule). Note Peter’s subtraction – he subtracted (56 from 72) incorrectly (2 units from
6 units and 5 tens from 7 tens).

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We hope that this unit assisted you in understanding the concept of number, the laws
governing the order of number of operations, ancient numeration systems and factors,
multiples and prime numbers. Before you go on, reflect on what you have learnt so far
and complete the self-assessment activity. If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of
the concepts, go back to the relevant section to study it again.

45 minutes
19
Self-assessment: Unit 1
Now that I have worked through this unit, I
can: YES UNSURE NO
Distinguish between number terms like ‘number’,
‘numeral’ and ‘number name’.
Differentiate between cardinal and ordinal
numbers.
Explain what nominal numbers are.
Explain and use commutative, associative, and
distributive laws.
Explain and use the order of operations correctly.
Describe the features of Hindu-Arabic, Egyptian,
Babylonian and Roman numeration systems.
Apply the Hindu-Arabic numeration system.
Describe the place value features of the Hindu-
Arabic numeration system.
Find factors and multiples of given numbers.
Explain what is meant by a prime number.
Determine the HCF and LCM of given numbers.

In the next unit, we continue our work with numbers and introduce the concepts of
fractions, decimal numbers, and percentages.

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UNIT 2: FRACTIONS, DECIMAL NUMBERS, AND

PERCENTAGES

1. INTRODUCTION
The study of fractions, decimals, and percentages is key in mathematics. It is important
to understand that fractions are also numbers. Also important is how to compare fractions
and to convert them from one form to another. Everyone needs to appreciate how
fractions are added, subtracted multiplied and divided even in this age of calculators.

Fractions, decimals and percentages are intimately related and form an important basis
for numeracy. One needs to work with these concepts interchangeably without difficulty.
Therefore, it is critical for students to understand them as they are used in interpretations,
comparisons as well as problem-solving.

Percentages occur everywhere. Shopkeepers are keen on knowing the percentage profit
or loss on the goods they sell. Education policymakers are keen to know the percentage
pass rate when the matric (Grade 12) exam results are out. Chemists are keen to know
the percentage of impurities in a metal. Are you not interested in the interest rate on the
money you invest? Therefore, this unit is of most importance in mathematics and in
understanding of the world we live in.

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2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 2

Unit 2 consists of the following three sections.

UNIT 2
FRACTIONS, DECIMAL NUMBERS,
AND PERCENTAGES

SECTION 1 SECTION 2
Fractions Decimals

Learning outcomes: At the Learning outcomes: At the

end of this section, you should end of this section, you should
be able to: be able to:
x Distinguish between x Differentiate between a
discrete and continuous decimal fraction and a
variables. decimal number.
x Define fractions: like and x Convert common fractions
unlike fractions, proper and to decimals and vice versa.
improper fractions.
x Generate fractions that are
equivalent.
x Add, subtract, multiply and
divide fractions.

SECTION 3
Percentages

Learning outcomes: At the end of this section,

you should be able to:
x Express fractions as percentages and vice
versa.
x Calculate percentages of given quantities.
x Solve problems involving percentages.

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SECTION 1: FRACTIONS

1. INTRODUCTION
The word fraction comes from the Latin word “frangere” which means “to break”. A
fraction is a part of a whole (Gryskevich, 2015).

Let’s look at the following example:

Suppose there is one square cake to be shared among four children so that each child
gets the same share. How much will each child get?

The cake has to be cut into four equal pieces and shared among the four children as
follows.

This means that each child will get 1 out of the 4 total pieces from the whole (the cake).
In mathematical terms, one child gets one fourth or in simpler terms ‘a quarter’ of the
cake. This part of the whole can be written as a fraction. A fraction is made up of two
numbers, one at the top and one at the bottom of the fraction line. From this example,
each child receives a quarter, which as a fraction is written like this: (1 over 4).

NOTE: The correct notation must be used when fractions are written down. The fraction
line must be a horizontal line. In this case, it is correct to write (but incorrect to write ¼
or 1/4).

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NUMERATOR – The
top number Fraction line
represents the part
of the whole.
DENOMINATOR –
The bottom digit
represents the
whole.

We call the top number of a fraction the numerator. The numerator indicates the number
of parts you have. We call the bottom number the denominator. The denominator
indicates the total number of parts the whole is divided into.

Wholes take various forms depending on what we are dealing with. Examples of wholes
include a cake, a rope, counters, people etc. Not all wholes can be divided and remain
the same unit, for example, a shoe cannot be divided into two parts and remain a shoe.
Therefore wholes are classified into two classes as either discrete or continuous
variables. A variable is a quantity which can take up different values. For an example, the
number of children in a family can be classified as a variable because the number of
children differs from one family to another.

2. UNDERSTANDING TYPES OF VARIABLES

Variables can either be qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative variables are expressed in words and cannot take up numerical values. For
example, a person’s favourite colour can be expressed as pink or yellow or when one is
asked how good the birthday party they attended was, people use qualitative variables
to describe the event. They might say it was fabulous or it was boring. Other examples
of qualitative variables are attitude or disposition. These cannot be measured in quantities
because people display differences in attitudes and dispositions.

Quantitative variables take numerical values. For example, a child’s age or number of
children in his family is expressed in numbers, for example, 12 months and 2 children
respectively.

There are two types of quantitative variables, namely discrete and continuous.

2.1 Discrete variables

A discrete variable is indivisible, meaning if it is divided, then the end result will not be
the same unit (Spector, 2020). Take for example half a person is not a person. Therefore,
a fraction of a discrete variable like ‘a person’ does not make sense. We can however,

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count things that are discrete e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. On the other hand, twelve people can
be divided in half, a third, a quarter, a sixth but you cannot take a fifth of them.

Another example of a discrete quantity is the number of items below.

Nine beads:

Four pencils:

Set of eight dots:

Half a dot is not a dot. We can take half of the dots in the set of 8 dots, but not a third of
them, hence this is a discrete variable.

Let us use another example:

Consider the 12 counters as a discrete whole.

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Suppose you want to find a third ( ) of the 12 counters. The fraction tells you that the
counters are divided into 3 groups and only 1 group is selected.

One of the groups of equal size is (one third) of the whole.

There are four counters in each group. So of the 12 counters is 4 counters.

2.2 Continuous variables

A continuous variable can be divided and still remain the same unit. Let’s consider the
length of a string AB:

A B

The length of the string is not made up of indivisible units. Instead, the string is a
continuous whole. Therefore the string AB is continuous without breaks. Since the length
AB is continuous, we can take any part we please, be it half, a third, a hundredth, etc.
Whatever part we take, the part will be a ‘string’ – not the whole string but a piece of the
string (i.e. the same unit). Therefore, the length of the string is a continuous variable.

Let us use another example:

Consider a pizza as the continuous whole.

Adapted from: Mathsisfun.com (2017c).

The pizza needs to be shared by 8 friends and is cut into 8 equal parts.
Each person will get one piece of the pizza. The piece will be of the whole pizza.
Two people will get two eights altogether i.e. = (one quarter) of the pizza.

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Three people will get three pieces of the pizza altogether. They will get of the whole
pizza etc.

4 2 3
8 8 8
(One half) (One quarter) (Three eighths)
Adapted from: Mathsisfun.com (2017c).

You will learn much more about fractions and different ways to represent fractions in
this Unit.

Remember:
x The top number (numerator) tells how many slices (parts) you have.
x The bottom number (denominator) tells how many slices (equal parts) the pizza
was cut into.

1 hour
20
1. Use examples to distinguish between a discrete and continuous variable (use
your own examples – do not copy those given in the CLG).
2. Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 2.1, numbers 1.1 and 1.2.

3. TYPES OF FRACTIONS
A unitary fraction is a rational number
Fractions are classified into three main categories which written as a fraction where the numerator
is one and the denominator is a positive
are proper, improper and mixed fractions. All these types integer.
of fractions can be unitary or non-unitary. Let us A non-unitary fraction is a fraction
explore these types next. where the numerator is greater than 1.

3.1 Proper fractions

A proper fraction is a fraction with its numerator smaller than its denominator. Examples
of proper fractions include: ; ; etc.

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3.2 Improper fractions

An improper fraction is a fraction with its numerator larger than its denominator. Examples
of improper fractions include. ; etc.

3.3 Mixed numbers

A mixed number contains both a whole number and a fraction. Examples of mixed
numbers include1 ; 2 ; 3 etc. Improper fractions and mixed numbers are closely related.
All improper fractions can be written as mixed numbers and vice versa. This will be
discussed later in paragraph 4.

3.4 Unitary and non-unitary fractions

A unitary fraction is a fraction with numerator 1. Examples of unitary fractions include

, , , and . If the numerator of a fraction is not 1, it is called a non-unitary fraction,
examples of non-unit fractions include ; etc.

3.5 Equivalent fractions

Equivalent means the same or equal. When working with numbers, this can mean when
numbers are written differently but have the same value. They have the same value, even
though they may look different. Look at the example below to explain the meaning of
equivalent.

Example: A R5 coin has the same value as five R1 coins.

One R5 coin Five R1 coins

The two amounts of money are equivalent. They can buy the same amount of goods.

The same can be applied to equivalent fractions. This is fractions that have the same
value but look different. For example, the fraction is the same as and . Let us look
at more examples:

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Check out these circles:

RED
RED RED RED

BLUE BLUE
BLUE
BLUE

The first circle says that is red and the second one says that is
red... But, the same amount is red for both circles!

So, must be the same amount as .

These are called equivalent fractions. (Since they are equal amounts.)
Look at another one: GREEN

G G G

The same amount is green on both so:

If you multiply the numerator and denominator of by 3, you get .

Adapted from Coolmath4kids.com (2019).

