Evolve.

Adapt.
Overcome.
CEFI is now ready.

Chapter 7
Muscular
System
ANA101:
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

MARK MAGBUHOS, RMT

College of Medical Technology
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
• List the functions of the muscular system.
• Describe the microscopic structure of a muscle, and produce
diagrams that illustrate the arrangement of myofibrils,
sarcomeres, and myofilaments.
• Describe a resting membrane potential and an action
potential.
• Describe a neuromuscular junction.
• Explain the events that occur in muscle contraction and
relaxation.
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
• Define muscle twitch, tetanus, recruitment, and summation.
• Distinguish between fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibers and
explain the function for which each type is best adapted.
• Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
• Compare the mechanisms involved in the major types of
fatigue.
• Distinguish between isometric and isotonic contractions.
• Define muscle tone.
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
• Distinguish among skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle.
• Define the following and give an example of each: origin,
insertion, agonist, antagonist, synergist, and prime mover.
• Describe various facial expressions, and list the major muscles
involved in each.
• Describe mastication, tongue movement, and swallowing, and
list the muscles or groups of muscles involved in each.
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
• Describe the muscles of the trunk and the actions they
produce.
• Describe the movements of the arm, forearm, and hand, and
list the muscle groups involved in each movement.
• Describe the movements of the thigh, leg, and foot, and list
the muscle groups involved in each movement.
• Describe the effects of aging on skeletal muscle.
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Case Study
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Types of Muscles
• Skeletal
• attached to bones
• striated
• voluntarily controlled
• Cardiac
• located in the heart
• striated
• involuntarily controlled
• Smooth
• Located in blood vessels, hollow organs
• Non-striated
Comparison of Muscle Types
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The Muscular System

• Functions
1. Movement
2. Maintain posture
3. Respiration
4. Production of body heat
5. Communication
6. Heart beat
7. Contraction of organs and
vessels
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Properties of Muscles
• Contractility - the ability of muscle to shorten forcefully, or contract
• Excitability - the capacity of muscle to respond to a stimulus
• Extensibility - the ability to be stretched beyond it normal resting
length and still be able to contract
• Elasticity - the ability of the muscle to recoil to its original resting
length after it has been stretched
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Skeletal Muscle Structure

• Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, with its associated connective
tissue, constitutes approximately 40% of body weight.
• Skeletal muscle is so named because many of the muscles are attached
to the skeletal system.
• Some skeletal muscles attach to the skin or connective tissue sheets.
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Skeletal Muscle Structure

• Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle because transverse bands,
or striations, can be seen in the muscle under the microscope.
• Individual skeletal muscles, such as the biceps brachii, are complete
organs, as a result of being comprised of several tissues: muscle, nerve,
and connective tissue.
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Connective Tissue Coverings

• Each skeletal muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath called
the epimysium.
• A skeletal muscle is subdivided into groups of muscle cells, termed
fascicles.
• Each fascicle is surrounded by a connective tissue covering, termed the
perimysium.
• Each skeletal muscle cell (fiber) is surrounded by a connective tissue
covering, termed the endomysium.
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Muscle Fiber Structure

• A muscle fiber is a single cylindrical cell, with several nuclei located at
its periphery.
• Muscle fibers range in length 1 cm to 30 cm and are generally 0.15 mm
in diameter.
• Skeletal muscle fibers contain several nuclei that are located at the
periphery of the fiber.
• The sarcolemma (cell membrane) has many tubelike inward folds,
called transverse tubules, or T tubules.
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Muscle Fiber Structure

• T tubules occur at regular intervals along the muscle fiber and extend
into the center of the muscle fiber.
• The T tubules are associated with enlarged portions of the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum called the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
• The enlarged portions are called terminal cisternae.
• T tubules connect the sarcolemma to the terminal cisternae to form a
muscle triad.
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Muscle Fiber Structure

