Lecture 1: An

Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Lecture 1: An Introduction
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
Professor Amany E. Aly
statistics?

Types of Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,

Statistics Helwan University, Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts 30 / 9 / 2024

and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 1 / 56
 Presentation Outline

Lecture 1: An
Introduction 1 Chapter Objectives
Professor
Amany E. Aly
2 What Is Statistics?
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
3 Why do we study statistics?
Statistics?

Why do we
4 Types of Statistics
study
statistics?

Types of
Types of variables
Statistics
Types of
variables
5 Probability
Probability

Basic concepts
6 Basic concepts and definition of probability
and definition
of probability

Definition of
7 Definition of Probability
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 2 / 56
 Chapter Objectives

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 3 / 56
 Chapter Objectives

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Objectives

What Is 1 Demonstrate knowledge of statistical terms.

Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 3 / 56
 Chapter Objectives

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Objectives

What Is 1 Demonstrate knowledge of statistical terms.

Statistics?

2 Distinguish between the two branches of statistics.

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 3 / 56
 Chapter Objectives

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Objectives

What Is 1 Demonstrate knowledge of statistical terms.

Statistics?

2 Distinguish between the two branches of statistics.

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of 3 Identify types of data.

Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 3 / 56
 Chapter Objectives

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Objectives

What Is 1 Demonstrate knowledge of statistical terms.

Statistics?

2 Distinguish between the two branches of statistics.

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of 3 Identify types of data.

Statistics
Types of

4 Identify the measurement level for each variable.

variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 3 / 56
 About Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly The study of statistics has become more popular than
Chapter
Objectives
ever over the past four decades or so.
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 4 / 56
 About Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly The study of statistics has become more popular than
Chapter
Objectives
ever over the past four decades or so.
What Is
Statistics? The increasing availability of computers and statistical
Why do we
study
statistics?
software packages has enlarged the role of statistics as
Types of
Statistics a tool for empirical research.
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 4 / 56
 About Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly The study of statistics has become more popular than
Chapter
Objectives
ever over the past four decades or so.
What Is
Statistics? The increasing availability of computers and statistical
Why do we
study
statistics?
software packages has enlarged the role of statistics as
Types of
Statistics a tool for empirical research.
Types of
variables

Probability As a result, statistics is used for research in almost all

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability
professions, from medicine to sports.
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 4 / 56
 About Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Today, college students in almost all disciplines are
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
required to take at least one statistics course.
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 5 / 56
 About Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Today, college students in almost all disciplines are
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
required to take at least one statistics course.
Statistics?

Why do we Almost all newspapers and magazines these days con-

study
statistics?

Types of
tain graphs and stories on statistical studies.
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 5 / 56
 About Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Today, college students in almost all disciplines are
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
required to take at least one statistics course.
Statistics?

Why do we Almost all newspapers and magazines these days con-

study
statistics?

Types of
tain graphs and stories on statistical studies.
Statistics
Types of
variables After you finish reading this course, it should be much
Probability

Basic concepts
easier to understand these graphs and stories.
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 5 / 56
 About Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly Every field of study has its own terminology. Statistics
Chapter
Objectives is no exception.
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 6 / 56
 About Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly Every field of study has its own terminology. Statistics
Chapter
Objectives is no exception.
What Is
Statistics? This introductory chapter explains the basic terms of
Why do we
study
statistics? statistics.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 6 / 56
 About Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly Every field of study has its own terminology. Statistics
Chapter
Objectives is no exception.
What Is
Statistics? This introductory chapter explains the basic terms of
Why do we
study
statistics? statistics.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
These terms will bridge our understanding of the con-
variables

Probability cepts and techniques presented in subsequent chap-

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability
ters.
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 6 / 56
 Presentation Outline

Lecture 1: An
Introduction 1 Chapter Objectives
Professor
Amany E. Aly
2 What Is Statistics?
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
3 Why do we study statistics?
Statistics?

Why do we
4 Types of Statistics
study
statistics?

Types of
Types of variables
Statistics
Types of
variables
5 Probability
Probability

Basic concepts
6 Basic concepts and definition of probability
and definition
of probability

Definition of
7 Definition of Probability
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 7 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
The word statistics has two meanings.
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 8 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
The word statistics has two meanings.
Chapter
Objectives
In the more common usage, statistics refers to numerical
What Is
Statistics?
facts.
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 8 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
The word statistics has two meanings.
Chapter
Objectives
In the more common usage, statistics refers to numerical
What Is
Statistics?
facts.
Why do we
study
statistics?
The numbers that represent the income of a family
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 8 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
The word statistics has two meanings.
Chapter
Objectives
In the more common usage, statistics refers to numerical
What Is
Statistics?
facts.
Why do we
study
statistics?
The numbers that represent the income of a family
Types of
Statistics The starting salary of a typical college graduate
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 8 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
The word statistics has two meanings.
Chapter
Objectives
In the more common usage, statistics refers to numerical
What Is
Statistics?
facts.
Why do we
study
statistics?
The numbers that represent the income of a family
Types of
Statistics The starting salary of a typical college graduate
Types of
variables