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Some more examples include:

2 hours and 30 minutes

21
1. Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 2.1, numbers 1.3 and 1.4.
2. At your next academic support session or in your own study group, discuss your
answers of 1.4. If you did not get the same answers as the members in your group,
try to find out why. Do corrections if required.
3. In how many ways can you write down the fraction ? Use examples to motivate
your answer.

4. MANIPULATING FRACTIONS
4.1 Conversions between improper fractions and mixed numbers
All improper fractions can be written as mixed numbers.

Improper
p p Mixed You must have a sound understanding of what is
Fraction Number meant by proper fractions, improper fractions, and
mixed numbers and see the link between these
7 2 numbers before you will be able to comfortably
1 convert improper fractions to mixed numbers and
5 5 vice versa.

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In the above example, is an improper fraction. To convert to a mixed number we

break down into a whole ( ) with a remaining fractional part ( ).

= + Break down into a whole and a fractional part.

=1+ is an equivalent fraction for 1.
=1 The number is written down by combining a whole number and fractional
part.

In the same way,

= + + + Break down into wholes and fractional parts.

=3+ is an equivalent fraction for 1, is equal to one whole.
=3 Combine the whole number and the fractional part.

The algorithm (short method) for the conversion from an improper fraction to a mixed
number is given below. NOTE: = 17 ÷ 5

2. Divide 5 into 17, write down

the quotient as a whole number

1. The denominator
=3 3. When 17 is divided by 5
is 5
the remainder is 2

4. Write the remainder over

the denominator 5

Next, we look at adding fractions.

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4.2 Adding like fractions

Like fractions are fractions that have the exact same denominator, e.g. and . The two
fractions have the same denominator (4), hence they are called like fractions.

Fractions with different denominators are called unlike fractions, e.g. and .

You can add fractions easily if they are like fractions (when the denominator is the same).

The process is similar to the addition of whole numbers:

1 + 1 = 2; similarly,

1 1 2 1
+ = =
4 4 4 2
(One quarter) (One quarter) (Two quarters) (One half)

+ = =

Adapted from: Mathsisfun.com (2017c).

If we use fraction strips to add + , we first have to divide the strip into 4 equal pieces
and then shade as follows:

of the fraction strip is shaded.

The shaded part represents of the strip. The addition of + can then be represented
as follows:

=
is shaded.

= = is shaded.

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Therefore + = = when reduced to lowest terms or simplest form. In mathematics,

the answer must always be reduced to simplest form unless specified otherwise.

Below is another way of adding like fractions.

Add: +

1. Write down the

fractions to be added. 2. Add the like
fractions.

+ =
3. Divide both the numerator
÷ and the denominator by 2 to
=
÷ simplify the fraction.

=
4. Write down the
simplified answer.

The next example shows how you add mixed numbers, which means having a whole
number and a fraction together. In such a case you need to add wholes and fractions
separately. Like in the previous example, the fraction parts of the mixed numbers have
the same denominator.

Example 1:
Calculate: 3 + 5

We first add the wholes i.e. 3 and 5 to get 8. Then followed by adding the like fractions
i.e. + = . We now combine the resulting wholes and resultant fraction as 8 .

Therefore, 3 + 5 = 8 + ( + ) = 8 . Let us look at another example.

Example 2:
Calculate: 4 + 3

4 +3 =7+( + )
=7+
=7+1
=8

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Again, we first add the wholes together i.e. 4 + 3 = 7. Now let us add the fractions
+ = . But is an improper fraction, we must convert it to a mixed number and it
becomes 1 . Now we have to combine the resultant whole and the resultant mixed
number i.e. 7 + 1 . We apply the same principle of adding wholes first i.e. 7 + 1 = 8. Then
combine the wholes and the fraction to become 8 . Therefore the result is 8 .

We follow the same procedure when subtracting mixed numbers. However, the
fractional parts cannot always be directly subtracted. We will show you two different
methods you can use to do this.

Let us look at an example.

Subtract: 8 ‒ 2

Method 1:
We can subtract the wholes, 8 ‒ 2 = 6. But we cannot subtract from . Therefore, we
need to break up one of the 6 wholes into thirds. Thus we have 5 wholes + . We can
now subtract from and add to get . Then combine the resultant (remaining) wholes
(5) and the fraction part i.e. ‒ = . Therefore, the answer is 5 .

Thus, 8 ‒ 2 = 6 + ‒ = 5 + + ‒ =5

Method 2:
Change the fractions to improper fractions before doing the subtraction calculation.
Then change the answer back to a mixed number.

Therefore, 8 ‒ 2 = ‒ = =5

You are now ready to do the next activity.

2 hours and 30 minutes

22
1. Compare the two methods provided in the above example.
x Are they both correct? How do you know?
x What is the same and what is different in the two methods?
x Which method do you prefer? Provide reasons for your answer.
2. Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 2.2, number 1.1.
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Next, we look at operations involving unlike fractions.

4.3 Adding unlike fractions

What if the denominators (the bottom numbers) of the fractions you have to add, are not
the same? Let us see how the fraction bars helps us to calculate the following:

Add: +

Let us first represent these fractions as follows:

2
3

1
6

The fraction bars are of the same size. Let us think of a way to subdivide the bars so that
they can have the same number of equal pieces as follows:

1
6

The fraction bar for is now divided into 6 pieces which makes the denominator 6 and
the numerator 4, i.e. . In order to add these fractions, the denominators must be the
same. It is much easier to add these now as follows:

+ =

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Let us do another example.

Calculate: +

Rephrased, the question is:

3 1
+ = ?
8 4

+ =

Adapted from: Mathsisfun.com (2017c).

These are not like fractions (the denominators are not the same). To add these fractions,
we must somehow make the denominators the same. In this case it is easy, because we
1 2
know that is the same as :
4

3 2 5
+ =
8 8 8

+ =

Adapted from: Mathsisfun.com (2017c).

Like fractions can also be subtracted and fractions can be used to solve real life problems.
Do the two examples on your own before you look at the solutions.

Example 1: A farmer sold of his sheep and gave to his brother. What fraction of his
sheep is still on the farm?

Solution:
Let us make the set of his sheep = 1.
Thus, there will be 1 – ( + ) = 1 – = – = = of his sheep left on the farm.

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OR: 1 – = – = . There is left after he sold and he gave to his brother.

Then, – = = of his sheep is left on the farm.

NOTE: In this case the “whole” is represented by 1 = . How many other representations
of 1 can you find? Can any whole number be written as a fraction? The answer is yes,
but we will come back to this question in the next activity.

Example 2: Peter ate of his sandwich at first break and at second break. On the way
home, he ate half of what is left.
x How much of the sandwich did he eat altogether?
x What part of the sandwich is left?

Solution:
Let us draw diagrams to show the different parts that Peter ate:

NOTE: was left and he

therefore ate (because
= or half of = ).

First break: ; Second break: After school:

Therefore Peter ate: + + = + + = of his sandwich.

This part is left.

There is 1 – = – = of the sandwich left.

2 hours and 30 minutes

23
1. Write down at least five different representations of 1 e.g.1 = = …etc.
2. Do the following activities from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 2.2, number 1.2.

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Commentary:

1 (one whole) can be written down or represented in infinitely many different ways
i.e. 1 = = = … as long as the numerator is the same as the denominator.
This means that all the parts out of the equal number of parts are taken. Any whole
number can be written as a fraction. For example, 2 = = = …etc.

So far you have learnt to add fractions with the same denominators (like fractions) or
fractions where the denominators are multiples of each other. In the next paragraph, we
will look at how we can add fractions where the denominators are not multiples of each
other. It can then be harder to make the denominators the same, so you may then need
to use another method. This will be discussed next.

4.4 Adding and subtracting unlike fractions using equivalence

To add or subtract fractions, the denominators have to be the same. If the denominators
are different they need to be converted into equivalent fractions. Let us look at a few
examples.

Example 1:
Add: +

The example has denominators 3 and 4 which are not the same. We need to make the
denominators the same by determining the lowest common multiple (LCM) of 3 and 4
which is 12. Do you still remember how to find the LCM? If required refer back to Unit 1,
Section 4, paragraph 3.2.

Having found the LCM of 3 and 4 as 12 we now have to get equivalent fractions
for and that have the same denominator, i.e. 12. To get the equivalent fraction of with
12 as the denominator, we need to multiply the denominator 3 by 4. What is done to the
denominator of any fraction should also be done to its numerator for equivalency.

This implies that we multiply 2 (numerator) by 4 also to become 8. Therefore the resultant
equivalent fraction of is .

×
In short: = =
×

1
We follow the same procedure to determine the equivalent fraction of . In this case to
4
convert the denominator 4 to be 12 we need to multiply it by 3. What we do to the

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denominator is what we do to the numerator, hence we multiply 1 by 3 to become 3. The

resulting equivalent fraction is . Thus,

×
= =
×

When each fraction is converted to an equivalent fraction with the same denominator (12
in this case), they can be added:

+ = + =

The answer to the example is . Let us do another example.

Example 2:
Simplify: +

We first look at the denominators and in this case, they are different. We then determine
the LCM for 7 and 4 which is 28. The equivalent fraction of with its denominator as 28
is . This means we have multiplied both the numerator and denominator by 4. The
equivalent fraction of with its denominator as 28 is . This time we have multiplied both
the numerator and denominator by 7. Next, we do the calculation:

+ = + = . This is an improper fraction. Can you say why?

To simplify the answer, we have to convert it to a mixed number:

=1
=1 when reduced to its lowest terms.

NOTE: When you get the final answer as an improper fraction, always convert it to a
mixed number and leave all fractions in their lowest terms.

Next, let us look at an example involving subtraction.

Example 3:
Subtract: −

For subtraction of unlike fractions, we follow the same procedures by making use of
equivalent fractions as with addition. The LCM of 6 and 9 is 18. The equivalent fraction
of with its denominator 18 is . This means we have multiplied both the numerator and

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denominator by 3. The equivalent fraction of with its denominator 18 is . This means

we have multiplied both the numerator and denominator by 2. We can then do the
subtraction:

− = − =

The answer is . Next is an example that involves both addition and subtraction.

