SIR M.

VISVESVARAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

BENGALURU 562 157
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGNEERING

ENGINEERING SCIENCE COURSE-1:- BESCK104B

FIRST SEMESTER:AY:2023-24

FACULTY INCHARGE
Mr.Siddappaji.M.R
Assistant Professor
Dept. of EEE.
 Sir M. Visvesvaraya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru - 562 157

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGNEERING

ENGINEERING SCIENCE COURSE-1 (BESCK104B)

MODULE-1

Syllabus:
Introduction: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources; General
structure of electrical power systems using single line diagram approach.
Power Generation: Hydel, Nuclear, Solar & wind power generation (Block
Diagram approach).
DC Circuits: Ohm‟s Law and its limitations. KCL & KVL, series, parallel,
series-parallel circuits. Simple Numerical.

CONVENTIONAL & NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCE

Conventional Energy Resource

Conventional energy sources are naturally present and have been in use for many
years these are also known as non-renewable energy sources, whichare present in a
limited quantity and take over hundreds of years to form.
Ex: Coal, petroleum, firewood, fossil fuels , straw etc.

Non-Conventional Energy Resource

The Non-Conventional energy sources are the sources of energy which are used as the
alternative of conventional energy sources. These are also known as renewable energy
sources. Which are available abundance in nature and being regularly generated in
short time.
Ex: Solar, wind, tidal, biomass energy etc.

The two major sources of energy is classified as:

 Conventional Sources
 Non-Conventional Sources

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The classification of the sources of energy is given in the below image.

GENERAL STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

The electrical power supply system consists of 3 divisions:

1. Generation
2. Transmission
3. Distribution
The power is generated in generating station. The transmission system is to deliver power
from generating station to centers and to large industrial consumers. The distribution
system is to deliver from centers to various consumers.

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The single line diagram is as shown below

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POWER GENERATION

Hydro power generation

Hydro power plants convert the potential energy of falling water into electricity. The block
diagram of a hydro power station is as shown below.

General Layout of Hydro power plant

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 Block diagram of Hydro power plant
In Hydroelectric power stations the water can be store in a man-made lake, or
reservoir. When water is released through the gates of reservoir, it spins a turbine which is
placed below and water turbine captures the energy of the falling water. This turbine is
coupled with the armature of an alternator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The controller controls the flow of water so that the turbine rotates at
constant speed.

Hydroelectric power stations are becoming very popular because the reserves of fuels (i.e.,
coal and oil) are depleting day by day. They have the added importance for flood control,
storage of water for irrigation and water for drinking purposes.

Nuclear power generation

Nuclear Power plants is a thermal power plant where heat generated by nuclear fission
is used to drive the turbine. The block diagram is as shown below.

General Layout of Nuclear power plant

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 Block diagram of Nuclear power plant

Nuclear fission inside the Nuclear reactor generates heat. The coolant in the circuit gets
heated by observing the heat and enters into a steam generator. In this feed water is heated
and converted to steam. The steam from the steam generator enters into the turbine and
rotates the turbine. This turbine is coupled with the armature of an alternator which
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. After that the steam will moved to the
condenser and converted to water which is pumped back to steam generator. The cycle is
repeated continuously for generation of power.

Wind power generation

In wind power generation the wind energy is used to generate electricity. The wind energy
is converted into mechanical energy by an aero turbine. The block diagram is as shown
below.

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 The mechanical power is transferred through gears to the generator to increase its speed.
Since rotor speeds are low, a gear system is necessary to match the synchronous speed
of the generator. Due to fluctuations in wind speed, it not possible to obtain a power
supply of a fixed frequency from windmills. To overcome this problem, the output of
generator is rectified and converted into AC with the help of inverter.

Solar power generation

In a Solar power plant the electricity is generated using photo voltaic system consists of
PV array. The block diagram is as shown below

Solar power is harnessed using Solar Photovoltaic (PV) technology that

converts sunlight into electricity by using semiconductors.
When the sun hits the semiconductor within the PV cell, electrons are freed and bus bars
collect the running electrons which results in electric current.
When the Solar panels are placed in the sunlight in a calculated manner, they start
producing current and voltage in the form of Direct current (DC) but in most of the
countries the appliances and equipment runs on Alternative current (AC) so the Solar
panels are connected to an Inverter which then converts DC into AC for home use.

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 D.C. CIRCUITS
State Ohm’s law & mention its limitations.
Statement: The temperature remaining constant, the current flowing through any
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the
conductor.
I  V, when temperature is constant.
V
i.e. I=
R
where, R is a constant, known as the resistance of the conductor.
Ohm's law can be applied both for A.C. and D.C. circuits.
Limitations of Ohm’s Law:
i) Ohm’s law does not hold good for non-metallic conductors such as silicon carbide. The
law governing the VI relation for them is given by
V = K Im
Where, K and m are constants
ii) Ohm’s law also does not hold good for non-linear devices such as zener diodes, voltage
regulators

Define Power & Energy. Write equations for them & mention their units.
Power (P) : Power is defined as the rate at which, the work is done. Its unit is watt (W)
E2
P=EI= = I2 R
R
Energy (W) : Energy is the capacity to do work. It is equal to the total work done in a
particular time. The unit is Watt Sec.
E2
W=EIt= t = I2 R t
R
Watt Sec. is a very small unit of energy. The practical unit of energy is kilo watt hour
(kWH) whose trade name is ‘unit’.