Probability The age of a student

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 8 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
The word statistics has two meanings.
Chapter
Objectives
In the more common usage, statistics refers to numerical
What Is
Statistics?
facts.
Why do we
study
statistics?
The numbers that represent the income of a family
Types of
Statistics The starting salary of a typical college graduate
Types of
variables

Probability The age of a student

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability are examples of statistics in this sense of the word.
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 8 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives Definition 1
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 9 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives Definition 1
What Is
Statistics? Statistics is the science of
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 9 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives Definition 1
What Is
Statistics? Statistics is the science of collecting,
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 9 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives Definition 1
What Is
Statistics? Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 9 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives Definition 1
What Is
Statistics? Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,
Why do we
study
statistics?
presenting,
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 9 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives Definition 1
What Is
Statistics? Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,
Why do we
study
statistics?
presenting, analyzing, and
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 9 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives Definition 1
What Is
Statistics? Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,
Why do we
study
statistics?
presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 9 / 56
 What Is Statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives Definition 1
What Is
Statistics? Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,
Why do we
study
statistics?
presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data
Types of
Statistics to assist in making decisions.
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 9 / 56
 Presentation Outline

Lecture 1: An
Introduction 1 Chapter Objectives
Professor
Amany E. Aly
2 What Is Statistics?
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
3 Why do we study statistics?
Statistics?

Why do we
4 Types of Statistics
study
statistics?

Types of
Types of variables
Statistics
Types of
variables
5 Probability
Probability

Basic concepts
6 Basic concepts and definition of probability
and definition
of probability

Definition of
7 Definition of Probability
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 10 / 56
 Why do we study statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives
No matter what line of work you select, you will find
What Is
Statistics?
yourself faced with decisions where an understanding of
Why do we
study
statistics?
data analysis is helpful.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 11 / 56
 Why do we study statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives
No matter what line of work you select, you will find
What Is
Statistics?
yourself faced with decisions where an understanding of
Why do we
study
statistics?
data analysis is helpful.
Types of
Statistics
In order to make an informed decision, you will need to
Types of
variables

Probability
able to:
Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 11 / 56
 Why do we study statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor 1 Determine whether the existing information is suffi-

Amany E. Aly

Chapter
cient or additional information is required.
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 12 / 56
 Why do we study statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor 1 Determine whether the existing information is suffi-

Amany E. Aly

Chapter
cient or additional information is required.
Objectives

What Is 2 Gather additional information, if it is needed, in such

Statistics?

Why do we
study
away that it is does not provide misleading results.
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 12 / 56
 Why do we study statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor 1 Determine whether the existing information is suffi-

Amany E. Aly

Chapter
cient or additional information is required.
Objectives

What Is 2 Gather additional information, if it is needed, in such

Statistics?

Why do we
study
away that it is does not provide misleading results.
statistics?

Types of 3 Summarize the information in a useful informative

Statistics
Types of
variables manner.
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 12 / 56
 Why do we study statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor 1 Determine whether the existing information is suffi-

Amany E. Aly

Chapter
cient or additional information is required.
Objectives

What Is 2 Gather additional information, if it is needed, in such

Statistics?

Why do we
study
away that it is does not provide misleading results.
statistics?

Types of 3 Summarize the information in a useful informative

Statistics
Types of
variables manner.
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
4 Analyze the available information.
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 12 / 56
 Why do we study statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor 1 Determine whether the existing information is suffi-

Amany E. Aly

Chapter
cient or additional information is required.
Objectives

What Is 2 Gather additional information, if it is needed, in such

Statistics?

Why do we
study
away that it is does not provide misleading results.
statistics?

Types of 3 Summarize the information in a useful informative

Statistics
Types of
variables manner.
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
4 Analyze the available information.
of probability

Definition of
5 Draw conclusions and make inferences.
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 12 / 56
 Why do we study statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly In summary, there are at least three reasons for studying
Chapter
Objectives
statistics:
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 13 / 56
 Why do we study statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly In summary, there are at least three reasons for studying
Chapter
Objectives
statistics:
1 Data is everywhere
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 13 / 56
 Why do we study statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly In summary, there are at least three reasons for studying
Chapter
Objectives
statistics:
1 Data is everywhere
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
2 Statistical techniques are used to make many decisions
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
that effect our lives,
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 13 / 56
 Why do we study statistics?