Example 4:
Calculate: + −

The LCM for 9, 3 and 6 is 18. The equivalent fraction for with 18 as the denominator
is . The equivalent fractions for and with 18 as a denominator are and
respectively. Having found the equivalent fractions, we can proceed with the calculation:

‒
+ - = + - = = .

Therefore the answer is .

In the next example you will learn how you add and subtract mixed numbers.

Example 5:
Simplify: 3 + 4 ‒ 2

Again, we will show you two methods.

Method 1
We first add and subtract the whole numbers (3 + 4 ‒ 2 = 5) and then fractions
( + − ) separately. The fractions have different denominators which are 2, 7 and 8.
The LCM for the denominators is 42. When converted to their equivalent fractions with
42 as the denominator they become + ‒ which is equal to . The final result after
combining the result of the whole numbers and resultant fraction is 5 .
3+4–2+ + −
=5+ + −
=5+
=5

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Method 2
First change the mixed numbers to improper fractions. Write as improper fractions with
the same denominator. Do the calculations and then change the answer back to a mixed
number.

3 +4 ‒2 = + ‒ (write the mixed numbers as improper fractions)

= + ‒ (write with the LCM of fractions as denominator)
= (add and subtract the fractions)
=5 (write as a mixed number)

Addition and subtraction of mixed numbers with fractions with different denominators are
often used in real life situations as illustrated in the next example.

Example 6:
Two participating teams each received 5 litres of water for an outdoor activity on a certain
day. The one team used 4 litres and the other team used 2 litres of water. How many
litres of water did the two teams in total have left at the end of the day?

The calculation we need to do involves both addition and subtraction of mixed numbers.

The one team has: 5 ‒ 4 = litre of water left.

The other team has: 5 ‒ 2 = 1 litre of water left.
Thus in total there was: +1 =1+ + =1+ + =1 litres of water left.

NOTE: The calculation: 10 ‒ 4 ‒ 2 or 10 ‒ (4 + 2 ) could also be used to find the same

answer. Do these calculations on your own.

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1 hour and 30 minutes

24
Reflect on what you have learnt so far about the addition and subtraction of fractions:
x Can you differentiate between like and unlike fractions?
x When you need to add or subtract fractions where the denominators are
multiples of each other, e.g. 8 and 16, which steps will you follow? Use your
own example to show the steps.
x When you need to add and subtract mixed numbers where the denominators
of the fractions are not multiples of each other, e.g. 2, 3 and 5, which steps
will you follow?
x Provide at least one example where knowledge of fractions can assist you to
solve a real-life problem.

6 hours
25
Select examples from the following activities in your Fundamental Mathematics
Workbook to develop your own knowledge and skills in order to use addition and
subtraction of fractions to solve real-life problems:
x Exercise 2.2, numbers 1.3; 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6
x Exercise 2.3 (a) to (v) – word problems.
x Exercise 2.4, numbers 1.1 and 1.2.
x Exercise 2.5 (a) to (v) – word problems.

Let us multiply fractions next.

4.5 Multiplying fractions

Multiplication can be regarded as repeated addition e.g. 4 × 3 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12 or with
fractions × 3 = + + = 1 or, in an array; 3 × 4 is represented by 3 across (rows) and
4 down (columns) to give 12.
Columns

Rows

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In the equation 4 × 3 = 12, 4 is the multiplicand, 3 is the multiplier and 12 is the product.
In the same manner, let us see how we represent fractions in an array.

Example 1:
Multiply: ×

For the fractions × it means across (horizontal) and down (vertical).

of the horizontal strips is shaded.

of the vertical strips is shaded.

So across and down gives of the whole which is the double shaded (overlapped)
part.

Therefore, × = .

Let’s observe more examples of how arrays are used in doing multiplication.

Example 2:
Multiply: ×

We represent the fractions in an array by drawing a 1 whole block and subdivide it into 9
equal horizontal strips and shade 1 strip to represent . We further divide it into 7 equal
vertical strips and shade 2 strips to represent as follows:

2
7

9 Horizontal partitions

1 The product of and

9
7 Vertical partitions

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The part that is double shaded is the product of the two fractions (see circled part).
Therefore, × = . In other words there are 2 boxes double shaded out of a total of 63
boxes.

Let us now look at another method to multiply fractions by doing the following example.

Example 3:
Multiply ×

1. Write 2. Multiply the numerators

down the and then the denominators.
fractions ×
that must × =
×
be
multiplied. 3. Write down the
= result (2 and 12).

4. Simplify the fraction.

=

A quicker way to get to the answer is to simplify the fractions first and then find the
answer as follows:

× = (Divide both the numerator and denominator by 2 since 2 is the

2 highest common factor (HCF) of 2 and 4.)

Here we have divided both the numerator and denominator by 2 before we simplified.

Now that you have learnt how to multiply fractions, let us also see how to multiply mixed
numbers.

Example 4:
Calculate: 3 × 2
1. Rewrite the mixed numbers
as improper fractions.
3 ×2 = ×

×
= 2. Multiply the numerators and
× the denominators.

4. Simplify the = 3. Divide by 5 on top and

fraction. below the line.

=9

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3 hours
26
Do the following activities from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 2.6, numbers 1.1; 1.2; 1.3 and 1.4.

4.6 Dividing fractions

Division concerns finding how many equal parts are contained in a number when it is
divided by another. Thus for whole numbers 12 divided by 3 (12 ÷ 3) means how many
3s (groups of 3) are there in 12. The same principle applies to fractions.

Calculate ÷
In the same way ÷ means how many quarters are there in a half. Let us illustrate this
next.

We represent half using a fraction strip by drawing a 1 whole strip and divide it into 2
equal parts and 1 part represents half.

is represented by the shaded part.

HALF

We then draw another 1 whole strip and divide it into four equal parts. One part represents
a quarter of the strip as follows:

1 is represented by the shaded part.

4

The problem ÷ is asking, how many quarters are in or how many quarters can we
divide a half into? This is answered below:

HALF

1 1
4 4

From the drawings above we can see that there are two quarters in one half or gets
into two times.
Therefore ÷ = 2.
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Let us look at another example.

Example 1:
Calculate 2 ÷

The question is asking, how many quarters are there in 2 wholes. Let us illustrate this
below:

Let us first draw the 2 wholes. Then draw strips divided into quarters like below.

1 WHOLE 1 WHOLE

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

We have divided the two wholes into quarters. We now count the number of quarters that
the 2 strips have been divided into. We can see that there are eight quarters in two wholes
or 2 ÷ = 8.
Reciprocal: You get the reciprocal of
a fraction by turning the fraction
Dividing fractions is the same as multiplying by the ‘upside down’ i.e. swapping over the
numerator and denominator. The
reciprocal of the fraction. Multiplying by the reciprocal is product of a fraction and its reciprocal
is 1, e.g. × = 1.
the same as flipping the second fraction and then carry out
multiplication the same way we did earlier. For example, the reciprocal of is , that is,
what was the denominator becomes the numerator and what was the numerator
becomes the denominator.

Example 2:
Calculate: ÷
1. Write the reciprocal of
as and multiply.
÷ = ×

= 2. Carry out the multiplication.

=1 3. Convert to a mixed
number.

Here is another example.

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Example 3:
Calculate: ÷
÷ = × (flip over to become and multiply)
= (carry out the multiplication)
=4 (simplify the answer)

2 hours and 30 minutes

27
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 2.6, number 1.5 – 1.7

In Section 1 we looked at the concept of a fraction, types of fractions, and manipulating

fractions using the four basic operations. In Section 2 we will look at decimals.

SECTION 2: DECIMALS

1. INTRODUCTION
Our society makes widespread use of metric measurement for scientific and everyday
purposes. Computers and calculators use decimal digital displays, so making sense of
decimal numbers is essential. In the everyday, measurements fall into the categories of
weight, area, volume, length, temperature etc. While we look at these various areas as
indifferent forms of mathematical measurements, a closer examination of things we do in
everyday life reveals their importance (Moloney & Stacey, 2016). If you are ill, you need
to take your medicine and take it in the correct quantity (amount). If you take too little or
too much then you are not going to get the proper benefit from it. Therefore, there is a
need for people to understand and interpret decimals for such varied needs (van de
Walle, Karp & Bay-Williams, 2010, p. 349). “A decimal is another way to write a fraction.
A decimal is a part of a whole” (Gryskevich, 2015, p. 126).

In Latin, decimal means a tenth part. The term "decimal" therefore implies "based on 10".
It is a fraction whose denominator is a power of ten, for example, or . Let us look
at more examples of decimals.

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One tenth ( = 0,1)

Fractions with denominators that are multiples of 10 can be easily connected to decimal
numbers. Such fractions that have denominators of 10, 100 or 1 000 and are called base-
ten or decimal fractions.

One hundredth ( = 0,01)

There is a special way to write decimal numbers. For example:

x = 0,1 and = 0,5
x = 0,01; = 0,42
x = 0,001; = 0,073; = 0,125;

The number 3,547 is represented on the place value chart:

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PLACE VALUE CHART

Thousands Hundreds Tens Units tenths hundredths thousandths
,
1 1 1
1 000 100 10 1 , 10 100 1000
3 , 5 4 7

In some countries a decimal ‘point’ is used to write down decimal numbers, but in South
Africa we use a decimal comma for this purpose. The decimal comma between the units
and the tenths separates the whole number part from the fractional part. In 3,547 the
whole number part is 3 and the fractional part can be written as . Thus 3,547 = 3 .

In expanded notation, this number can be written as:

3,547 = 3 + + +

In the number 142,67 the whole number is 142 and the fractional part is 0,67 or .
Therefore 142,67 = 142 . In expanded notation, this number can be written as:
142,67 = 100 + 40 + 2 + + .