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Analysis of Series and Parallel Circuits

I. Series Circuit
In a series circuit the finishing end of one resistor is connected to starting end of another
resistor.

Consider three resistances connected series.

In series circuit the current flowing through all the resistances is same.
Let „I‟ be the current flowing through all the resistors.

Let V1, V2, and V3 be the voltages drops across the resistances R1 ,R2
and
R3 respectively

The supply voltage „V‟ is the sum of the voltage drops across the resistances.

I,e V = V1 + V2 + V3
According to Ohm‟s law
V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3

Applying Ohm‟s law to the overall circuit V= I RTRT -

is the Total or equivalent resistance of the circuit

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 V

+ V 2 + V3
I RT = IR1 +
IR2 +IR3I RT
= I [R1 + R2
+R3]

RT = R1 + R2 +R3

Thus the Total or Equivalent Resistance in a series Circuit is equal to the Sumof the
resistances connected in series.

Inference
 In Series circuit the same current is flowing through all resistances.

 The supply voltage „V‟ is the sum of the individual voltage

drops acrossthe each resistance.

 If „N‟ resistances connected in series then

RT= R1+ R2+R3+ --------------- +RN

and V= V1 + V2+ ------------ +VN

II. Parallel Circuit

In a Parallel circuit the starting end of all the resistor are connected to one point and
finishing end of all the resistors are connected to another point.

Consider three resistances connected in parallel

In parallel circuit the voltage applied across each resistance is equal to the
supply voltage.

Let „I‟ be the current drawn from the supply.

Let I1, I2, and I3 be the Current through the resistances R1 ,R2 and
R3 respectively.

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Derive the equation for the current in a parallel branch.
I = I1 + I2 I1 R1

V = I1R1 = I2R2
I1 R 2
i.e. 
I 2 R1 I
I2 R2
I1  I 2 R 2  R 1
i.e. 
I2 R1 V
I1 R 1  R 2 R1
i.e.  or I2 = I
I2 R1 R1  R 2
R2
Similarly, I1 = I
R1  R 2

Hence, the branch current is given by,

The other resistance
Branch current = Total current x
Sum of the two resistance s

WORKED EXAMPLES

1.1 Two resistances 20  and 40  are connected in parallel. A resistance of 10  is

connected in series with the combination. A voltage of 200 V is applied across the
circuit. Find the current in each resistance and the voltage across 10 . Find also
the power consumed in all the resistances.
Soln. : The total resistance of the circuit is given by
20  40
R = 10 + = 23.33 
20  40

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 200
I= = 8.57 A
23.33
40
I1 = 8.57 x = 5.71 A
40  20
I2 = 8.57  5.71 = 2.86 A, V10 = 8.57 x 10 = 85.7 volts
P10 = 8.572 x 10 = 734.45 watts , P20 = 5.712 x 20 = 652.08 watts
P40 = 2.862 x 40 = 327.18 watts
40
1.2 A D.C. arc has a voltage current relation given by V = 20 + . It is connected in
I
series with a resistor. The total voltage applied is 120 V. If the voltage across the
arc is half the voltage across the resistor, find the value of the resistor.
40 Arc R
Soln.: For the arc, 40 = 20 + ,
I 40 V 80 V
 I = 2A I
for the resistor I R = 80 i.e. 2 R = 80
V
 R = 40 
1.3 Three resistors A, B and C are connected in parallel taking a total current of 12A
from the supply. If IB = 2 IA, IC = 3.5 IB and total power drawn is 3 kW, calculate
(a) current drawn by each resistor (b) supply voltage and (c) power consumed by
each resistance. R
IA A

Soln.: (a) IA + IB + IC = I = 12 A
IA + 2 IA + 3.5 IB = 12 IB RB
3 IA + 3.5 (2 IA) = 12
 IA = 1.2 A, IB = 2.4 A and IC = 8.4 A IC RC
I
(b) P = 3,000 W = V I
3000
V= = 250 V
12 V
(c) PA = 250 x 1.2 = 300 watts
PB = 250 x 2.4 = 600 watts, PC = 250 x 8.4 = 2,100 watts
1.4 In the series parallel circuit shown in Fig. find (i) the voltage drop across 4 
resistor and (ii) the supply voltage.
Soln. : Let current I, I1 and I2 flow in the branches as shown in the Fig.

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 50 50 4 I I2
I1 = = 5A , I2 = = 6.25 A
10 8 I1
I = I1 + I2 = 5 + 6.25 = 11.25 A 10  8 50 V

i) V4 = 11.25 x 4 = 45 V V

24  12  8
24  12
ii) 24  || 12  = = 8
24  12
88 10  8
8  || 8  = =4 , 10  || 8  = = 4.44 
88 10  8
Total resistance = R = 4 + 4.44 + 4 = 12.44 
Supply voltage = V = 12.44 x I = 12.44 x 11.25 = 140 volts
1.5 A resistance R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising 20  and
48 . The total power dissipated in the circuit is 1,000 W and the applied voltage
is 250 V. Calculate R.
V2 250 2
Soln.: P = = = 1,000
RT RT

250 2
 RT = total resistance = = 62.5 
1,000
20  48
RT = R + i.e. 62.5 = R + 14.12
20  48
 R = 48.38  20 

48 

250 V

1.6 In the given circuit shown in Fig. 1.13 calculate (a) the total current (b)current in
5  and (c) the power dissipated in 6  and 7 .