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly In summary, there are at least three reasons for studying
Chapter
Objectives
statistics:
1 Data is everywhere
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
2 Statistical techniques are used to make many decisions
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
that effect our lives,
variables

Probability 3 No matter what your future line of work, you will make
Basic concepts
and definition
of probability
decisions that involve data.
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 13 / 56
 Presentation Outline

Lecture 1: An
Introduction 1 Chapter Objectives
Professor
Amany E. Aly
2 What Is Statistics?
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
3 Why do we study statistics?
Statistics?

Why do we
4 Types of Statistics
study
statistics?

Types of
Types of variables
Statistics
Types of
variables
5 Probability
Probability

Basic concepts
6 Basic concepts and definition of probability
and definition
of probability

Definition of
7 Definition of Probability
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
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1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
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 Types of Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives The study of statistics is usually divided into two cate-
What Is
Statistics? gories:
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 15 / 56
 Types of Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives The study of statistics is usually divided into two cate-
What Is
Statistics? gories:
Why do we
study
statistics? descriptive statistics
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 15 / 56
 Types of Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives The study of statistics is usually divided into two cate-
What Is
Statistics? gories:
Why do we
study
statistics? descriptive statistics
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables
inferential statistics.
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 15 / 56
 Types of Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Definition 2
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 16 / 56
 Types of Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Definition 2
Statistics?

Why do we
Descriptive statistics
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 16 / 56
 Types of Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Definition 2
Statistics?

Why do we
Descriptive statistics are methods of organizing, summa-
study
statistics?

Types of
rizing and presenting data in an informative way.
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 16 / 56
 Types of Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Definition 3
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 17 / 56
 Types of Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Definition 3
Statistics?

Why do we
Inferential statistics
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 17 / 56
 Types of Statistics

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Definition 3
Statistics?

Why do we
Inferential statistics are methods used to determine some-
study
statistics?

Types of
thing about a population, based on a sample.
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 17 / 56
 Population and Sample

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Definition 4
Chapter
Objectives A population
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 18 / 56
 Population and Sample

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Definition 4
Chapter
Objectives A population is a collection of all possible, objects, or
What Is
Statistics?
measurements of interest.
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 18 / 56
 Population and Sample

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Definition 4
Chapter
Objectives A population is a collection of all possible, objects, or
What Is
Statistics?
measurements of interest.
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Definition 5
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 18 / 56
 Population and Sample

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Definition 4
Chapter
Objectives A population is a collection of all possible, objects, or
What Is
Statistics?
measurements of interest.
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Definition 5
Statistics
Types of
variables
A sample
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 18 / 56
 Population and Sample

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Definition 4
Chapter
Objectives A population is a collection of all possible, objects, or
What Is
Statistics?
measurements of interest.
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Definition 5
Statistics
Types of
variables
A sample is a portion, or a part, of the population of
Probability

Basic concepts
interest.
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 18 / 56
 Types of variables

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
There are two types of variables:
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 19 / 56
 Types of variables

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
There are two types of variables:
Chapter
Objectives (A) A qualitative variable is nonnumeric.
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 19 / 56
 Types of variables

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
There are two types of variables:
Chapter
Objectives (A) A qualitative variable is nonnumeric.
What Is

1 Usually we are interested in the number or percent of

Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?
the observations in each category.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 19 / 56
 Types of variables

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
There are two types of variables:
Chapter
Objectives (A) A qualitative variable is nonnumeric.
What Is

1 Usually we are interested in the number or percent of

Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?
the observations in each category.
Types of
Statistics
Types of 2 qualitative data are usually summarized in graphs and
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
par charts.
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 19 / 56
Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
(B) There are two types of quantitative variables and
Chapter
Objectives they are usually reported numerically.
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 20 / 56
Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
(B) There are two types of quantitative variables and
Chapter
Objectives they are usually reported numerically.
What Is

1 Discrete variables can assume only certain values, and

Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics? there are usually gaps between values.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 20 / 56
Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
(B) There are two types of quantitative variables and
Chapter
Objectives they are usually reported numerically.
What Is

1 Discrete variables can assume only certain values, and

Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics? there are usually gaps between values.
Types of

2 A continuous variables can assume any value within a

Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability
specific range or interval.
Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 20 / 56
 Presentation Outline

Lecture 1: An
Introduction 1 Chapter Objectives
Professor
Amany E. Aly
2 What Is Statistics?
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
3 Why do we study statistics?
Statistics?

Why do we
4 Types of Statistics
study
statistics?

Types of
Types of variables
Statistics
Types of
variables
5 Probability
Probability

Basic concepts
6 Basic concepts and definition of probability
and definition
of probability

Definition of
7 Definition of Probability
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 21 / 56
 Probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics? Probability
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 22 / 56
 Probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics? Probability is a general concept can be defined as the
Why do we
study
statistics?
chance of an event occurring.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 22 / 56
 Presentation Outline

Lecture 1: An
Introduction 1 Chapter Objectives
Professor
Amany E. Aly
2 What Is Statistics?
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
3 Why do we study statistics?
Statistics?