2 hours and 30 minutes

28
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 2.7 (a) to (m).

We are going to look at converting fractions to decimals next.

2. CONVERTING FRACTIONS TO DECIMAL NUMBERS

Rational numbers: any number that can
Every fraction can be converted to decimals. The be expressed as a fraction of two whole
decimal forms of rational numbers either terminate numbers (integers), a numerator p and a
(end) or recur (repeat a pattern). Hence there are two non-zero denominator q. Since q may be
equal to 1, every whole number (integer)
forms of decimals for rational numbers namely is a rational number.
terminating decimals and recurring decimals (van de
Walle et al., 2010). Terminating decimals are those which 'stop' at a given number of
decimal places, for example 0,5 (1 decimal place), 0,75 (2 decimal places), 3,125 (3
decimal places) and so on. Recurring decimals are those which do not 'stop' at a given
number of decimal places but which may have a repeating digit or repeating set of digits
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after the decimal comma, for example 0,33333… (repeating the 3 endlessly) or
0,453453… (repeating the pattern 453 endlessly).

To convert fractions to decimal numbers you divide the numerator by the denominator. If
the division does not come out evenly, you can stop after a certain number of decimal
places and round off.

In short, for you to convert fractions to decimal numbers:

1. Convert a mixed number to an improper fraction if the number is mixed.

2. Divide the numerator by the denominator.
3. If the division doesn’t come out evenly, round the decimal off.

Fractions with denominators of 10, 100, 1 000, and so on are called base-ten (decimal)
fractions. Examples include , etc. Let us closely look at the following base ten
fractions converted to decimal numbers:

x = 0,1

x = 0,7

x = 0,01

x = 0,07

x = 0,001

x = 0,007

x = 0,323

x = 0,0047

When you look at the above examples closely, you will realise that when we divide a
number by a denominator which is a power of ten, the number of zeros on the
denominator is the same as the number decimal places the quotient (result after division)
is going to have. E.g. = 0,07 the quotient has 2 decimal places after the comma and
100 has 2 zeros which is the denominator. With the same logic in mind, you can convert
fractions with denominators which are not powers of 10 by expanding the denominator to
be a power of 10.

Let’s do some examples:

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Example 1:
Write as a decimal fraction:

×
= = = 0,8
×

Example 2:
Convert to a decimal number:

×
= = = 0,25
×

Example 3:
Convert to a decimal number:

×
= = = 0,375
×

We can also use long division to divide the fraction's numerator by the fraction's
denominator to convert fractions to decimal numbers as follows:

Example 4:
Convert to a decimal number using long division:

We can convert this fraction to a mixed number by using long division i.e. performing 3
divided 4:

0, 7 5
4 3, 0 0
– 0 Bring down a zero (0) since 3 is under the
units on place value table and an endless
3 0
series of zeros after the decimal comma.
– 2 8
2 0
– 2 0
0

Hence = 0,75

You can also use short division to convert fractions to decimal numbers. Let’s do an
example below.

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Example 5:
Convert to a decimal number:

Similarly we will divide 2 by 5 but using the short division method.

Start by dividing 2 by 5 and the 5 goes into 2 units zero times

hence we write 0 units. There is a remainder of 2 that we have to
=
carry over to the tenths.
0,
2
, The 2 that we have carried over to the tenths becomes 20 tenths. We divide
the 20 tenths by 5 and get 4 tenths. We write 4 under the tenths. There is no
remainder hence we end here. If there was a remainder we could have
= 0,4 carried it forward to zero hundreds and so on.

Note: The number 2 is equal to 2 ‘wholes’ or 2 units and therefore falls under the Units
on the place value table. It is followed by a sequence of zeros representing tenths,
hundredths, thousands etc. Therefore the number 2 can be written as 2,00000… . Notice
the decimal comma.

Let’s apply the same procedure in the following example.

Example 6:
Convert to a decimal fraction.

Start by dividing 5 by 8 and the 8 goes into 5 units zero

5
times hence we write 0 units. There is a remainder of 5
8 that we have to carry over to the zero tenths.
0,
5 2 4
5, 0 0 0 The 5 that we have carried over to the tenths becomes 50 tenths. We divide the 50
8 tenths by 8 and get 6 tenths. We write 6 under the tenths. There is a remainder of
2 that we carry over to zero (0) hundredths and becomes 20 hundredths. We then
divide the 20 by 8 to get 2 remainder 4. We write 2 under hundredths and carry
= 0,625
over the remainder 4 to zero (0) thousandths and becomes 40 thousandths. We
then divide 40 by 8 and get 5. There is no remainder hence we end here.

Note: 5 = 5,00000…

Therefore = 0,625.

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2 hours and 30 minutes

29
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 2.8 (a) to (x).

Next we will convert decimals to fractions.

3. CONVERTING DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS

Given any decimal number e.g. 0,45, you should note the number of digits after the
decimal comma. In this example there are 2 digits after the decimal comma. You should
come to the realisation that the fraction must be divided by 100 like we saw earlier. A
decimal number like 23,402 has three digits after the comma, hence the fraction part of
the number is divided by 1000 and the whole number part is 23.

In the next example, we convert the decimal, 0,45 to a fraction:

0,45 has 2 digits after the comma, hence the fraction is divided by 100.

We write it as:
0,45 = … the last digit is in the place value of hundredths
= … simplify by dividing both numerator and denominator by 5

We have expressed the fraction in lowest terms by dividing the numerator and
denominator by the highest common factor (HCF).

Here is another example where we convert the decimal number, 23,402 to a fraction. You
will notice that this time the given number has a whole number part and a decimal number
part. The fraction is divided by 1 000. We write it as:

Always remember to write the

23 = 23 fractions in their simplest form.

7 hours
30
Do the following activities from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook to
enhance your understanding of working with decimals:
Exercise 2.9 (a) to (x); Exercise 2.10, numbers 1.1 – 1.3; Exercise 2.11, numbers
1.1 – 1.7.
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In Section 2, you learnt more about decimal numbers and how to convert decimals to
fractions and vice versa. In the next section, we will look at percentages.

SECTION 3: PERCENTAGES

1. INTRODUCTION
Percentages are an important part of our everyday lives. Several sectors of the South
African economy use percentages to quantify different variables, depending on their line
of business. This is because percentages provide a very handy way of comparison and
of writing fractions. Percentages provide an easier way of comparing quantities than
fractions. For example, if you obtain 24 out of 30 ( ) on one test and 75 out of 90 ( ) on
another, which result is better? It becomes much easier to compare the two results if they
are out of the same amount. Moreover it is much easier to use a common denominator
of 100 (Luneta, 2013). Consider the pass rate of two schools, with school A attaining a
and school B a pass rate. Which school performed better? Comparing the two pass
rates using percentages is much easier and more understandable. In this section you will
learn more about the concept of percentage and how to compare quantities like these
using percentages.

2. BASIC PERCENTAGES CONCEPTS

The term “percent” means out of 100 or per hundred. It is simply another term for
hundredths (van de Walle et al., 2010). The fraction expressed in hundredths is .
When expressed in decimal form, it is 0,75 (like what we saw earlier). Both 0,75 and
are read “seventy five hundredths” (van de Walle et al., 2010). Percentage is often
represented by the symbol %. The (%) symbol is a quick way to write a fraction with a
denominator of 100. We write the numerator followed by the sign %, for example, is
written as 75% (Lakin, 2010).

Let us look at everyday examples where we encounter percentages:

x Shops advertise discounts on their products. These discounts are percentages,

e.g. "Up to 50% off marked prices".

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x Financial institutions quote interest charged to the client on loans, or interest paid
for money invested, as a percentage, e.g. "Housing Loans: 6,95% p.a. for the first
12 months".

6,95% p.a.

x Companies describe their success or failure as an increase or decrease in profit

levels. "C-Company’s profit went up by 15% for the last financial year".
15%

3%

Percentages are closely linked to common fractions and decimals. Recognising these
connections will assist you to make sense of percentages.

30 minutes
31
Is it possible to get something that is more than 100%, for example 115%? Explain
your answer.

There are THREE WAYS in which we can write a percentage:

x Use a percent sign, for example: 60%;

x Use a fraction, for example: ; or
x Use a decimal, for example 0,6.

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All of these are equivalent representations of the same quantity. This means that
60% = = 0,6 = 60 out of 100.

Study the next table to see the close relationship between common fractions, decimal
numbers and percentages.

Common Fraction Decimal Number Percentage Meaning

1
0,01 1% 1 out of 100
100
= 0,1 or 0,10 10% 10 out of 100

= 0,25 25% 25 out of 100

= 0,5 50% 50 out of 100

= 0,75 75% 75 out of 100

100
1 100% 100 out of 100
100

Once you understand the basic percentages concepts, you are ready to do calculations
with percentages of whole numbers. Looking at the pass rate of the two schools
mentioned in the introduction paragraph:

×
Pass rate of School A: = = = 60%
×

×
Pass rate of School B: = = = 70%
×

From here it is easy to see that school B had a higher pass rate and therefore performed
better.

4 hours
32
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 2.12 (a) – (x) and Exercise 2.13 (a) – (x); and Exercise 2.14, numbers 1.1;
1.2 and 1.3.

You are now ready to learn more about calculations with percentages.

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3. CALCULATIONS WITH PERCENTAGES

To calculate a percentage of a certain quantity or a whole number is simply another way
of calculating a fractional part of a quantity.

You must first start with simple calculations involving percentages. In the example, we
will show you how to calculate 20% of 50. The calculation method and a step-by-step
explanation are shown next.