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 1 1 1 1 11
Soln: a)    = ,  RAC = 2.73 
R AC 5 10 15 30
1 1 1 1 1 25
    = ,  RCB = 2.88 
RCB 12 6 18 24 72

RACB = RAC + RCB = 2.73 + 2.88 = 5.61 

5.61  7 100
The total resistance = RT = = 3.11  , I= = 32.15 A
5.61  7 3.11
7
b) I1 = 32.15 x = 17.85 A , EAC = 17.85 x RAC = 17.85 x 2.73 = 48.73 V
7  5.61
48.73
I5 = = 9.75 A
5
2
ECB 51.27 2
c) ECB = 100  EAC = 100  48.73 = 51.27 V, P6 = = = 438.1 W
6 6
2
E AB 100 2
P7 = = = 1,428.57 W
7 7
1.7 A current of 30 A flows through two ammeters A1 and A2 connected in series. The
p.d. across the two ammeters are 0.3 V and 0.6 V respectively. Find how the same
current will divide when they are connected in parallel.
A1 A2
I1 A1 0.01 
30 A 0.3V 0.6V
30 A
A2
Fig. 1. I2 0.02 
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Soln. : Let R1 and R2 be the resistances of the ammeters A1 and A2 respectively.
30 R1 = 0.3,  R1 = 0.01 
30 R2 = 0.6,  R2 = 0.02 
The two ammeters are now connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 2
0.02
I1 = 30 x = 20 A I2 = 30  20 = 10 A
0.02  0.01
1.8 A voltage of 200 V is applied to a tapped resistor of 500 . Find the resistance
between the tapping points connected to a load, needing 0.1 A at 25 V. Also
calculate the total power consumed.
Soln.: Let the resistor be tapped between points B and C and x be the resistance between
these points.
 RBC = x 
Then, (I  0.1) x = 25 i.e I x  0.1 x = 25 ----- (1)
Also, I (500  x) = 200  25 = 175 i.e. 500 I  I x = 175 ---- (2)
200  0.1x
Adding equations (1) and (2), we get 500 I  0.1 x =200 ,or I = ---(3)
500
Substituting I given by equation (3) in equation (1), we get
200  0.1x A
x  0.1 x = 25
500 I

on simplification, we get
200 V 0.1 A
0.1 x + 150 x  12,500 = 0
2 C

 150  150 2  4  0.1  12,500 25V Load

x= = 79.15  (I-0.1)
2  0.1
B
(considering only the positive value)
Substituting this value in equation (1), we get, I = 0.42 A

Total power consumed = PAC + PCB + P Load = I2 (500  x) + (I  0.1)2 x + 25 x 0.1

= 0.422 (50079.15) + (0.420.1)2 x 79.15 + 2.5 = 74.24 + 8.1 + 2.5 = 84.84 W

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1.9 A rectangular metal strip has dimensions x = 10 cm, y = 0.5 cm and z = 0.2 cm.
Determine the ratio of resistances Rx, Ry and Rz between the respective pairs of
opposite sides.
Soln.: The rectangular strip is shown in Fig.
10  10 2
Rx =  = 10,000 
0.5  0.2  10 4 0.2 cm
0.5  10 2
Ry =  = 25  0.5 cm
10  0.2  10 4 10 cm
0.2  10 2
Rz =  =4
10  0.5  10 4
 Rx : Ry : Rz = 10,000 : 25 : 4 = 2,500 : 6.25 : 1

1.10 A piece of silver wire has a resistance of 1 . What will be the resistance of a
manganin wire half the length and half the diameter, if the specific resistance of
manganin is 30 times that of silver.
1 1
Soln. : Let R1 be the resistance of silver wire, R1 = 1 = 1 -----(1)
a1  d12
4
2 2
Let R2 be the resistance of manganin wire, R2 = 2 = 2 ---- (2)
a2  d 22
4
From equations (1) and (2), we get
2
R2  2  2  d1  R2
 30   2 ,
1 1
   
2
i.e. ( d2 = d1)
R1 1  1  d 2  1 2 2

 R2 = 60 
1.11 When a certain battery is loaded by a 60  resistor, its terminal voltage is 98.4 V.
When it is loaded by a 90  resistor, its terminal voltage is 98.9 V. What load
resistance would give a terminal voltage of 90 volts.
Soln. : Let r be the internal resistance of the battery
When RL = 60  and V = 98.4 V ; Ei = 98.4 + I1 r (1)
When RL = 90  and V = 98.9 V ; Ei = 98.9 + I2 r (2)

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 I1 and I2 are given by,
98.4 98.9
I1 = = 1.64 A, I2 = = 1.099 A
60 90
Substituting these values in (1) and (2), we get
Ei = 98.4 + 1.64 r -- (3)
Ei = 98.9 + 1.099 r -- (4)
From (3) and (4),
98.4 + 1.64 r = 98.9 + 1.099 r ,  r = 0.924 
Substituting this value in (3), we get, E i = 99.92 V
E i  90 99.92  90
I = = = 10.736 A
0.924 0.924
90
 RL = = 8.383 
10.736

State & explain Kirchhoff’s laws.