• The sarcoplasmic reticulum has a relatively high concentration of Ca2+,
which plays a major role in muscle contraction.
• The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called the sarcoplasm, which
contains many bundles of protein filaments.
• Bundles of protein filaments are called myofibrils.
• Myofibrils consist of the myofilaments, actin and myosin.
Structure of Skeletal Muscle
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The Sarcomere
• The sarcomere is the basic structural and functional unit of a skeletal
muscle because it is the smallest portion of a skeletal muscle capable of
contracting.
• Z disks form a network of protein fibers that both serve as an anchor
for actin myofilaments and separate one sarcomere from the next.
• A sarcomere extends from one Z disk to the next Z disk.
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The Sarcomere
• The organization of actin and myosin myofilaments gives skeletal
muscle its striated appearance and gives it the ability to contract.
• The myofilaments slide past each other, causing the sarcomeres to
shorten.
• Each sarcomere consists of two light-staining bands separated by a
dark-staining band.
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The Sarcomere
• Light bands, consist only of actin, and are called I bands that extends
toward the center of the sarcomere to the ends of the myosin
myofilaments.
• Dark staining bands are called A bands, that extend the length of the
myosin myofilaments.
• Actin and myosin myofilaments overlap for some distance on both ends
of the A band; this overlap causes the contraction.
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The Sarcomere
• Actin myofilaments are made up of three components: actin, troponin,
and tropomyosin.
• Troponin molecules have binding sites for Ca2+ and tropomyosin
filaments block the myosin myofilament binding sites on the actin
myofilaments.
• Myosin myofilaments, or thick myofilaments, resemble bundles of tiny
golf clubs.
• Myosin heads have ATP binding sites, ATPase and attachment spots for
actin.
Skeletal Muscle Fiber
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Sarcomere Shortening
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Excitability of Muscle Fibers

• The electrical charge difference across the cell membrane of an
unstimulated cell is called the resting membrane potential.
• Muscle cells (fibers) have a resting membrane potential, but can also
perform action potentials.
• The resting membrane potential is due to the inside of the membrane
being negatively charged in comparison to the outside of the
membrane being positively charged.
• Action potentials are due to the membrane having gated channels.
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Resting Membrane Potential

• The resting membrane potential exists because of:
• The concentration of K+ being higher on the inside of the cell
membrane and the concentration of Na+ being higher on the
outside
• The presence of many negatively charged molecules, such as
proteins, inside the cell that are too large to exit the cell
• The presence of leak protein channels in the membrane that are
more permeable to K+ than it is to Na+
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Resting Membrane Potential

• Na+ tends to diffuse into the cell and K+ tends to diffuse out.
• In order to maintain the resting membrane potential, the sodium-
potassium pump recreates the Na+ and K+ ion gradient by pumping Na+
out of the cell and K+ into the cell.
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Measuring the Resting Membrane Potential

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Depolarization and the Action Potential

in Skeletal Muscle
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Resting Membrane Potential