Why do we
4 Types of Statistics
study
statistics?

Types of
Types of variables
Statistics
Types of
variables
5 Probability
Probability

Basic concepts
6 Basic concepts and definition of probability
and definition
of probability

Definition of
7 Definition of Probability
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 23 / 56
 Basic concepts and definition of probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics? Processes such as
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 24 / 56
 Basic concepts and definition of probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics? Processes such as flipping a coin,
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 24 / 56
 Basic concepts and definition of probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics? Processes such as flipping a coin,rolling a dice, or
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 24 / 56
 Basic concepts and definition of probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics? Processes such as flipping a coin,rolling a dice, or drawing
Why do we
study
statistics?
a card from a deck are called
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 24 / 56
 Basic concepts and definition of probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics? Processes such as flipping a coin,rolling a dice, or drawing
Why do we
study
statistics?
a card from a deck are called probability experiments.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 24 / 56
 Random Experiment

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is Definition 6
Statistics?

Why do we A random experiment

study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 25 / 56
 Random Experiment

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is Definition 6
Statistics?

Why do we A random experiment is a process that leads to

study
statistics?

Types of
well-defined results called outcomes.
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 25 / 56
 An Outcome

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Definition 7
Statistics?

Why do we
An outcome
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 26 / 56
 An Outcome

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Definition 7
Statistics?

Why do we
An outcome is the result of a single trial of a random
study
statistics?

Types of
experiment.
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 26 / 56
 Illustrative Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
When a coin is tossed, there are two possible out-
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
comes:
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 27 / 56
 Illustrative Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
When a coin is tossed, there are two possible out-
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
comes: head or
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 27 / 56
 Illustrative Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
When a coin is tossed, there are two possible out-
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
comes: head or tail.
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 27 / 56
 Illustrative Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
When a coin is tossed, there are two possible out-
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
comes: head or tail.
Statistics?

Why do we
study
In the roll of a single dice,
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 27 / 56
 Illustrative Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
When a coin is tossed, there are two possible out-
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
comes: head or tail.
Statistics?

Why do we
study
In the roll of a single dice, there are six possible out-
statistics?

Types of
comes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 27 / 56
 Illustrative Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
When a coin is tossed, there are two possible out-
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
comes: head or tail.
Statistics?

Why do we
study
In the roll of a single dice, there are six possible out-
statistics?

Types of
comes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.
Statistics
Types of
variables In any experiment, the set of all possible outcomes is
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
called the sample space.
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 27 / 56
 The Sample Space

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Definition 8
Statistics?

Why do we
The sample space
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 28 / 56
 The Sample Space

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Definition 8
Statistics?

Why do we
The sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of
study
statistics?

Types of
a random experiment and denoted by S.
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 28 / 56
 Some Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Sample spaces for some probability experiments are shown
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
here:
Statistics?

Why do we
Experiment Sample space
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 29 / 56
 Some Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Sample spaces for some probability experiments are shown
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
here:
Statistics?

Why do we
Experiment Sample space
study
statistics?
Toss one coin
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 29 / 56
 Some Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Sample spaces for some probability experiments are shown
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
here:
Statistics?

Why do we
Experiment Sample space
study
statistics?
Toss one coin {Head, Tail }, or {H, T }
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 29 / 56
 Some Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Sample spaces for some probability experiments are shown
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
here:
Statistics?

Why do we
Experiment Sample space
study
statistics?
Toss one coin {Head, Tail }, or {H, T }
Types of
Roll a dice once
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 29 / 56
 Some Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Sample spaces for some probability experiments are shown
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
here:
Statistics?

Why do we
Experiment Sample space
study
statistics?
Toss one coin {Head, Tail }, or {H, T }
Types of
Roll a dice once {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 29 / 56
 Some Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Sample spaces for some probability experiments are shown
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
here:
Statistics?

Why do we
Experiment Sample space
study
statistics?
Toss one coin {Head, Tail }, or {H, T }
Types of
Roll a dice once {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Statistics
Types of
Answer a true-false question
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 29 / 56
 Some Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Sample spaces for some probability experiments are shown
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
here:
Statistics?

Why do we
Experiment Sample space
study
statistics?
Toss one coin {Head, Tail }, or {H, T }
Types of
Roll a dice once {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Statistics
Types of
Answer a true-false question {True, False}, or {T, F}
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 29 / 56
 Some Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Sample spaces for some probability experiments are shown
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
here:
Statistics?

Why do we
Experiment Sample space
study
statistics?
Toss one coin {Head, Tail }, or {H, T }
Types of
Roll a dice once {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Statistics
Types of
Answer a true-false question {True, False}, or {T, F}
variables
Toss two coins
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 29 / 56
 Some Examples

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Sample spaces for some probability experiments are shown
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
here:
Statistics?