Kirchoff’s Laws:
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (18241887), a German Physicist enunciated two laws which
enables us to find the currents flowing in an electric circuit and voltages across the various
elements of the circuit. These laws form the basis for the study of electrical circuits. The
two laws are (i) current law and (ii) voltage law.
(i) Current Law:
Statement: The algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at any junction of an electrical
circuit is zero.
I4
i.e.  I = 0
I1 A I3

I2
Fig. 1

Fig. 1 shows the junction A of an electric circuit at which four currents I 1, I2, I3 and I4
meet. All the currents flowing towards the junction are taken as +ve and all the currents
flowing away from the junction are taken as ve. Then, according to Kirchhoffs current
law,

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 I1 + I2  I3  I4 = 0 or I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 ---- (1)
From equation (1), Kirchhoffs current law can also be stated as “At any junction of an
electric circuit, the sum of all the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of all
the currents leaving the junction”.
(ii) Voltage Law:
Statement: In any closed electrical circuit, the algebraic sum of all the e.mfs and the
resistive drops is equal to zero.
i.e., E+IR=0 ---- (2 )
All the voltage rises are taken as +ve and all the voltage drops are taken as ve.

Fig.1.21 represents a battery of e.m.f. E volts connected between two points a and b, which
can be traced either from a to b or from b to a. When it is traced from a to b, the battery is
traced from ve terminal to +ve terminal. It is a voltage rise. Hence, the e.m.f. is +ve.
 E(ab) is positive
When the battery is traced from b to a, it is traced from +ve terminal to ve terminal. It
is a voltage fall and hence the e.m.f. is ve.
 E(ba) is ve
R
a I b
Fig. 3

Consider a resistance R connected between two points a and b, through which, a

current I is flowing as shown in Fig. 3. The voltage drop (I R)ab is along the direction of the
current. It is a voltage fall and hence ve.
 (I R)ab is ve
The voltage drop (I R)ba is against the direction of the current. It is a voltage rise and
hence +ve.
 (I R)ba is +ve b R1 c R3 e
Consider a circuit is as shown in Fig. 4 I1 I3
I2
E1 E2
R2

a d f
Fig. 4
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The directions of currents I1, I2 and I3 flowing in the various branches of the circuit are
arbitrarily assumed. For the closed loops in the circuit, using Kirchhoffs voltage law, the
equations are,
For loop abcda : E1  I1R1  I2R2 = 0
For loop dcefd : I2R2  I3R3  E2 = 0

WORKED EXAMPLES

1.12 Find the p.d. between the points X and Y in the network shown in Fig. 1
Soln.: Let I1 and I2 be the loop currents.
2 X
4V

4V
2V I1 3 3 I2 5
+

Y
Fig. 1.

2 4
I1 = = 0.4 A and I2 = = 0.5 A
23 35
 VXY = +3 I2  4  3 I1 = 3 x 0.5  4  3 x 0.4
=  3.7 volts (Y is at a higher potential than X)

1.13 In the network shown in Fig. 2 determine the direction and magnitude of
current flow in the milliammeter A, having a resistance of 10 .
I1 2V
Soln.: Let the current distribution be as shown in Fig. 1.25. b c
For abda  4  10 I2 + 100 (I1  I2) = 0 II12 I2

i.e. 100 I1  110 I2 = 4 (i) 4V 25 

A
For bcdb 2 + 25 I1 + 10 I2 = 0 10 

i.e. 25 I1 + 10 I2 = 2 (ii) 100 

a d
Fig. 2

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 Solving (i) and (ii), we get
100 4
25 2
I2 = = 0.0267 A = 26.7 mA
100  110
25 10

1.14 In the network shown in Fig.1.26, find the current flowing in each branch
using Kirchhoff's laws.
Soln. : Assume the currents as shown.
For ABDA, 10 I2  25 I3 + 20 (I1  I2) = 0
i.e. 4 I1  6 I2  5 I3 = 0 (1)
For BCDB,  15 (I2  I3) + 5 (I1  I2 + I3) + 25 I3 = 0
B
I2I3
i.e. I1  4 I2 + 9 I 3 = 0 (2)
10  I3 15 
For ABCEFA,20 (I1  I2)  5 (I1  I2 + I3) + 150 = 0
I2
i.e. 5 I1  5 I2 + I3 = 30 (3) A
25  C
I1I2
Solving equations (1), (2) and (3), we get
I1
20  5
0 6 5 4 0 5
I1I2+I3
0 4 9 1 0 9 D
30  5 1 5 30 1
I1 = = 12.7 A, I2 = = 7.03 A
4 6 5 4 6 5 F 150V E

1 4 9 1 4 9 Fig. 1.26
5 5 1 5 5 1

Substituting I1 and I2 in equations (1), we get I3 = 1.72 A

1.15 In the circuit shown in Fig. 4, what is the voltage across cd if (i) switch S is
open and (ii) switch S is closed.

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 b 2 c 1 20V e
+ +
120V 10  100V
S
a d f
Fig. 4

Soln.: i) When S is open, the circuit is written as below.