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Action Potential
• To initiate a muscle contraction, the resting membrane potential must
be changed to an action potential.
• Changes in the resting membrane potential occur when gated cell
membrane channels open.
• In a skeletal muscle fiber, a nerve impulse triggers gated Na+ channels
to open and Na+ diffuses into the cell down its concentration gradient
and toward the negative charges inside the cell.
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Action Potential
• The entry of Na+ causes the inside of the cell membrane to become
more positive than when the cell is at resting membrane potential.
• This increase in positive charge inside the cell membrane is called
depolarization.
• If the depolarization changes the membrane potential to a value called
threshold, an action potential is triggered.
• An action potential is a rapid change in charge across the cell
membrane.
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Action Potential
• Depolarization during the action potential is when the inside of the cell
membrane becomes more positively charged than the outside of the
cell membrane.
• Near the end of depolarization, the positive charge causes gated Na+
channels to close and gated K+ channels to open.
• Opening of gated K+ channels starts repolarization of the cell
membrane.
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Action Potential
• Repolarization is due to the exit of K+ from the cell.
• The outward diffusion of K+ returns the cell to its resting membrane
conditions and the action potential ends.
• In a muscle fiber, an action potential results in muscle contraction.
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Depolarization
• change in charges
inside becomes more + and outside more –
Na+ channels open
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Repolarization
• Na+ channels close
change back to resting potential
Ion Channels and Action Potentials
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Nerve Supply
• A motor neuron is a nerve cell stimulates muscle cells.
• A neuromuscular junction is a synapse where a the fiber of a nerve
connects with a muscle fiber.
• A synapse refers to the cell-to-cell junction between a nerve cell and
either another nerve cell or an effector cell, such as in a muscle or a
gland.
• A motor unit is a group of muscle fibers that a motor neuron
stimulates.
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Nerve Supply
• A presynaptic terminal is the end of a neuron cell axon fiber.
• A synaptic cleft is the space between the presynaptic terminal and
postsynaptic membrane.
• The postsynaptic membrane is the muscle fiber membrane
(sarcolemma).
• A synaptic vesicle is a vesicle in the presynaptic terminal that stores
and releases neurotransmitter chemicals.
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Ion Channels and Action Potentials
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Muscle Contraction
1. An action potential travels down motor neuron to presynaptic
terminal causing Ca2+ channels to open.
2. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to release acetylcholine into synaptic
cleft.
3. Acetylcholine binds to receptor sites on Na+ channels, Na+ channels
open, and Na+ rushes into postsynaptic terminal (depolarization).
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Muscle Contraction
4. Na+ causes sarcolemma and t-tubules to increase the permeability of
sarcoplasmic reticulum which releases stored calcium.
5. Ca2+ binds to troponin which is attached to actin.
6. Ca2+ binding to troponin causes tropomyosin to move exposing
attachment sites for myosin.
7. Myosin heads bind to actin.
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Muscle Contraction
8. ATP is released from myosin heads and heads bend toward center
of sarcomere.
9. Bending forces actin to slide over myosin.
10. Acetylcholinesterase (enzyme breaks down acetylcholine) is
released, Na+ channels close, and muscle contraction stops.
Skeletal Muscle Excitation
Skeletal Muscle Excitation
Skeletal Muscle Excitation
Skeletal Muscle Excitation
Skeletal Muscle Excitation
Skeletal Muscle Excitation
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ATP and Muscle Contractions

• Energy for muscle contractions is supplied by ATP
• Energy is released as ATP → ADP + P
• ATP is stored in myosin heads
• ATP help form cross-bridge formation between myosin and actin
• New ATP must bind to myosin before cross-bridge is released
• Rigor mortis will occur when a person dies and no ATP is available to
release cross-bridges
ATP Breakdown and Cross-Bridge Movement
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Muscle Twitch
• A muscle twitch is a single contraction of a muscle fiber in response to
a stimulus.
• A muscle twitch has three phases: latent phase, contraction phase, and
relaxation phase.
• The latent phase is the time between the application of a stimulus and
the beginning of contraction.
• The contraction phase is the time during which the muscle contracts
and the relaxation phase is the time during which the muscle relaxes.
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Muscle Twitch
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Summation and Recruitment

• In summation, individual muscles contract more forcefully.
• Tetanus is a sustained contraction that occurs when the frequency of
stimulation is so rapid that no relaxation occurs.
• Recruitment is the stimulation of several motor units.
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Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

• Slow twitch fibers
• contract slowly
• fatigue slowly
• have a considerable amount of myoglobin
• use aerobic respiration
• are dark in color
• used by long distance runners
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Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

• Fast twitch fibers
• contract quickly
• fatigue quickly
• use anaerobic respiration
• energy from glycogen
• light color
• used by sprinters
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Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

• A muscle has a blend of types, with one type dominating. Humans have
both types of fibers
• The distribution of fibers is genetically determined
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Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

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Energy for Muscle Contractions

• Muscle fibers are very energy-demanding cells whether at rest or
during any form of exercise.
• This energy comes from either aerobic (with O2) or anaerobic (without
O2) ATP production
• ATP is derived from four processes in skeletal muscle.
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Energy for Muscle Contractions