Why do we
Experiment Sample space
study
statistics?
Toss one coin {Head, Tail }, or {H, T }
Types of
Roll a dice once {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Statistics
Types of
Answer a true-false question {True, False}, or {T, F}
variables
Toss two coins {HH, HT, T H, T T }
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 29 / 56
 Special Terminology

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 30 / 56
 Special Terminology

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
φ denotes the null or empty set.
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 30 / 56
 Special Terminology

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
φ denotes the null or empty set.
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
A ⊂ B means that A is a subset of B .
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 30 / 56
 Special Terminology

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
φ denotes the null or empty set.
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
A ⊂ B means that A is a subset of B .
Statistics?

Why do we A ∪ B is the union of A and B.

study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 30 / 56
 Special Terminology

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
φ denotes the null or empty set.
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
A ⊂ B means that A is a subset of B .
Statistics?

Why do we A ∪ B is the union of A and B.

study

A ∩ B is the intersection of A and B.

statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 30 / 56
 Special Terminology

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
φ denotes the null or empty set.
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
A ⊂ B means that A is a subset of B .
Statistics?

Why do we A ∪ B is the union of A and B.

study

A ∩ B is the intersection of A and B.

statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables Ac is the complement of A
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
(i.e., all elements in S that are not in A).
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 30 / 56
 Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Events

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 31 / 56
 Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Events

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives
1 The random events A1, A2, . . . , Ak are
What Is
Statistics?
mutually exclusive if and only if, Ai ∩ Aj = φ,
Why do we
study for all i 6= j.
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 31 / 56
 Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Events

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives
1 The random events A1, A2, . . . , Ak are
What Is
Statistics?
mutually exclusive if and only if, Ai ∩ Aj = φ,
Why do we
study for all i 6= j.
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
2 If A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ Ak = S, the random events
Types of
variables

Probability
A1, A2, . . . , Ak are said to be exhaustive events.
Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 31 / 56
 Presentation Outline

Lecture 1: An
Introduction 1 Chapter Objectives
Professor
Amany E. Aly
2 What Is Statistics?
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
3 Why do we study statistics?
Statistics?

Why do we
4 Types of Statistics
study
statistics?

Types of
Types of variables
Statistics
Types of
variables
5 Probability
Probability

Basic concepts
6 Basic concepts and definition of probability
and definition
of probability

Definition of
7 Definition of Probability
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 32 / 56
 Probability as a Relative Frequency

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives Definition 9
What Is
Statistics? Probability of an event is the relative frequency of this
Why do we
study
statistics? event of outcomes over an indefinitely large (or infinite)
Types of
Statistics number of trials.
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 33 / 56
 Kolmogorov axiomatic probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Definition 10
Amany E. Aly
Probability is a set function P that assigns to each event
Chapter
Objectives
A in the sample space S a number P (A), called the
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
probability of the event A, such that the following prop-
study
statistics? erties are satisfied:
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 34 / 56
 Kolmogorov axiomatic probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Definition 10
Amany E. Aly
Probability is a set function P that assigns to each event
Chapter
Objectives
A in the sample space S a number P (A), called the
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
probability of the event A, such that the following prop-
study
statistics? erties are satisfied:
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables
(i) P (A) ≥ 0,
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 34 / 56
 Kolmogorov axiomatic probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Definition 10
Amany E. Aly
Probability is a set function P that assigns to each event
Chapter
Objectives
A in the sample space S a number P (A), called the
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
probability of the event A, such that the following prop-
study
statistics? erties are satisfied:
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables
(i) P (A) ≥ 0, (ii) P (S) = 1,
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 34 / 56
 Kolmogorov axiomatic probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Definition 10
Amany E. Aly
Probability is a set function P that assigns to each event
Chapter
Objectives
A in the sample space S a number P (A), called the
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
probability of the event A, such that the following prop-
study
statistics? erties are satisfied:
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables
(i) P (A) ≥ 0, (ii) P (S) = 1,
Probability

Basic concepts
(iii) If A1 ∩ A2 = ∅, then
and definition
of probability
P (A1 ∪ A2) = P (A1) + P (A2).
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 34 / 56
 Types of events

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Definition 11
Chapter
Objectives Two events A and B are mutually exclusive if they
What Is
Statistics? cannot both happen at the same time.
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 35 / 56
 Types of events

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Definition 11
Chapter
Objectives Two events A and B are mutually exclusive if they
What Is
Statistics? cannot both happen at the same time.
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Definition 12
Statistics
Types of
variables
A ∪ B is the event that either A or B occurs or they
Probability

Basic concepts
both occur.
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 35 / 56
 Types of events

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Definition 13
Chapter
Objectives A ∩ B is the event that both A and B occur
What Is
Statistics? simultaneously.
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 36 / 56
 Types of events