20V
b 2 c 1 e
I1 I2 II12

120V 10  100V
d
a f
Fig. 5

The current distribution is as shown in Fig. 5

For abcda, 120  2 I1  10 I2 = 0, i.e. I1 + 5 I2 = 60 (1)
For dcefd 10 I2  1 (I1  I2)  20  100 = 0
i.e.  I1 + 11 I2 = 120 (2)
Solving equations (1) and (2), we get
I1 = 3.75 A and I2 = 11.25 A
Voltage across cd = Vcd = 10 x I2 = 10 x 11.25 = 112.5 V
ii) When the switch S is closed, no current flows through 1  and 20 V. The
resulting circuit is as shown below.
b 2 c e

120V 10 
100V

a d f
Fig.6

 Vcd = 100 V

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1.16 Find the currents in the various branches of the given network shown in Fig.7
100A
Soln.: The currents are distributed in the various branches as shown 1 0.0
0.0 0) A 2

0 I
For ABCDEFA (I-1 
80A  )F 0 ) B 0 80A
1-I 2 8 2
 0.02 I  0.02 (I  80)  0.03 (I + 10) 0
. 0(
-I
( . 00
 0.02 (I  140)  0.01 (I  20) 0.01(I100)=0
E ( C
I- 10) 90A
On solving, we get, I = 48.18 A. 14
0) (I+
3 
120A 0.0 D 0.0
2

 IAB = I = 48.18 A 150A
Fig. 7

IBC = (I  80) =  31.82 A or ICB = 31.82 A

ICB = (I + 10) = 58.18 A
IDE = (I  140) =  91.82 A or IED = 91.82 A
IEF = (I  20) = 28.18 A
IFA = (1  100) =  51.82 A or IAF = 51.82 A
1.17 Find the currents I1, I2 and I3 and the voltages Va, Vb in the network shown in
Fig.8

b I1 0.2  c I2 0.3  e 0.1  g

I3
30 A 20 A
120V Va Vb 110V

a d f h
Fig. 8

Soln. : From the circuit, we know

I2 = I1  30, I3 + I1  30 = 20 i.e. I3 = 50  I1
For abceghfda , 120  0.2 I1  0.3 I2 + 0.1 I3  110 = 0
Substituting for I2 and I3, we get
 0.6 I1 = 24 or I1 = 40 A
 I2 = 40  30 = 10 A, I3 = 50  40 = 10 A

23 | P a g e
 Va = 120  0.2 x 40 = 112 V , Vb = 110  0.1 x 10 = 109 V

1.8 For the following network shown in Fig.9, find the currents in all the branches
and potential difference across AD and CE.
Soln.: The currents are distributed as shown in the figure.9
For the loop ABCDEA,
2.5 I  (I + 10) x 1  2 (I + 19)  3 (I + 17)  4 (I + 22) = 0
i.e. I = 14.96 A
10 A 9A
B 1  I+10
I C
2.5 2
I+19
22 A
A 4 3
D
E 2A
I+22 I+17
5A
Fig. 9

 IAB = I = 14.96 A i.e. IBA = 14.96 A

IBC = 1 + 10 = 14.96 + 10 = 4.96 A i.e. ICB = 4.96 A
ICD = I + 19 = 14.96 + 19 = 4.04 A
IDE = I + 17 = 14.96 + 17 = 2.04 A
IEA = I + 22 = 14.96 + 22 = 7.04 A
VAD = 3(I + 17)  4 (I + 22) = 3 x 2.04  4(7.04) =  34.28 V
VCE = 3 (I + 17) + 2 (I + 19) = 3 x 2.04 + 2 (4.04) = 14.2 V

24 | P a g e
1.19 The current in the 6  resistance of the network shown in the Fig. 10 is 2A.
Determine the current in all the branches and the applied voltage.
Soln. : Let I be the total current.
6  2A 8 I1
8 4
Then, 2 = I x
86
i.e I = 3.5 A
I 8 I2 20  I3
 I2 = I2 = 3.5  2 = 1.5 A
V
20 Fig. 10
I1 = 3.5 x = 2.5 A
20  8
I3 = I  I1 = 3.5  2.5 = 1A
V = 4 x I + 6 x 2 + 8 x I1 = 4 x 3.5 + 6 x 2 + 8 x 2.5 = 46 V

25 | P a g e
 MODULE-2
Syallbus
A.C. Fundamentals: Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period,
frequency, amplitude, phase, phase difference, average value, RMS value, form factor,
peak factor. (only definitions) Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R,
L, and C circuits. Concept of Impedance. Analysis of R-L, R-C, R-L-C Series
circuits.Active power, reactive power and apparent power. Concept of power factor.
(Simple Numerical).
Three Phase Circuits: Generation of Three phase AC quantity, advantages and
limitations; star and delta connection, relationship between line and phase quantities
(excluding proof)
SINGLE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS
Define (i) Instantaneous value (ii) Amplitude (iii) Cycle and (iv) Period w.r.t. a
sinusoidally varying quantity. Mention their units.
i) Instantaneous Value (e): This is the value of the e.m.f. induced in the conductor at
any instant.
ii) Amplitude (Em): The maximum value of the e.m.f. induced in the conductor is
called the amplitude.
iii) Cycle of e.m.f.: A set of positive values together with a set of negative values of
the e.m.f. induced in the conductor constitute a cycle of e.m.f. induced.
iv) Frequency (f) : It is defined as the number of cycles of e.m.f. induced in the
conductor per second.
v) Time Period (T): It is the time taken to complete one cycle of the e.m.f. induced.
1
T=
f

Define effective value of a sinusoidally varying current and find its relation with its
maximum value.
Effective Value of an Alternating Current (I):
This is also called as the root mean square value or r.m.s. value in short. It is defined
on the basis of the amount of heat produced. The equation for the heat produced in a
resistance R, when a current I flows through it for a time t is given by,
H = I2 R t WS
The effective value or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is equal to that steady

26 | P a g e
current, which produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current,
when passed through the same resistance for the same time.