1. Write 2. Multiply by 4. Multiply top and bottom

20% as a the quantity. numbers and simplify.
decimal 20 × 1 = 20; 2 ×1 = 2.
fraction. 10
1
× =
3. Divide the 2 5. Divide both the numerator
numerator and
1
= 10 and denominator by 2;
denominator by 20 y 2 = 10; 2 y 2 = 1.
50 to simplify.
100 y 50 = 2;
50 y 50 = 1.

NOTE: Any whole number can be written as a fraction with denominator 1, for example:
5= and 50 = .

The following examples illustrate how percentage problems are worked out.

Example 1: Calculate 25% of 240 students.

25% =

1 60

And × = 60
4 1

So 25% of 240 students is 60.

Example 2: A container contains blue and grey balls, 15% of 140 balls are grey. How
many blue balls are there?

15% = .

Therefore, 15% of 140 is × = = 21 grey balls.

So there are 140 − 21 = 119 blue balls.

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Example 3: If only 7 of the 140 balls were grey, what percentage would it be?

As a percentage it is: × = 5%

Example 4: The price of a desk is discounted by 15% at a sale. The old price was
R250,00. Calculate the discount price.

Let us look at two methods to find the solution.

Method 1
First, find 15% of R250: × = = 37,5

So the price is discounted by R37,50

The discount price of the desk is: R240,00 − R37,50 = R202,50

Method 2
The original price of the desk is 100%. So after 15% discount it is sold at
100% − 15% = 85% of the original price.

× = = 202,5

Therefore, the discounted price is R202,50

Example 5: What percentage is R15,00 of R120,00?

Method 1
Draw a table and fill in what we know:

R15 ?%
R120 100%

We do cross-multiplication on the known corners, then divide by the third number.

Percentage = (R15 × 100) ÷ R120 = 1 500 ÷ 120 = 12,5%.

Therefore, R15,00 is 12,5% of R120,00.

Method 2
We calculate what percentage is R15 of R120 as follows: × = = 12,5%

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Example 6: The sales price of a laptop was R2 100, which was only 75% of original
price. Find the original price.

Draw a table and fill in what is known:

70% R2 100
100% ?

We do cross multiplication on the known corners, then divide by the third number:

(R2 100 × 100%) ÷ 75% = R2 800,00

Therefore, the original laptop price was R2 800,00.

Before you do the next activity, reflect on what you have learnt about percentages.

2 hours
33
3
Make your own summary of the mathematical concepts you have gained so far. Use
your summary as a base to answer the following:

1. Provide your own examples of percentages in real life, in your own lifeworld.
Discuss your understanding of these with a friend, colleague or family member.
2. How is fractions linked to decimals and percentages? Use the fraction “two
thirds” to show this relationship. Explain this relationship to another person.

5 hours
34
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 2.15, numbers 1.1; 1.2; 1.3; 1.4; 1.5; 1.6; 1.7 and 1.8.

You have come to the end of Unit 2: Fractions, Decimals and Percentages. We hope that
this unit assisted you to know and understand the concept of fractions, decimals and
percentages and how these are related. Reflect on what you have learnt by completing
the next activity.

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2 hours
35
Redraw the table. Keep the headings but do not copy the wrong calculations.

Subtraction of From fractions to Percentages

fractions decimals
4 ‒ 2 = 2 WRONG = 0,34 WRONG What percentage is
R15,00 of R120,00?
× = 18% WRONG

Now complete the table:

1. Identify the error(s) in the above calculations. Explain the conceptual error in each
case.
2. Do the calculations correctly to show how the calculation should have been done.
Explain all your steps.

Before you go on, reflect on what you have learnt so far and complete the self-
assessment activity. If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of the concepts, go back
to the relevant section to study it again.

1 hour
36

Self-assessment: Unit 2
Now that I have worked through this unit, I can: YES UNSURE NO
Distinguish between discrete and continuous
variables.
Define fractions: like and unlike fractions, proper
and improper fractions.
Generate fractions that are equivalent.
Add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions.
Differentiate between a decimal fraction and a
decimal number.

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Convert common fractions to decimals and vice

versa.
Express fractions as percentages and vice versa.
Calculate percentages of given quantities.

Solve problems involving percentages.

In Unit 2 you have learnt to distinguish between discrete and continuous variables,
differentiate between like and unlike fractions as well as proper and improper fractions,
generate equivalent fractions and manipulate fractions. You also explored decimals and
percentages and solved problems involving percentages. In Unit, 3 we will look at ratio,
rate, and proportion and how these are applied in real life situations.

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UNIT 3: RATE, RATIO AND PROPORTION

1. INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with ratio, rate, and proportion. These concepts are important to help you
solve common arithmetic problems. Ratios occur everywhere — in cooking, sports and
business. For example, when you bake a cake, you need to know the correct number of
cups of flour, milk, or sugar you need to mix to bake cake that will not flop.

Problems that use rates occur frequently in your daily lives. You need to know how many
kilometres you travel to work so that you can calculate taxi fare or how many kilometres
per litre your car consumes so that you have enough fuel for your journey. If you work
somewhere part time and are paid an hourly rate, your employer must be able to work
out how much he or she needs to pay you for the number of hours you have worked.

This unit equips you with skills to enable you to solve daily, real-life problems that relate
to ratio and rate. You will also be introduced to direct and indirect proportion and you will
learn how you can use your knowledge of proportion to solve daily problems.

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2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 3

Unit 3 has three sections:

UNIT 3
RATE, RATIO AND PROPORTION

SECTION 1 SECTION 2
Understanding and Using Understanding and Using
Ratio Rate

Learning outcomes: At the Learning outcomes: At the

end of this section, you should end of this section, you should
be able to: be able to:
x Explain the concept ‘ratio’. x Explain the concept ‘rate’.
x Solve problems involving x Solve problems involving
ratios. rate.

SECTION 3
Understanding and Using Proportion

Learning outcomes: At the end of this

section, you should be able to:
x Distinguish between direct and
indirect proportion.
x Explain compound proportion.
x Solve problems involving proportion.

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SECTION 1: UNDERSTANDING AND USING RATIO

1. INTRODUCTION
In Section 1, we introduce the concept of ratio. We will also introduce rate since these
two concepts are closely related, thereby showing the link between the two. Ratios are
mostly used in comparing quantities of the same kind and can be useful when we have
to write reports or provide statistics. We will also look at the types of ratios, specifically
part-to-whole and part-to-part ratios and then learn how to use ratios to solve problems.

2. UNDERSTANDING RATIO
We encounter and use ratios every day of our lives. Van de Walle et al. (2010) defined
ratio as simply a comparison of two quantities or measures within a given situation.
Morrison and Press (2006) propose that we use ratios to make comparisons between two
things. As an illustration, we may compare boys to girls, cars to trucks or time spent on
study to time spent watching television. In defining ratio, Smith (2002) states, “A ratio can
be applied to another situation where the relative amounts of the quantities or measures
are the same as in the first situation” (as cited in van de Walle et al., 2010, p. 349).

For example, when we compare boys to girls we are comparing the quantity of people.
Suppose we have a class where there are 10 boys and 20 girls. Straight away you can
say there are twice as many girls as boys, or for every boy in the class there are two girls
(Lakin, 2010). Such a comparison is an example of a ratio. The ratio that, for every boy
in the class there are two girls, is written in the form 1:2 (one to two). When we express
ratios in words, we use the word "to", so we say "the ratio of boys to girls”. Ratios can be
written in several different ways i.e. using the word "to", or with a colon (1 : 2), or as a
fraction ( ). The fraction way of representing ratios will be discussed next where we are
dealing with types of ratios.

2.1 Types of ratios

Usually, without realising or thinking about it, we use ratio in a variety of different contexts.
These different contexts bring about the different types (or forms) of ratio and the ways
in which each is applied.

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2.1.1 Part-to-whole ratios

“Ratios can express comparisons of a part to a whole...” (van de Walle et al., 2010,
p. 349). This is a comparison of desired or selected parts of a whole to the total number
of parts in a whole. Using our previous example of the class, the number of boys in the
class can be compared to the total number of learners in the class. Van de Walle et al.
state that “because fractions are also part-whole ratios, it follows that every fraction is
also a ratio” (2010, p. 349). This is because when we write fractions, we write the selected
part (numerator) in relation to the total number of parts (denominator) in a given set. In
this case it would be: = = or 1 : 3 (in simplest form).

2.1.2 Part-to-part ratios

This is a ratio that represents a relationship between one part of a whole and another part
of the same whole (van de Walle et al., 2010). For example, in a class where there are
10 boys and 20 girls, the whole is the class, one part consists of boys and the other part
Boys 10 1
comprises of girls. The ratio = = or 1 : 2 (in simplest form).
20 2

This type of ratio can compare relationships of more than two parts, e.g. a bag containing
24 marbles of which 8 are red, 9 are green and 7 are yellow. The ratio of yellow to red to
green marbles is 7 : 8 : 9. This relationship is comparing more than two parts.

2.1.3 Rates as ratios

The above types of ratios, part-to-whole and part-to-part, compare quantities of the same
kind or type. In the example of boys and girls in class, the quantity being compared is
learners. Van de Walle et al. (2010) states that “a ratio can also be a rate” (p. 349). A
rate compares two quantities of different kinds, e.g. a car travelling a distance of 100
km in an hour. In this case, we are comparing distance against time. Distance and time
represent two different quantities that are being compared. When two quantities of
different kinds are compared, we talk about rate.

Let’s look at how ratio works in everyday life.

2.2 Using ratio to solve problems

Ratio has wide applications in mathematics, science, commerce, and engineering. We

use ratio in our everyday lives, for instance when following instructions to cook or bake
or even when we shop. For example, when mixing a concentrated drink, the instructions
may be to use 1 part of concentrate to 5 parts of water. This is a ratio of 1 : 5.