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Definition 13
Chapter
Objectives A ∩ B is the event that both A and B occur
What Is
Statistics? simultaneously.
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Definition 14
Statistics
Types of
variables
Ac is the event that A does not occur. It is some times
Probability

Basic concepts
referred to as the complement of A.
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 36 / 56
 Some Important Theorems

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives
Theorem 1
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
For each event A
study

P (Ac) = 1 − P (A).
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 37 / 56
 Proof Theorem 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 38 / 56
 Proof Theorem 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Proof.
Amany E. Aly
From figure, We have, S = A∪Ac and A∩Ac = Φ.
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 39 / 56
 Proof Theorem 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Proof.
Amany E. Aly
From figure, We have, S = A∪Ac and A∩Ac = Φ.
Chapter
Objectives Thus, from properties (ii) and (iii), it follows that
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
P (S) =
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 39 / 56
 Proof Theorem 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Proof.
Amany E. Aly
From figure, We have, S = A∪Ac and A∩Ac = Φ.
Chapter
Objectives Thus, from properties (ii) and (iii), it follows that
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
P (S) = P (A) + P (Ac) − P (A ∩ Ac)
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 39 / 56
 Proof Theorem 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Proof.
Amany E. Aly
From figure, We have, S = A∪Ac and A∩Ac = Φ.
Chapter
Objectives Thus, from properties (ii) and (iii), it follows that
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
P (S) = P (A) + P (Ac) − P (A ∩ Ac)
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
1 = P (A) + P (Ac) − 0
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 39 / 56
 Proof Theorem 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Proof.
Amany E. Aly
From figure, We have, S = A∪Ac and A∩Ac = Φ.
Chapter
Objectives Thus, from properties (ii) and (iii), it follows that
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
P (S) = P (A) + P (Ac) − P (A ∩ Ac)
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
1 = P (A) + P (Ac) − 0
1 = P (A) + P (Ac).
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 39 / 56
 Proof Theorem 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Proof.
Amany E. Aly
From figure, We have, S = A∪Ac and A∩Ac = Φ.
Chapter
Objectives Thus, from properties (ii) and (iii), it follows that
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
P (S) = P (A) + P (Ac) − P (A ∩ Ac)
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
1 = P (A) + P (Ac) − 0
1 = P (A) + P (Ac).
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability P (A) = 1 − P (Ac).
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 39 / 56
 Theorem 2

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Theorem 2
Chapter
P (∅) = 0.
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 40 / 56
 Theorem 2

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Theorem 2
Chapter
P (∅) = 0.
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?
Proof.
Why do we
study
statistics? In Theorem 1, take A = Φ so that Ac = S.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
Thus
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 40 / 56
 Theorem 2

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Theorem 2
Chapter
P (∅) = 0.
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?
Proof.
Why do we
study
statistics? In Theorem 1, take A = Φ so that Ac = S.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
Thus
variables

Probability P (Φ) = 1 − P (S) = 1 − 1 = 0.

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 40 / 56
 Theorem 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Theorem 3
If A and B are two events such that A ⊂ B, then
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
P (A) < P (B).
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 41 / 56
 Proof Theorem 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Proof.
Chapter

B = A ∪ (B ∩ Ac) and
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 42 / 56
 Proof Theorem 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Proof.
Chapter

B = A ∪ (B ∩ Ac) and A ∩ (B ∩ Ac) = Φ.

Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 42 / 56
 Proof Theorem 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Proof.
Chapter

B = A ∪ (B ∩ Ac) and A ∩ (B ∩ Ac) = Φ.

Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?
Hence, from property (iii),
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 42 / 56
 Proof Theorem 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Proof.
Chapter

B = A ∪ (B ∩ Ac) and A ∩ (B ∩ Ac) = Φ.

Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?
Hence, from property (iii),
Types of

P (B) = P (A) + P (B ∩ Ac)

Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 42 / 56
 Proof Theorem 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Proof.
Chapter

B = A ∪ (B ∩ Ac) and A ∩ (B ∩ Ac) = Φ.

Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?
Hence, from property (iii),
Types of

P (B) = P (A) + P (B ∩ Ac)

Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability
from property (i), P (B ∩ Ac) ≥ 0,
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 42 / 56
 Proof Theorem 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Proof.
Chapter

B = A ∪ (B ∩ Ac) and A ∩ (B ∩ Ac) = Φ.

Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?
Hence, from property (iii),
Types of

P (B) = P (A) + P (B ∩ Ac)

Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability
from property (i), P (B ∩ Ac) ≥ 0,so P (B) ≥ P (A)
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 42 / 56
 Theorem 4

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor Theorem 4
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
For each event A, P (A) ≤ 1.
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 43 / 56
 Theorem 4

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor Theorem 4
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
For each event A, P (A) ≤ 1.
Objectives

What Is
Statistics? Proof.
Why do we
study
statistics?
Since A ⊂ S, we have by Theorem 3, and property (ii)
Types of
Statistics that
Types of
variables

Probability
P (A) ≤ P (S).
Basic concepts
and definition
of probability But P (S) = 1.
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 43 / 56
 Theorem 4

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor Theorem 4
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
For each event A, P (A) ≤ 1.
Objectives

What Is
Statistics? Proof.
Why do we
study
statistics?
Since A ⊂ S, we have by Theorem 3, and property (ii)
Types of
Statistics that
Types of
variables

Probability
P (A) ≤ P (S).
Basic concepts
and definition
of probability But P (S) = 1. Hence, P (A) ≤ 1.
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 43 / 56
 Addition Law of Probability

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives
Theorem 5
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
If A and B are any two events, then
study
statistics?

Types of P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B).

Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 44 / 56
 Proof Theorem 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 45 / 56
 Proof Theorem 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Proof.
Amany E. Aly
From the fig. the event ( A ∪ B) can be represented as
Chapter
Objectives a union of two mutually exclusive events, namely,
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 46 / 56
 Proof Theorem 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Proof.
Amany E. Aly
From the fig. the event ( A ∪ B) can be represented as
Chapter
Objectives a union of two mutually exclusive events, namely,
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
A ∪ B = A ∪ (Ac ∩ B).
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
Hence, by property (iii),
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 46 / 56
 Proof Theorem 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Proof.
Amany E. Aly
From the fig. the event ( A ∪ B) can be represented as
Chapter
Objectives a union of two mutually exclusive events, namely,
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
A ∪ B = A ∪ (Ac ∩ B).
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
Hence, by property (iii),
variables

P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (Ac ∩ B).

Probability

Basic concepts (1)

and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability However,
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 46 / 56
Lecture 1: An
Introduction Proof.
Professor

B = (A ∩ B) ∪ (Ac ∩ B),
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?
which is a union of two mutually exclusive events. Thus,
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 47 / 56
Lecture 1: An
Introduction Proof.
Professor

B = (A ∩ B) ∪ (Ac ∩ B),
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?
which is a union of two mutually exclusive events. Thus,
Why do we
study
statistics? P (B) = P (A ∩ B) + P (Ac ∩ B),
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables that is,
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 47 / 56
Lecture 1: An
Introduction Proof.
Professor

B = (A ∩ B) ∪ (Ac ∩ B),
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?
which is a union of two mutually exclusive events. Thus,
Why do we
study
statistics? P (B) = P (A ∩ B) + P (Ac ∩ B),
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables that is,
Probability

P (Ac ∩ B) = P (B) − P (A ∩ B).

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability
(2)
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 47 / 56
Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Proof.
Chapter
Objectives If we substitute from Equation 2 into Equation 1 we ob-
What Is
Statistics?
tain
Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B),

Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability which is the desired result.

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 48 / 56
 Theorem 6

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Theorem 6
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
If A, B and C any three events, then
Statistics?

Why do we
study P (A ∪ B ∪ C) = P (A) + P (B) + P (C) − P (A ∩ B)
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
− P (A ∩ C) − P (B ∩ C) + P (A ∩ B ∩ C)
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 49 / 56
 Theorem 6

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
Theorem 6
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
If A, B and C any three events, then
Statistics?

Why do we
study P (A ∪ B ∪ C) = P (A) + P (B) + P (C) − P (A ∩ B)
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
− P (A ∩ C) − P (B ∩ C) + P (A ∩ B ∩ C)
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
Prove it? H.W.
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 49 / 56
 Example 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly Example 1
Chapter
Objectives
A faculty leader was meeting two students in Paris, one
What Is
Statistics?
arriving by train from Amsterdam and the other arriving
Why do we
study
statistics?
by train from Brussels at approximately the same time.
Types of
Statistics
Let A and B be the events that the trains are on time,
Types of
variables

Probability
respectively. Suppose that P (A) = 0.93, P (B) = 0.89,
Basic concepts
and definition
and P (A ∩ B) = 0.87.
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 50 / 56
 Example 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly Example 1
Chapter
Objectives
A faculty leader was meeting two students in Paris, one
What Is
Statistics?
arriving by train from Amsterdam and the other arriving
Why do we
study
statistics?
by train from Brussels at approximately the same time.
Types of
Statistics
Let A and B be the events that the trains are on time,
Types of
variables

Probability
respectively. Suppose that P (A) = 0.93, P (B) = 0.89,
Basic concepts
and definition
and P (A ∩ B) = 0.87.Find P (A ∪ B).
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 50 / 56
 Solution of Example 1

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B)
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
= 0.93 + 0.89 − 0.87 = 0.95
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 51 / 56
 Example 2

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly

Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Example 2
Statistics?

Why do we If a family has three children , find the probability that

study
statistics?