Effective Value of an Alternating Current Which is Sinusoidally Varying:

i
Im

 2
0
=t

-Im

Fig. 3.3
The equation for the alternating current representing the sinusoidal waveform shown in
Fig. 3.3 is, .
i = Im sin 
The effective value of this current is given by
2 2 2
1 1 I m2 1  cos 2
0 i dθ  2 I sin θ dθ  
2 2 2 2
I = d
2 2 0
m
0 2
2
I2  sin 2  I m2 I m2
= m   2  = 2  0  0  0 =
4  0 4 2
Im
 I= = 0.707 Im
2
The effective value of the current is 0.707 times its maximum value.
Define average value of a sinusoidally varying current and find its relation with its
maximum value.
Average Value of an Alternating Current (Iav):
This is defined on the basis of the amount of charge transferred, which is given by,
q=It
The average value of an alternating current is equal to that steady current, which
transfers the same amount of charge, as transferred by the alternating current across the
same circuit and in the same time.
Consider the sinusoidal waveform as shown in Fig. 3.3, representing the alternating
current. Its average value is given by,

27 | P a g e
 1 1 
 i dθ 
Im
 cos  0

Iav = I sin θ dθ =
 
m
0 0

2
= I m = 0.637 Im

 The average value of an alternating current is 0.637 times its maximum value.
Define phase and phase difference w.r.t. alternating quantities.
The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant, is the angle through which the
rotating vector representing the alternating quantity has rotated through, from the reference
axis. The phase of the alternating quantity , varies from 0 to 2.
The phase difference between two alternating quantities is the angle difference between the
two rotating vectors, representing the two alternating quantities.Two alternating quantities
are said to be in phase with each other, when their corresponding values occur at the same
time. The equations for the voltage and current can be written as
e = Em sin  t
and i = Im sin  t
The current is said to lag the voltage by an angle , when the corresponding values of
the current occur later by an angle , than the corresponding values of voltage. The
equations for current and voltage in such a case can be written as,
e = Em sin t
and i = Im sin (t  )
The current is said to lead the voltage by an angle , when the corresponding values of
current occur earlier by an angle  than the corresponding values of voltage.
The equations for current and voltage can be written as
e = Em sin t
and i = Im sin (t + )

28 | P a g e
When an alternating voltage is applied to a pure resistance, find the equations for
current and power. Write the waveforms of voltage, current and power.
In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.13, R is a pure resistance to which an alternating voltage
e = Em sin t is applied, due to which, an alternating current i flows through it.
Then, by Ohm's law, R

e E m sin  t i Em
i= = = Im sin t, where, Im =
R R R
By observing the equations for voltage, e = Em sin

t and i = Im sin t, it can be concluded that, the
current is in phase with e = Em sin t the voltage. Vectorially, the
r.m.s. values of voltage Fig. 3.13 and current are represented as
shown in Fig. 3.14

The instantaneous power consumed by the resistance is given by,

p = e i = Em sin t I m sin t = Em Im sin2 t
 1  cos 2 t  1 1
= E m Im   = Em Im  Em Im cos 2t
 2  2 2

This equation consists of two parts. The second part l/2E m Im cos 2t is a periodically
varying quantity whose frequency is two times the frequency of the applied voltage and its
average value over a period of time is zero. Power is a scalar quantity and hence only its
average value has to be taken into account. Hence the power consumed by the resistance is
1
only due to the first part E m I m .
2
1 E Im
P= Em Im = m = EI
2 2 2
The waveforms of e, i and p are as shown in the Fig. 3.15

29 | P a g e
 p
e = Em sin t
e, i, p + + +
i = Im sin t

0 
 /2 3  /2 2 3  = t

Fig. 3.15

Show that a pure inductance does not consume any power. Draw the waveforms of
voltage, current and power, when an alternating voltage is applied to a pure
inductance.
Consider a coil of pure inductance L henrys, across which an alternating voltage e = Em
sin t is applied, as shown in Fig. 3.16, due to which, an alternating current i flows
through it. This alternating current produces an alternating flux, which links the coil and
hence, an e.m.f. e1 is induced in it, which opposes the applied voltage and is given by,
e = Em sin t
di
e1 = L = e
dt
di
 e=L
dt
e 1
di = dt = Em sin t . dt
L L

Em
i=
L  sin  t.dt
Em
=  cos t    sin ( / 2  t)
L
Em
= sin (t   / 2) =  cos t
XL

= Im sin (t   / 2) = sin (t   / 2)

Where, XL = L = 2 f L = inductive reactance in ohms

30 | P a g e
 By observing the equations for voltage and current, we find that the current lags the
voltage by an angle /2. Vectorial representation of the r.m.s. values of voltage and current
is as shown in Fig. 3.17.
The instantaneous power is given by,
P = e i = Em sin t Im sin (t   /2)
1
= Em Im sin t ( cos t) =  Em Im sin 2t
2
The equation for p consists of a quantity which is periodically varying and having a
frequency two times the frequency of the applied voltage and whose average value is zero.
Hence, the power consumed by a pure inductance is zero, because, power is a scalar
quantity and only its average value has to be considered. The power given to the pure
inductance will be stored in the form of an electromagnetic field. The waveforms of e, i
and p are as shown in Fig. 3.18.
e, i, p
p e = Em sin t