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While shopping, people make comparisons of price ratios. For example, if one kind of
meat costs R360,00 for 6 kg and the other kind costs R50,00 per kg, which kind of meat
is cheaper? Even in building projects, scale drawing ratios are frequently used. When
scale is given as 1 : 20 on a map, it means that one unit on paper represents 20 units in
real life. You may also be given a distance of 1 300 m to convert to kilometres (km). This
is known as measurement conversion ratio.

Ratio is usually perceived to compare only two quantities, yet it can compare more than
two. Next we look at examples of how to use the ratio of two or more quantities to solve
problems.

2.2.1 Ratio using two quantities

Let’s use the following couple of examples to show how to solve ratio problems involving
two quantities.

Example 1
Mrs Gumede is a Grade 3 teacher. There are 15 boys
and 10 girls in her Grade 3 class. Simplest form: when quantities being
compared cannot be any smaller (while
still being whole numbers). Example: 2:4
can be simplified to 1:2. This is done by
1. What is the ratio of boys to girls? dividing both 2 and 4 by the highest
2. What does this ratio mean? number that can divide into both numbers
exactly (HCF). In this case it is 2.
3. Convert the ratio to its simplest form.

To find the ratio of boys to girls in the Grade 3 class, we need to look at the number of
boys and the number of girls. We must write this in ratio form as shown next:

Number of Boys Number of Girls

The ratio Boys : Girls is 15 : 10

We can further simplify this ratio by dividing with a common factor i.e. the HCF of 15 and
10 which is 5:
Boys : Girls
Divide by 5 15 : 10 Divide by 5
3:2

This ratio simply means that for every three boys in the class there are two girls.

You can picture it like this:

For every three boys,
BOYS: --------------- there are two girls.

GIRLS: ..........

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Note that order is very important when writing ratios. The ratio of boys to girls is written
as 15 : 10 (and not 10 : 15 as this would be the ratio girls to boys). The ratio 15 : 10 is
equivalent to the ratio 3 : 2. Thus, three boys for every two girls.

Example 2
Suppose Mary has R20 pocket money and her friend Elizabeth has R30. Then we can
compare the pocket money they have in terms of ratio.

Mary : Elizabeth
R10 R10 R10 R10 R10
20 : 30
2 : 3

The ratio can be simplified to 2 : 3 when we divide by a common factor 10 (simplifying or

scaling down). This can also be written as 2 to 3 or as a fraction .

Scaled up: make a ratio larger in

A ratio can also be scaled up by multiplying with the same size than it used to be. The
resultant ratio is equivalent to the
factor. For example: original since it’s multiplied by the
same factor. It uses the same
principle of equivalent fractions.
2 to 3 (2 : 3) can be scaled up to 4 : 6 or 6 : 9 by multiplying
respectively by 2 or 3. The ratio 2 : 3 is equivalent to the ratio 4 : 6 or 6 : 9.

× ×
Note, in fractional form: = = and = = .
× ×

Let us look at how the knowledge of ratios can be advantageous for us in real-life
situations. Below are a couple of scenarios where ratio is applied.

We will start by applying ratios when people do shopping. When shopping, knowledge of
ratios helps to:

x Compare prices for the same items of different brands in the same shop.
x Compare the prices of the same items at different shops.
x Work out how many of an item you might need for a specific period like a week,
a month or a year.
x Calculate the best buy if products are offered in different quantities.
x Find some bargains!

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Example 3
You may have seen an advertisement similar to the one below in your local newspaper
or on television. What can we deduce from this advertisement?

From this advertisement we can deduce that:

x You will get three Chocos (type of chocolate) and pay for only two. This means
you will get one Choco for free when you buy two.
x The ratio of the number of chocolates you pay for to the number of chocolates you
get for free is 2 : 1. (For the price of two Chocos, you get ONE for free)
x The ratio of the number of chocolates that you pay for to the number of chocolates
you get in total is 2 : 3. (For the price of two, you get THREE Chocos).

If you have knowledge of ratios, you can work out beforehand how many Chocos you
need to buy to get the number you require.

Let us consider the following extension, for example: If you need 18 Chocos for a birthday
in your Grade 2 class, how many Chocos do you actually have to buy (pay for)? Try to
solve this one on your own before you read the solution below.

Solution:
When you buy two Chocos, you will get one for free.

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Step 1: Add the numbers in the ratio.

Can you see the constant ratio of Paid Chocos : Free Chocos is 2 : 1? Every
time you buy two Chocos you will actually get three (2 + 1 = 3). Thus, the sum
or total of the ratio.

Step 2: Given total required ÷ sum/total of ratio

18 ÷ 3 = 6

Step 3: Multiply each part of the ratio with the answer in step 2:
2 × 6 = 12 (Chocos you have to pay for)
1 × 6 = 6 (Chocos you will get for free)

1 hour
37
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 3.1, numbers 1.1 and 1.2.

Example 4
The following is a recipe to make 12 scones: 1 cup white sugar,
cup butter, 2 teaspoons vanilla essence, 1 cups flour, 2 eggs,
1 teaspoons baking powder, cup of milk.

On your birthday you decide to use this recipe to make scones for
the staff at your school. How will you adjust the recipe so that you
can make 60 scones?

Try to solve this on your own before you read the solution.

Solution:

From the scenario it follows that the recipe is for 12 scones but we need 60. We first need
to determine by how many times we need to multiply the whole recipe so that we will
have enough scones – one for each of the 60 staff members. Once we know this, we can
then multiply each ingredient with the same number. We can do this in different ways.

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Here are two approaches.

Firstly we could ask ourselves how many times greater 60 is than 12, or how many times
12 goes into 60. The answer is 5, because: 12 × 5 = 60 or 60 ÷ 12 = 5.

Secondly we could look at the ratio being compared between the number of scones that
this recipe makes to the number of scones we want to make. The ratio is 12 : 60.This
ratio can be simplified by dividing both sides by the Highest Common Factor (HCF) of the
two numbers. The HCF of 12 and 60 is 12. By dividing each side of the ratio by 12, we
get a simplified ratio of 1 : 5.

Thus, in simplest form 12 : 60 = 1 : 5. This simply means that for every one part of the
recipe stated above, we need to multiply that ingredient by 5 in order to make 60 scones.

So the amount of each ingredient for 60 scones will be:

1. Sugar: 1 × 5 = 5 cups.
2. Vanilla essence: 2 × 5 = 10 teaspoons.
3. Eggs: 2 × 5 = 10
4. Milk: ×5= × = = 2 cups.
5. Butter: × 5 = × = = 2 cups.
6. Flour: 1 × 5 = × = = 7 cups.
7. Baking powder: 1 × 5 = × = = 8 teaspoons.

1 hour
38
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 3.1, numbers 1.3 and 1.4.

Example 5
Convert the following measurements as indicated:
a. 120 mm = _____ cm
b. 1,5 m = ______ cm
c. 3 kg = ______ g
d. 90 cm = ______ m
e. 0,355 kg = _______ g

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Again, try to solve these on your own before you look at the solution.

Solution:

The metric system is used as the official system of measurement in most countries. The
metric measurement system (S.I. system) makes use of the following measurements:
x Distance (Length) is measured in kilometres, metres, centimetres and millimetres.
x Mass is measured in kilograms, grams and milligrams.
x Capacity is measured in kilolitres, litres and millilitres

The metric measurement system that we use is a standardized international decimal

system that works with base 10 and multiples thereof. The most challenging part of
applying the metric system relates to converting between the different units.
Measurement conversion is based on the concept of ratio that we have been dealing with
so far in this unit. For example, we know that:

1 cm is equal to 10 mm. So the ratio of cm : mm = 1 : 10.

We also know that:

1 km is equal to 1 000 m. So the ratio of km : m = 1 : 1 000.

This knowledge helps us to know what number to multiply with or divide by when we are
dealing with measurement conversions. Here are some of the measurement ratios that
helps you to do conversions.

Length: 1 cm = 10 mm
1 m = 100 cm = 1 000 mm
1 km = 1 000 m

Mass: 1 g = 1 000 mg
1 kg = 1 000 g
1 ton = 1 000 kg

Capacity: 1 ℓ = 1 000 mℓ
1 kℓ = 1 000 ℓ

If you do not know these basic facts about the different measurement units, you will
struggle to do conversions between measurement units. (You will learn more about
measurement in the next Unit).

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Now let us convert the above given units.

a. 120 mm = _____ cm

We know that 10 mm = 1 cm (use the ratio 1 : 10).

Here are two number of ways of approaching this:

Using ratio
10 mm : 1 cm; so: 120 mm : 12 cm
For 10 mm to become 120 mm, we multiply by 12.
To keep the ratio in proportion, we must also multiply the right side of the ratio by 12.
And 1 × 12 = 12
Therefore, 120 mm = 12 cm.

Or using division (still based on the ratio concept though):

10 mm = 1 cm
120 ÷ 10 = 12
So 120 mm = 12 cm.

b. 1,5 m = ______ cm

We know that the ratio of m : cm = 1 m : 100 cm (use the ratio 1 : 100).

We want to find 1,5 m : ? cm
Using the concept of ratio, the left side of the ratio has been multiplied by 1,5. So we
also multiply the right side of the ratio by 1,5 to keep the ratio in proportion.

Therefore:
If 1 m = 100 cm, then
1,5 m = 100 × 1,5 cm
1,5 m = 150 cm

Another way to think about this:

We know there are 100 cm in 1 m (use the ratio 100 : 1).
So we simply multiply the given metres by 100.
1,5 × 100 = 150
So 1,5 = 150 cm.

c. 3 kg = ______ g

We know that the ratio of kg : g is 1 kg : 1 000 g (use the ratio 1 : 1 000).

So 3 kg = 3 000 g (by multiplying both sides of the ratio by 3).

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d. 90 cm = ______ m

1 m = 100 cm
For a full metre, we need to have 100 cm.
But we have 90 cm.
So we have centimetres required.
We simply now convert this to a decimal number which is 0,90 or 0,9.
So 90 cm = 0,9 m.