1. Aerobic production of ATP during most exercise and normal
conditions.
2. Anaerobic production of ATP during intensive short-term work
3. Conversion of a molecule called creatine phosphate to ATP
4. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one AMP (adenosine
monophosphate) during heavy exercise
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Muscle Fatigue
• Fatigue is a temporary state of reduced work capacity.
• Without fatigue, muscle fibers would be worked to the point of
structural damage to them and their supportive tissues.
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Muscle Fatigue
• Mechanisms of fatigue include:
• Acidosis and ATP depletion due to either an increased ATP
consumption or a decreased ATP production
• Oxidative stress, which is characterized by the buildup of excess
reactive oxygen species (ROS; free radicals)
• Local inflammatory reactions
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Types of Contractions
• There are two types of muscle contractions: isometric and isotonic.
• The isometric contraction has an increase in muscle tension, but no
change in length.
• The isotonic contraction has a change in muscle length with no change
in tension.
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Types of Contractions
• Concentric contractions are isotonic contractions in which muscle
tension increases as the muscle shortens.
• Eccentric contractions are isotonic contractions in which tension is
maintained in a muscle, but the opposing resistance causes the muscle
to lengthen.
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Muscle Tone
• Muscle tone is the constant tension produced by body muscles over
long periods of time.
• Muscle tone is responsible for keeping the back and legs straight, the
head in an upright position, and the abdomen from bulging.
• Muscle tone depends on a small percentage of all the motor units in a
muscle being stimulated at any point in time, causing their muscle
fibers to contract tetanically and out of phase with one another.
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Smooth Muscle
• Smooth muscle cells are non-striated small, spindle-shaped muscle
cells, usually with one nucleus per cell.
• The myofilaments are not organized into sarcomeres.
• The cells comprise organs controlled involuntarily, except the heart.
• Neurotransmitter substances, hormones, and other substances can
stimulate smooth muscle.
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Cardiac Muscle
• Cardiac muscle cells are long, striated, and branching, with usually only
one nucleus per cell.
• Cardiac muscle is striated as a result of the sarcomere arrangement.
• Cardiac muscle contraction is autorhythmic.
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Cardiac Muscle
• Cardiac muscle cells are connected to one another by specialized
structures that include desmosomes and gap junctions called
intercalated disks.
• Cardiac muscle cells function as a single unit in that action potential in
one cardiac muscle cell can stimulate action potentials in adjacent cells.
Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal Muscles
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Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

• A tendon connects skeletal muscle to bone.
• Aponeuroses are broad, sheetlike tendons.
• A retinaculum is a band of connective tissue that holds down the
tendons at each wrist and ankle.
• Skeletal muscle attachments have an origin and an insertion, with the
origin being the attachment at the least mobile location.
• The insertion is the end of the muscle attached to the bone undergoing
the greatest movement.
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Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

• The part of the muscle between the origin and the insertion is the
belly.
• A group of muscles working together are called agonists.
• A muscle or group of muscles that oppose muscle actions are termed
antagonists.
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Nomenclature
• Muscles are named according to:
1. Location – a pectoralis muscle is located in the chest.
2. Size – the size could be large or small, short or long.
3. Shape - the shape could be triangular, quadrate, rectangular, or
round.
4. Orientation of fascicles – fascicles could run straight (rectus) or at an
angle (oblique).
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Nomenclature
5. Origin and insertion. The sternocleidomastoid has its origin on the
sternum and clavicle and its insertion on the mastoid process of the
temporal bone.
6. Number of heads. A biceps muscle has two heads (origins), and a
triceps muscle has three heads (origins).
7. Function. Abductors and adductors are the muscles that cause
abduction and adduction movements.
Nomenclature
Nomenclature
Nomenclature
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Muscles of Mastication
• Temporalis
• Masseter
• Pterygoids (two pairs)
Muscles of Facial Expression and Mastication
Muscles of Facial Expression and Mastication
Muscles of Facial Expression and Mastication
Muscles of Facial Expression and Mastication
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Deep Neck and Back Muscles
Deep Neck and Back Muscles
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Thoracic Muscles
• External intercostals:
• elevate ribs for inspiration
• Internal intercostals:
• depress ribs during forced expiration
• Diaphragm:
• moves during quiet breathing
Muscles of the Thorax
Muscles of the Thorax
Muscles of the Thorax
Muscles of the Thorax
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Abdominal Wall Muscles