+ + +
i= Im sin ( /2 )

0  2 3  = t

/2

Fig. 3.18

The wave from of p consists of alternate lobes of positive and negative power, whose
areas are equal and hence cancel out each other. Hence, a pure inductance does not
consume any power. The power given is stored in the form of an electromagnetic field.
Show that a pure capacitance does not consume any power. Draw the waveforms of
voltage, current and power, when an alternating voltage is applied to pure
capacitance.
Consider a capacitor of pure capacitance C, across which, an alternating voltage
e = Em sin t is applied as shown in Fig. 3.19, due to which an alternating current i flows,
charging the plates of the capacitor with a charge of q coloumbs.

31 | P a g e
 C
q
d Ce 
i
dq de d
i = = = C =C (Em sin t)
dt dt dt dt

=  C Em cos t
 =
Em
sin (t +  / 2)
e = Em sin t 1 / C
Em Fig. 3.19
= sin (t + /2)
XC
= Im sin (t + /2)
Em
Where, Im =
XC
1 1
And XC = = = capacitive reactance in ohms
C 2 f C
By observing the equations for voltage and current, it is observed that the current leads
the voltage by an angle /2. Vectorially, current and voltage are represented as shown in
Fig. 3.20.
I

/2
E
Fig. 3.20
The instantaneous power is given by,
P = e i = Em sin t Im sin (t + /2)
1
= Em Im sin t cos t = Em Im sin 2t
2
The equation for p consists of a quantity which is periodically varying and having a
frequency two times the frequency of the applied voltage and whose average value is zero.
As power is a scalar quantity, only its average value has to be considered. Hence, the
power consumed by a pure capacitance is zero. The waveforms of e, i and p are as shown
in Fig. 3.21.

32 | P a g e
 e, i, p p
e = Em sin t
+ + +

i = Imsin ( /2)

0  2 3  = t

  

/ 2

Fig. 3.21
The waveform of p consists of alternate lobes of positive and negative power whose
areas are equal and whose average value is zero. Hence, a pure capacitance does not
consume any power. The power given is stored in the form of an electrostatic field.

Derive an equation for the power consumed by an RL series circuit. Draw the
waveforms of voltage, current and power.
R L

ER EL
IZ
I = EL = I XL
E

 0 ER = I R
I

E
Fig. 3.22 Fig. 3.23
Consider an RL series circuit as shown in Fig. 3.22 to which an alternating voltage of
r.m.s. value E is applied, due to which an r.m.s. value of current I flows through the circuit.
The vector diagram, taking I as the reference vector, is as shown in Fig. 3.23.
The vector diagram consists of three voltages, ER = I R which is in phase with the
current, EL = I XL which leads the current by 90°. The vector sum of these two voltages is
the applied voltage E = I Z. Here, Z is the impedance of the circuit in ohms.
The impedance of an a.c. circuit may be defined as the opposition offered for the flow
of alternating current in the circuit. It is the combination of resistance and reactance of the
circuit. The impedance triangle for an RL series circuit is shown in Fig. 3.24.

33 | P a g e
 E
I=
Z
Z
XL
Where, Z= R 2  X L2

 is the power factor angle and is given by
R
XL
Fig. 3.24  = tan 1
R
From the vector diagram in the Fig. 3.23, we observe that the current lags the voltage
by an angle . If e = Em sin t, then, i = Im sin (t  )
The instantaneous power is given by,
1
p = ei = Em sin t Im sin (t  ) = Em Im [cos   cos (2 t  ) ]
2
1 1
= Em Im cos   Em Im cos (2t  )
2 2
The second term in the equation is a periodically varying quantity, whose frequency is
two times the frequency of the applied voltage and its average value is zero. As power is
always an average value, only the first term represents the power consumed.
1 E Im
 P= Em Im cos  = m cos  = E I cos 
2 2 2
Where, cos  is known as the power factor of the circuit.
The waveforms of e, i and p are as shown in Fig. 3.26.
e, i, p
p e = Em sin t
+ + +
i = Im sin(t)

/2  2 3  
0    = t



Fig. 3.26
The areas of the +ve power lobes is more than the area of the ve power lobes,
indicating that, the power received by the circuit is more than the power returned by the
circuit. Hence, the circuit consumes a net power given by,
P = E I cos  = Real power in watts
Q = E I sin  = Reactive power in reactive volt-amperes

34 | P a g e
 S = EI = Apparent power in volt-amperes

Derive an equation for the power consumed by an RC series circuit. Draw the
waveforms of voltage, current and power.

Consider an RC series circuit as shown in Fig. 3.27, to which an alternating voltage of
r.m.s. value E is applied, due to which an r.m.s. value of current I flows through the circuit.
The vector diagram. is shown in Fig. 3.28.
From the vector diagram, we observe that the current leads the voltage by an angle .
If, e = Em sin t
then, i = Im sin (t + )
E
The current in the circuit is given by, I =
Z
The impedance triangle is as shown in the Fig. 3.29.