Another way to look at this solution is to simply divide 90 cm by 100.

90 ÷ 100 = 0,9. Therefore 90 cm = 0,9 m.

e. 0,355 kg = _______ g

1 kg = 1 000 g (use the ratio 1 : 1 000)

So we multiply the kilograms by 1 000 to obtain the measurement conversion in
grams.
So 0,355 kg × 1 000 = 355 g.

Example 6
Vusi visits the Bush Spaza Shop and finds the following options:
x Deal 1: 12 tins (340 mℓ each) of lemonade for R72,00; or
x Deal 2: Two 2 ℓ bottles of lemonade for R75,00.
Can you help Vusi to decide which the better deal is (Deal 1 or Deal 2)?

Solution:

It is not easy to see which the better deal is while we are comparing millilitres with litres.
We can only compare quantities of the same units. We therefore first convert both deals
to the same unit (either millilitres or litres). That will make the comparison easier.

In this case it is simplest to calculate both options in millilitres. Let us look at that:

Deal 1: 12 tins (340 mℓ each) = 12 × 340 mℓ

= 4 080 mℓ

Deal 2: 1 ℓ is equal to 1 000 mℓ. That is, 1 ℓ = 1 000 mℓ.

Therefore 2 ℓ = 2 000 mℓ.
So, two 2 ℓ bottles = 2 × 2 000 mℓ
= 4 000 mℓ

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In Deal 1 we will receive 4 080 mℓ for R72,00.

In Deal 2 we will receive 4 000 mℓ for R75,00.
So, Deal 1 is the better option as we get more Lemonade for less money!

2 hours and 30 minutes

39
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 3.1, numbers 1.5; 1.6; 1.7; 1.8; 1.9; 1.10; 1.11; 1.12; 1.13 and 1.14.

2.2.2 Ratio of more than two numbers

The concrete used by builders is a mixture sand, cement, stones and water. For the
concrete to be strong, the ratios of the mixtures must be consistent.

An often used mixture ratio is the following:

cement : sand : stones = 1 : 2 : 6.

If we multiply all values by the same number we still get the same ratio, meaning the
concrete will be just as strong.

For example, 5 : 10 : 30 is the same as 1 : 2 : 6 (the ratio was just multiplied by 5).

So when we use 5 buckets of cement, we should use 10 of sand and 30 of stones. Look
at the next example.

Example:
You have 24 buckets of stones to use to make concrete. Calculate the number of buckets
of cement and sand you will need for this quantity of stones.

Put all information in a table:

Cement Sand Stones

Ratio: 1 2 6
What to have: 24

There are 24 buckets of stones and the ratio must be 6. So we multiplied 6 by 4 to get
24. So our scale factor is 4. We multiply 1 and 2 by 4.

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Solution:

Cement Sand Stones

Ratio Needed: 1 2 6
You Have: 4 8 24

So 4 buckets of cement and 8 buckets of sand are needed.

2 hours
40
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 3.1, numbers 1.15; 1.16 and 1.17.

As you have seen, we have covered two types of ratios namely part-to-whole ratios and
part-to-part ratios in this Section. By now you should have a basic understanding of
these two types of ratios, know how to write them, be able to simplify them and solve
real-life problems involving them.

In Section 2 we will address rate in everyday life.

SECTION 2: UNDERSTANDING AND USING RATE

1. INTRODUCTION
In this Section we move on to examine another type of ratio that we defined in Section 1,
namely rate. Ratio and rate are similar and related but not the same. Rate enables us to
compare quantities of different kinds and with different measuring units. In this section
you will explore the concept of rate and will acknowledge its importance in real life. You
will also use rate related concepts to solve real-life problems.

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2 hours and 15 minutes

41
1. Reflect on your own knowledge and experience of rate. Give examples of how
rate is applied in real life. Use your examples to explain your own understanding
and the importance of rate in daily life in a short essay.
2. Discuss your ideas with your group at the next academic support session or
with members of your own family or community. Write down what you have
learnt from others.

Commentary:
One of the simplest examples of rate is speed, in other words km/hour.
Understanding this rate can assist us to work out how long a journey will take, how
fast you need to drive to reach the destination in time etc. There are however, many
more examples of rate in everyday life such as heart rate, dropout rate, exchange
rate etc.

2. UNDERSTANDING RATE
We found out earlier that the ratios, part-to-whole and part-to-part compare quantities of
the same kind, while rate compares quantities of different kinds – “the measuring unit
is different for each value” (van de Walle et al., 2010, p. 349). Rate can therefore be
considered as the quantity measured in one unit compared to another quantity measured
in a different unit.

One may ask how many houses a construction company can build per year. This is a rate
scenario where the number of houses is a quantity being compared to another quantity
i.e. time. These two quantities are obviously measured using different units of
measurement. Rates are used by people every day, such as when they work 30 hours a
week or pay interest every year for the mortgage of their homes.

Some examples of rates ln real life situations are:

x Speed Speed is a way of measuring how quickly something is moving

or being done. An example of speed is a car being driven 100
km per hour or someone cleaning a room in 10 minutes or
someone running 5 metres per second.
x Exchange rate The price for which the currency of a country can be exchanged
for another country's currency. We see this on the news each
night; what the value of the rand is against other currencies such
as the dollar and the pound.
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(One currency e.g. dollar is compared to a different currency e.g.

rand).
x Heart rate the rate at which your heart beats (usually per minute). (Number
of heart beats are compared to time measured in minutes)
x Price comparison An item or product which gives the best value for money out of
all its competitors. (When doing shopping, you are faced with a
dilemma of identifying the cheapest product to buy, especially
when the product has a countable number of items e.g. a dozen
eggs.)

From the above examples, it is evident that rate is widely used in several sectors of life.
There is a great chance that you will encounter such scenarios daily. The ability to identify
a rate scenario is the first important step towards problem solving and being able to
calculate it is an added advantage. Therefore, an understanding of how rate works is a
supplementary advantage for you.

When rates are expressed as a quantity of 1, such as R800,00 per week (R800,00 in
1 week) or 100 km per hour (100 km in 1h), they are called unit rates.

In the next paragraph we will look at using rate to solve problems Try to work out the
answers to the next examples on your own before looking at the solutions. Complete the
exercises in the activities to expand your understanding of rate in everyday life contexts.

3. USING RATE TO SOLVE PROBLEMS

Let’s look at the following applications of rate. Try to solve these on your own before you
look at the solutions.

Example 1: Use of speed rate

Sally takes 4 hours to drive from Johannesburg to Durban which is a distance of 500 km.
What is the rate of her travel per hour?

Solution:
In this case Sally travels 500 km in 4 hrs = 125 km per hour.
The rate of km covered in an hour is called speed.
So Sally’s speed is 125 km per hour.
In general speed = .

In this case speed is a rate of the distance covered per unit of time.

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Example 2: Use of exchange rate

Sipho wants to go on an oversees holiday. He changes R10 500,00 at the bank and
obtains US$820. Calculate the dollar to rand exchange rate on that day.

Solution:
Notice that for rate, one quantity must be 1. In this case we must have $1. So how many
rands per dollar was Sipho given? We use a table

$820 R10 500

$1 ? less

So to get $1 from $820 we divide the first row by 820. (You may use a calculator to do
this calculation.)

$820 R10 500

$1 R12,80

So the exchange rate was R12,80 per US$.

In the same way we can think of the rate our new car travels per litre of fuel. If the car
travels 500 km using 30 litres, what is its rate of fuel consumption per litre? Try to work
this out on your own.

Example 3: Heart rate

Carol, a Grade 3 learner, has a heart rate of 56 beats per minute. Calculate how many
times her heart will beat in:
a) 5 minutes
b) 30 seconds
c) 1 hour
Try to solve this on your own before you read the solution below.

Solution:
a) Carol’s heart beats 56 times a minute (56 beats per minute). To determine how
many times her heart will beat in 5 minutes, we have to multiply 56 by 5.
56× 5 = 280.
Therefore, Carol’s heart will beat 280 times in 5 minutes.

b) To calculate how many times Carol’s heart will beat in 30 seconds, we have to
consider how many times her heart beats in a minute (60 seconds). According to
the scenario, her heart beats 56 times per minute. Therefore, we have to divide 56
by 2, because 60 ÷ 30 = 2. Thus, 56 ÷ 2 = 28 beats in 30 seconds.

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c) Carol’s heart rate is 56 beats per minute. To determine how many times her heart
beats in 1 hour, you have to know how many minutes are there in an hour.
In 1 hour there is 60 minutes. Therefore, to calculate how many heart beats there
are in 1 hour, we have to multiply 56 by 60 (60 minutes = 1 hour).
56 × 60 = 3 360 beats in 1 hour.

1 hour and 15 minutes

42
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 3.2, numbers 1.1; 1.2 and 1.3.

Example 4: Comparing prices of products

Check & Save Supermarket sells their bread rolls in packets of 6. The price of a packet
of 6 bread rolls is R12,00.

Buy Now Supermarket sells their bread rolls in packets of 2. The price of a packet of 2
bread rolls is R5,00.

Questions:
a) Which of these two shops sells the cheapest bread rolls?
b) If you have to advise Mrs Nkosi where to buy bread rolls, what would your answer
be? Motivate your answer.
c) What will you pay for 36 bread rolls respectively at each of the two shops?

Solution:
a) In order to compare the price of the bread rolls sold at these two shops, we need
to see what the cost is per bread roll. This is called the unit rate.

First, we calculate the unit rate or cost per bread roll at Check & Save Supermarket.
We know that 6 bread rolls cost R12,00.
To see what 1 bread roll costs we must divide this amount by 6.
1 bread roll costs R12,00 ÷ 6 = R2,00.
The cost or rate per bread roll at Check & Save Supermarket is therefore R2,00.