• Rectus abdominis:
• center of abdomen
• compresses abdomen
• External abdominal oblique:
• sides of abdomen
• compresses abdomen
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Abdominal Wall Muscles

• Internal abdominal oblique:
• compresses abdomen
• Transverse abdominis:
• compresses abdomen
Muscles of the Anterior Abdominal Wall
Muscles of the Abdominal Wall
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Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles

• Trapezius:
• shoulders and upper back
• extends neck and head
• Pectoralis major:
• chest
• elevates ribs
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Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles

• Serratus anterior:
• between ribs
• elevates ribs
• Deltoid:
• shoulder
• abductor or upper limbs
Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles
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Upper Limb Muscles

• Triceps brachii:
• 3 heads
• extends elbow
• Biceps brachii:
• “flexing muscle”
• flexes elbow and shoulder
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Upper Limb Muscles

• Brachialis:
• flexes elbow
• Latissimus dorsi:
• lower back
• extends shoulder
Arm Muscles
Arm Muscles
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Forearm Muscles
• Flexor longus
• Flexor carpi radialis
• Flexor carpi ulnaris
• Flexor digitorum profundus
• Flexor digitorum superficialis
• Pronator
• Brachioradialis
• Extensor carpi radialis brevis
Muscles of the Forearm
Muscles of the Forearm
Muscles of the Forearm
Muscles of the Forearm
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Pelvic Floor Muscles

• Levator ani
• Ischiocavernosus
• Bulbospongiosus
• Deep transverse perineal
• Superficial transverse perineal
Pelvic Floor Muscles
Pelvic Floor Muscles
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Muscles of Hips and Thighs

• Iliopsoas:
• flexes hip
• Gluteus maximus:
• buttocks
• extends hip and abducts thigh
• Gluteus medius:
• Hip
• abducts and rotates thigh
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Muscles of the Upper Leg

• The quadriceps femoris is comprised of 4 thigh muscles:
• The rectus femoris:
• front of thigh
• extends knee and flexes hip
• The vastus lateralis:
• extends knee
• The vastus medialis:
• extends knee
• The vastus intermedius:
• extends knee
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Muscles of the Upper Leg

• Gracilis:
• adducts thigh and flexes knee
• Biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus:
• Hamstring
• back of thigh
• flexes knee, rotates leg, extends hip
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Muscles of the Upper Leg

• The rectus femoris:
• front of thigh
• extends knee and flexes hip
• The vastus lateralis:
• extends knee
• The vastus medialis:
• extends knee
• The vastus intermedius:
• extends knee
Muscles of the Hip and Thigh
Muscles of Hips and Thighs
Muscles of Hips and Thighs
Muscles of Hips and Thighs
Muscles of Hips and Thighs
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Muscles of Lower Leg

• Tibialis anterior:
• front of lower leg
• inverts foot
• Gastrocnemius:
• calf
• flexes foot and leg
• Soleus:
• attaches to ankle
• flexes foot
Lower Leg Muscles
Lower Leg Muscles
Lower Leg Muscles
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Clinical Impact
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The effect of Blocking Acetylcholine Receptors

and Acetylcholinesterase
• Any factor that affects the production, release, and degradation of
acetylcholine or its ability to bind to its receptor molecule also affects
the transmission of action potentials across the neuromuscular
junction.
• Some insecticides contain organophosphates that bind to and inhibit
the function of acetylcholinesterase.
• As a result, acetylcholine is not degraded but accumulates in the
synaptic cleft, where it acts as a constant stimulus to the muscle fiber.
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The effect of Blocking Acetylcholine Receptors