Types of
all the children are girls.
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 52 / 56
 Solution of Example 2

Lecture 1: An
Introduction The sample space for the gender of children for a family
Professor
Amany E. Aly has three children is
Chapter
Objectives
S = {BBB, BBG, BGB, GBB, GGB, GBG, BGG, GGG}
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 53 / 56
 Solution of Example 2

Lecture 1: An
Introduction The sample space for the gender of children for a family
Professor
Amany E. Aly has three children is
Chapter
Objectives
S = {BBB, BBG, BGB, GBB, GGB, GBG, BGG, GGG}
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study Since there is one way in eight possibilities for all three
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
children to be girls (GGG), we have
Types of
variables

Probability
1
P (GGG) = .
Basic concepts
and definition
of probability
8
Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 53 / 56
 Example 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Example 3
Amany E. Aly
In a sample of 50 people, 21 had type O blood, 22 had
Chapter
Objectives
type A blood, 5 had type B blood and 2 had type AB
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
blood. Find the following probabilities:
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 54 / 56
 Example 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Example 3
Amany E. Aly
In a sample of 50 people, 21 had type O blood, 22 had
Chapter
Objectives
type A blood, 5 had type B blood and 2 had type AB
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
blood. Find the following probabilities:
study
statistics?
(a) A person has type O blood.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 54 / 56
 Example 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Example 3
Amany E. Aly
In a sample of 50 people, 21 had type O blood, 22 had
Chapter
Objectives
type A blood, 5 had type B blood and 2 had type AB
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
blood. Find the following probabilities:
study
statistics?
(a) A person has type O blood.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables
(b) A person has type A or type B blood.
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 54 / 56
 Example 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Example 3
Amany E. Aly
In a sample of 50 people, 21 had type O blood, 22 had
Chapter
Objectives
type A blood, 5 had type B blood and 2 had type AB
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
blood. Find the following probabilities:
study
statistics?
(a) A person has type O blood.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables
(b) A person has type A or type B blood.
Probability

Basic concepts (c) A person has neither type A nor type O blood.
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 54 / 56
 Example 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Example 3
Amany E. Aly
In a sample of 50 people, 21 had type O blood, 22 had
Chapter
Objectives
type A blood, 5 had type B blood and 2 had type AB
What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
blood. Find the following probabilities:
study
statistics?
(a) A person has type O blood.
Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables
(b) A person has type A or type B blood.
Probability

Basic concepts (c) A person has neither type A nor type O blood.
and definition
of probability

Definition of
(d) A person does not have type AB blood.
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 54 / 56
 Solution of Example 3

Lecture 1: An
Introduction

Professor
Amany E. Aly
First, set up a frequency distribution
Chapter
Objectives
Type Frequency
What Is
Statistics? A 22
Why do we
study
statistics?
B 5
Types of
Statistics
AB 2
Types of
variables

Probability
O 21
Basic concepts
and definition
Total 50
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 55 / 56
 Solution of Example 3-Continued

Lecture 1: An
Introduction 21
Professor (a) P (O) = .
Amany E. Aly 50
Chapter
Objectives

What Is
Statistics?

Why do we
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 56 / 56
 Solution of Example 3-Continued

Lecture 1: An
Introduction 21
Professor (a) P (O) = .
Amany E. Aly 50
22 5 27
Chapter
Objectives (b) P (A or B) = + =
What Is 50 50 50
Statistics?

Why do we
(Add the frequencies of the two classes.)
study
statistics?

Types of
Statistics
Types of
variables

Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 56 / 56
 Solution of Example 3-Continued

Lecture 1: An
Introduction 21
Professor (a) P (O) = .
Amany E. Aly 50
22 5 27
Chapter
Objectives (b) P (A or B) = + =
What Is 50 50 50
Statistics?

Why do we
(Add the frequencies of the two classes.)
study
statistics?
5 2 7
(c) P (neither A nor O) = + =
Types of
Statistics 50 50 50
Types of
variables (Neither A nor O means that a person has either
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
type B or type AB blood. )
of probability

Definition of
Probability
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 56 / 56
 Solution of Example 3-Continued

Lecture 1: An
Introduction 21
Professor (a) P (O) = .
Amany E. Aly 50
22 5 27
Chapter
Objectives (b) P (A or B) = + =
What Is 50 50 50
Statistics?

Why do we
(Add the frequencies of the two classes.)
study
statistics?
5 2 7
(c) P (neither A nor O) = + =
Types of
Statistics 50 50 50
Types of
variables (Neither A nor O means that a person has either
Probability

Basic concepts
and definition
type B or type AB blood. )
of probability 2 48
Definition of (d) P (AB)c = 1 − P (AB) = 1 − = .
Probability
50 50
Professor Amany E. Aly ( Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Lecture
Helwan
1: AnUniversity,
Introduction
Ain Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.) 30 / 9 / 2024 56 / 56