Let us follow the same process to work out the unit price of one bread roll at Buy Now
Supermarket:
Here, the price for 2 bread rolls is R5,00.
To see what 1 bread roll costs we divide this amount by 2.
1 bread roll costs R5,00 ÷ 2 = R2,50.
The cost or rate per bread roll at Buy Now Supermarket is therefore R2,50.
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If we compare the unit prices (cost for one bread roll) at the two shops, we notice that
they are not the same and R2,00 is less than R2,50.
Therefore, Check & Save Supermarket sells the cheapest bread rolls.

b) Mrs Nkosi must be advised to buy her bread rolls at Check & Save Supermarket
because they offer the best deal i.e. the cheapest bread rolls.

c) To buy 36 bread rolls at Check & Save Supermarket you need to buy 6 packets of
6 each (6 × 6 = 36). For this you will pay: R12 × 6 = R72,00.

To buy 36 bread rolls at Buy Now Supermarket you must buy 18 packets of 2 each
(2 × 18 = 36). For this you will pay: R5 × 18 = R90,00.

3 hours
43
Select from the following activities from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 3.2, numbers 1.4; 1.5; 1.6; 1.7; 1.8; 1.9 and 1.10.

In Section 2 we looked at understanding rate and using rate to solve problems. In the
next, section we will look at proportion and its application in real life.

SECTION 3: UNDERSTANDING AND USING

PROPORTION

1. INTRODUCTION
A proportion is an equation that says that two ratios are equivalent. For instance, if one
packet of cookie mix results in 20 cookies then that would be the same as to say that two
packets will result in 40 cookies, and three packets will result in 60 cookies … etc. If two
quantities always have the same ratio in relation to each other, we say they are in
proportion.

Proportion is often used to solve problems involving ratios. In this section we will study
two types of proportion i.e. direct and indirect proportion. We will also look at
compound proportion which involves more than two quantities. You will learn how to use
these to solve problems in your daily life.

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2. UNDERSTANDING PROPORTION
Like with ratio and rates, problems that apply to proportion occur often in our daily lives.
There are two types of proportion namely direct proportion and indirect proportion. Direct
proportion refers to a proportion where two (or more) quantities increase or decrease in
the same ratio. For example, if you want to purchase some meat from the butchery, then
the more meat you purchase, the more money you will pay. Similarly, if you are paid per
hour, the more hours you work the greater your earnings.

Conversely, indirect proportion refers to a relation between two quantities such that an
increase in one quantity results in a decrease in the other. For an example, if you are
travelling between two places, the higher your speed the less time you take. Similarly, if
it takes 4 hours for 1 man to clean a certain room or to build a wall, it may take 1 hour for
4 men to clean the same room or build the same wall.

Let us look at each type of proportion in more detail.

2.1 Direct proportion

If two quantities are directly proportional then as one quantity increases, the other
quantity increases at the same rate. Let us look at an example.

Suppose 1 kg of meat costs R40, so 2 kg of meat costs R80. Thus = . In this case
the first ratio is scaled (multiplied) by a factor of 2.

So 1 : 40 is equal to 2 : 80. Since these ratios are the same, they are in proportion.
Work through the next examples.

Example 1: Length and mass

An iron rod’s length and its mass are proportional. This is direct proportion because as
the length increases, the mass will increase and vice versa.

When 2 m of iron rod has a mass of 1 kg, then:

x 4 m of that iron rod has a mass of 2 kg
x 200 m of that iron rod has a mass of 100 kg etc.

In equivalent fractions = = .
The ratios are in proportion: 2 : 1 is equal to 4 : 2 is equal to 200 : 100.

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Example 2: Cost of books

Three Grade 5 mathematics textbooks cost R500,00. What is the cost of eight of the
same Grade 5 mathematics textbooks?

This is a direct proportion problem because more books cost more and less books cost
less. Try to solve this problem on your own before you look at the two methods discussed
below.

Method 1

For proportion, the ratios must be the same, so = . What number (scale factor) do
?
we multiply with 3 to get 8? If we write 3 × we obtain 8. So for us to get equal ratios we
multiply 500 by .
That is 500 × = = 1 333,33.
So 8 mathematics textbooks cost R1 333,33.

Method 2

A second method is to find the price of one mathematics textbook, thus

= . To get 1 from 3 we multiply 3 by , so 500 × = 166,67
?

So 1 textbook costs R166,67.

Therefore, 8 mathematics textbooks will cost 8 × 166,67 = R1 333,33.

1 hour
44
1. Which method did you use to solve the ‘cost of books’ problem? Explain your
method.
2. Compare the two methods given above;
x Are both methods correct? Why do you say so?
x Which method would you prefer to use? Motivate your answer.
3. Can you see the relationship between equivalent fractions and the ratios in a
proportion? Explain this relationship.

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2 hours
45
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 3.3, number 1.1 (a) to (l).

Let’s look at indirect proportion next.

2.2 Indirect proportion

Whereas in direct proportion more of one quantity yields more of another, for example,
more kilograms of meat you buy at butchery means you pay more money for it; in indirect
proportion more of one quantity results in less of the other quantity.

Suppose a motorist travels between Polokwane and Johannesburg, a distance of

374 km. If the motorist travels at 120 km per hour he will take less time to cover the
journey than when he travels at say 50 km per hour. The higher the speed the less time
taken and the lower the speed the more time taken. This is an example of indirect
proportion.

Let us work out a few more examples next.

Example 1: Men to build a house

It took 8 hours for 5 men to build a store room. How many hours will it take 12 men to
build a similar store room if they work at the same rate?

Solution:
This is an indirect or inverse proportion:
x As the number of people goes up, the building time goes down.
x As the number of people goes down, the building time goes up.

We can represent the proportion in a table:

5 men 8 hrs
12 men ? less hrs

To have less hours we need to multiply 8 by the fraction.

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We write × =
= 3 or 3,33 which is 3 and a third of an hour
= 3 hours 20 minutes

Notice that to obtain 20 minutes we work out (one third) of 60 minutes because an hour
has 60 min. You need to be wary of the misconception that the answer is 3 hours and
33 minutes. Guard against this common mistake (error) in your own calculations.

Example 2: Travel to Durban

It took a certain car 5 hours to travel from Johannesburg to Durban when it was travelling
at an average speed of 120 km/h (kilometres per hour). How long will the same car take
to travel from Johannesburg to Durban when it travels at an average speed of 100 km/h?

Solution:
This is also indirect or inverse proportion:
x As the speed increases, the time spend on the road decreases.
x As the speed decreases, the time spend on the road increases.

When presented in the table we find:

120 km/h 5 hrs

100 km/h ? more hrs

To have more hours we need to multiply the hours (5 hours) by the fraction .
We write × = 6 hours.
Notice that the higher the speed the shorter the time spend on the road.

Therefore, when the car was travelling at 120 km/h (kilometres per hour) it took 5 hours
and when it travelled at 100km/h it took 6 hours on the same road.

2 hours and 30 minutes

46
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 3.3, number 1.2 (a) to (i).

Next we look at compound proportion.

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2.3 Compound proportion

This is the proportion that involves more than two quantities. Here is an example to
explain.

Example 1: Completing work in time

It took 21 days for 180 men working 8 hours a day to complete a job. How many men are
employed to complete the job in 18 days if they work 12 hours a day?

Solution:
Let us draw a table again. Let ‘m’ be the number of men required.

Days Hours Men

21 8 180

18 12 m

So, 21 × 8 × 180 = 18 × 12 × m
× ×
m=
×
= 140

Therefore 140 men are required in this case.

2 hours and 30 minutes

47
Do the following activity from your Fundamental Mathematics Workbook:
Exercise 3.3, number 1.3 (a) to (g).

You have come to the end of this Unit 3: Ratio, Rate and Proportion. We hope that this
unit equipped you to understand the concepts ratio, rate and proportion and use these
mathematical concepts to solve problems in daily life. To review what you have learnt so
far, do the next activity to consolidate your knowledge on ratio, rate and proportion.

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2 hours
48
Solve the following problems based on ratio, rate and proportion:

1. The local supermarket is selling milk at:

1 × 2 litre R32,00
4 × 500 ml R30,50
2 × 250 ml R7,50
Explain how you will convice your mother which is the best buy.

2. A hospital has enough food for 80 patients to last for 60 days. How long will the
food last if 20 more patients are transferred to the hospital?
Write a letter to the superintendent of the hospital to show how long the hospital’s
food will last. Clearly explain how you have worked this out.

3. 24 ladies working 8 hours per day can complete a piece of work in 10 days. How
long will 12 ladies take if they work:
x 6 hours per day?
x 10 hours per day?
Show how you have worked this out. Also explain why it will take more/less time
if less ladies work less hours (6 hours/day) or more hours (10 hours/day).

Commentary:
Discuss your answers with a peer or in your own study group or at the next academic
support session to ensure that you are using the correct proportional reasoning to
solve these type of problems. In direct proportion both quantities increase or
decrease at the same rate. This is not applicable to indirect proportion where one
quantity decreases as the other increases or vice versa. Compound proportion
involves more than two quantities.

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Before you go on, reflect on what you have learnt in this section by completing the self-
assessment activity. If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of the concepts, go back
to the relevant section to study it again.

1 hour and 30 minutes

49

Self- assessment: Unit 3

Now that I have worked through this unit, I can: YES UNSURE NO
Explain the concept ‘ratio’.
Solve problems involving the ratios.
Explain the concept ‘rate’.
Solve problems involving rate.
Distinguish between direct and indirect proportion.
Explain compound proportion.
Solve problems involving proportion.

Congratulations on working through this module. We hope you have met the objectives
in each unit of this module and you have gained valuable mathematical knowledge and
applied competencies advancing your personal and academic mathematics learning and
by implication, also your own teaching.

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