and Acetylcholinesterase
• Insects exposed to such insecticides die, partly because their muscles
contract and cannot relax—a condition called spastic paralysis, which is
followed by muscle fatigue.
• Humans respond similarly to these insecticides. The skeletal muscles
responsible for respiration cannot undergo their normal cycle of
contraction and relaxation.
• They remain in a state of spastic paralysis until they become fatigued,
causing the patients to die of respiratory failure.
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The effect of Blocking Acetylcholine Receptors

and Acetylcholinesterase
• Other organic poisons, such as curare, the substance originally used by
South American Indians in poison arrows, bind to the acetylcholine
receptors, preventing acetylcholine from binding to them.
• Curare does not allow the activation of the receptors, and the muscle is
incapable of contracting in response to nervous stimulation—a
condition called flaccid paralysis.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

The effect of Blocking Acetylcholine Receptors

and Acetylcholinesterase
• Myasthenia gravis results from the production of antibodies that bind
to acetylcholine receptors, eventually destroying the receptor and
reducing the number of receptors.
• As a consequence, muscles exhibit a degree of flaccid paralysis or are
extremely weak.
• A class of drugs that includes neostigmine partially blocks the action of
acetylcholinesterase and is sometimes used to treat myasthenia gravis.
• The drugs increase the level of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft, so
that it can bind more effectively to the remaining acetylcholine
receptors.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Anabolic Steroids and Growth Hormone

• Some people take synthetic hormones called anabolic steroids to increase the size
and strength of their muscles.
• Anabolic steroids are related to testosterone, a reproductive hormone secreted by
the testes, except that the steroids have been altered so that their reproductive
effects are minimized but their effect on skeletal muscles is maintained.
• Testosterone and anabolic steroids cause skeletal muscle tissue to hypertrophy.
People who take large doses of anabolic steroid exhibit increases in body weight
and total skeletal muscle mass, and many athletes believe that anabolic steroids
improve performance that depends on strength.
• Harmful side effects are associated with taking anabolic steroids, including periods
of irritability, testicular atrophy and sterility, cardiovascular diseases (such as heart
attack or stroke), and abnormal liver function.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Anabolic Steroids and Growth Hormone

• Most athletic organizations prohibit the use of anabolic steroids; some
analyze urine samples either randomly or periodically and have
possible penalties in place for athletes whose urine shows evidence of
anabolic steroid metabolites.
• Some individuals use growth hormone inappropriately to increase
muscle size.
• Growth hormone increases protein synthesis in muscle tissue, although
it does not produce the same kinds of side effects as those attributed
to anabolic steroids.
• Nevertheless, large doses of growth hormone can cause harmful side
effects if taken over a long period.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Laryngospasm
• Laryngospasm is a tetanic contraction of the muscles that narrows the
opening of the larynx (arytenoids, lateral cricoarytenoids) and affects
speech and breathing.
• A typical episode lasts 30–60 seconds, but in severe cases the opening
is closed completely, air can no longer pass through the larynx into the
lungs, and the victim may die of asphyxiation.
• Laryngospasm can develop as a result of severe allergic reactions,
tetanus infections, or hypocalcemia.
• More commonly, when food or liquid “goes down the wrong pipe,” a
laryngospasm episode can occur.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
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Laryngospasm
• Some individuals may have suffered an injury to the laryngeal nerves
and experience recurrent laryngospasm.
• For them, an injection of botulinum toxin is an effective treatment.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Back Pain
• Low back pain can result from injury, poor posture, being overweight,
or lack of fitness; it is the primary cause of missed work and one of the
most common neurological affliction.
• In addition to chronic pain, a low back injury is often accompanied by
muscle spasms, which are spontaneous, painful, uncontrolled muscle
contractions.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Back Pain
• A few changes may help prevent more spasms and reduce pain.
• Patients should sit and stand up straight; use a low back support when
sitting; lose weight; exercise, especially the back and abdominal
muscles; and try to sleep on their side on a firm mattress.
• If lifestyle changes are not sufficient, treatment with muscle relaxants,
anti-inflammatory drugs, or pain medication may be necessary.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Bodybuilding
• Bodybuilding is a popular sport worldwide. Its participants combine
diet and specific weight training to develop maximum muscle mass and
minimum body fat, with the goal of achieving a complete, well-
balanced physique.
• Skill, training, and concentration are required to build a well-
proportioned, muscular body and to know which exercises develop a
large number of muscles and which are specialized to build up certain
parts of the body.
• An uninformed, untrained muscle builder can build some muscles and
ignore others; the result is a disproportioned body.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
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Bodybuilding
• Overexercising can cause soreness and small tears in muscles.
• Torn muscles are weaker, and it may take up to 3 weeks to repair the
damage, even though the soreness may last only 5–10 days.
• Historically, although bodybuilders had a lot of muscle mass, they were
not “in shape.”
• However, today bodybuilders exercise aerobically in addition to
“pumping iron.”
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Bodybuilding
• A current topic of discussion for modern bodybuilders is whether
bodybuilding shortens their life span.
• For instance, scientific evidence has shown that restricted-calorie diets
increase life span, yet some bodybuilders consume at least 4500
calories a day when in the “bulking” phase of training.
• Others claim that the training process of lifting extremely heavy
weights, such as squat-lifting 500 pounds in series of repetitions, and
carrying the extra poundage of their acquired muscle mass cause their
heart to work harder.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Bodybuilding
• However the overwhelming evidence at this time shows that the life
span of active people is longer than that of sedentary people, even
when the activity is extreme.
• As bodybuilders age and reduce the intensity of their workouts, their
muscle mass decreases, but not at a porportionally higher rate than
other people with a lower activity level.
• Bodybuilders also have their own language. They refer to “lats,” “traps,”
and “delts” rather than latissimus dorsi, trapezius, and deltoids.
• The exercises have special names, such as “lat pulldowns,” “preacher
curls,” and “triceps extensions.”
COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.
COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Systems Pathology
Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

• Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is usually identified in children
around 3 years of age when their parents notice slow motor
development with progressive weakness and muscle wasting (atrophy).
• Typically, muscular weakness begins in the hip muscles, which causes a
waddling gait.
• Temporary enlargement of the calf muscles is apparent in 80% of cases.
The enlargement is paradoxical because the muscle fibers are actually
getting smaller, but the amount of fibrous connective tissue and fat
between the muscle fibers is increasing.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

• Rising from the floor by using the hands and arms is characteristic and
is caused by weakness of the lumbar and hip muscles.
• Within 3 to 5 years, the muscles of the shoulder girdle become
involved.
• The replacement of muscle with connective tissue contributes to
muscular atrophy and shortened, inflexible muscles called
contractures.
• The contractures limit movements and can cause severe deformities of
the skeleton.
• By 10 to 12 years of age, people with DMD are usually unable to walk,
and few live beyond age 20.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

• There is no effective treatment to prevent the progressive deterioration
of muscles in DMD. Therapy primarily involves exercises to help
strengthen muscles and prevent contractures .
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

• Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is caused by mutations in the
dystrophin gene on the X chromosome.
• The dystrophin gene is responsible for producing a protein called
dystrophin.
• Dystrophin plays a role in attaching actin myofilaments of myofibrils to,
and regulating the activity of, other proteins in the sarcolemma.
• Dystrophin is thought to protect muscle fibers against mechanical
stress in a normal individual.
• In DMD, part of the dystrophin gene is missing, and the protein it
produces is nonfunctional.
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

• The lack of dystrophin results in progressive muscular weakness and
muscle contractures.
• DMD is an X-linked recessive disorder. Thus, although females carry the
gene, DMD affects males almost exclusively.
COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Representative Diseases and Disorders: Muscular System
Representative Diseases and Disorders: Muscular System
 COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Calayan Educational Foundation, Inc.

THANK YOU!
• REFERENCES:
• Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 10th Edition By Cinnamon
VanPutte and Jennifer Regan and Andrew Russo, 2019
• Seeley’s Laboratory Manual Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology 8th Edition By
Kevin Patton