Z= R 2  X C2

XC
 = tan 1
R
The instantaneous power is given by,
1
p = e i = Em sin t Im sin (t + ) = Em Im [cos ()  cos (2t + )]
2
1 1
= Em Im cos   Em Im cos (2t + )
2 2
The second term in the equation for p is a periodically varying quantity, whose
frequency is two times the frequency of the applied voltage and whose average value is
zero. Hence, it does not contribute to the average value of power consumed by the circuit.
The average power consumed by the circuit is only due to the first term.
1 E Im
 P= Em Im cos  = m cos  = E I cos 
2 2 2

35 | P a g e
 The waveforms of e, i and p are as shown in Fig. 3.30.
e = Em sin  t
p
e, i, p
+ + + i = Imsin( t + )

/ 2  
3   = t
0
 2


Fig. 3.30

Derive an equation for the power consumed by an RLC series circuit.

(8 marks)

Consider an R  L  C series circuit as shown in Fig.3.31, to which an alternating voltage

of r.m.s. value E is applied due to which, an r.m.s. current I flows through the circuit.
Three cases of the circuit can be discussed.
Case 1; When XL >XC
When the inductive reactance is more than the capacitive reactance, the vector diagram
of the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.32.

From the vector diagram, we observe that the current lags the voltage by an angle .
The impedance triangle is shown in Fig. 3.33

36 | P a g e
 E
I=
Z

Where, Z = R 2   X L  X C 2

The circuit is similar to an RL series circuit.

If, e = Em sin t
then, i = Im sin (t  )
Hence, it can be proved that the power consumed is given by,
P = E I cos 
Case 2; When XL < XC
When the inductive reactance is less than the capacitive reactance, the vector diagram
is as shown in Fig. 3.34.

From the vector diagram shown in Fig. 3.34, it is observed that, the current leads the
voltage by an angle . The impedance triangle is shown in Fig. 3.35.
E
I=
Z

Where, Z= R 2   X C  X L 2

The circuit is similar to an RC series circuit.

If, e = Em sin t
then, i = Im sin(t + )
Hence, it can be proved that the power consumed is given by
P = E I cos 

Case 3; When XL = XC

37 | P a g e
 EL= I X L When the inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive
reactance, the vector diagram is as shown in Fig. 3.36. E L
and EC cancel each other. The current is in phase with the
ER = I R voltage and the circuit behaves as a pure resistance circuit.
I Hence, Z = R.
E= IZ

If, e = Em sin t
then, i = Im sin t
EC = I X C

Fig. 3.36

Hence, the power consumed is given by P = E I, which is proved in the case of a pure
resistance circuit.

Define power factor of a circuit and explain its practical importance.

The p.f. of a circuit can be defined in the following three ways.
i) p.f = cos 
The power factor of a circuit is the cosine of the angle between the voltage and the
current.
R
ii) p.f =
Z
The power factor of a circuit is the ratio of the resistance to the impedance of the
circuit.
P
iii) p.f =
EI
The power factor of a circuit is the ratio of the real power to the apparent power. The
max. value of p.f. is unity.
Practical importance of Power factor:
The active power consumed by the load in an a.c. circuit is given by P = E I cos . If
the p.f. of the load is small, the active power generated by an alternator and the active
power transmitted and received by the consumer decreases. To generate the same active
power from the generator at poor p.f. as at good p.f., the capacity of the generator has to be
increased which involves additional investment on generation. If the p.f. is small, for
transmitting a particular power, the current in the transmission line increases and hence,
the copper losses (I2R losses) will increase and the efficiency of transmission decreases.

38 | P a g e
 Due to low p.f, the current carrying capacity of the conductors has to be increased.
Hence, large sized conductors have to be used for transmission of electrical power which
involves larger investment.
Most of the loads used by the consumers are inductive in nature and normally their p.fs
are low. Hence, for the effective use of the supplied energy, the supplying agencies always
insist on the consumers to improve the p.fs of their loads to 0.85 or 0.9 by using static
condensers of suitable capacities across their loads. The supplying agencies also give some
incentive in the tariff to the consumers for improving the p.fs of their load

WORKED EXAMPLES
3.1 The equation for an alternating current is given by i = 28.28 sin (314t + 30°) A.
Find its r.m.s. value, frequency and phase angle.
Im 28.28  
I= = = 20 A,  = 2  f, f=  = 50 Hz
2 2 2 2  3.14
Phase angle = 30°
3.2 An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50 Hz has an
r.m.s. value of 20 A. (i) write down the equation for the instantaneous value of
current. (ii) Find the value at the instant 0.0125 sec, after passing through a +ve
maximum value and (iii) At what time measured from the +ve maximum value,
will the instantaneous current be 14.14 A.
i

 2
0
20A =t
/2

Fig 3.11
i) The time is reckoned from the instant when the current is +ve maximum. Hence,
the equation for the instantaneous value of the current is
i = Im sin (t +  / 2)
ii) i = Im sin (2  f t +  / 2) = 20 2 sin (360° x 50 x 0.0125 + 90°) = 20 A
iii) 14.14 = 20 2 sin (360° x 50 x t + 90°),
1 1
t= sec [For t = ± sec, i = 14.14 A]
300 300

39 | P a g e
3.3 Calculate the r.m.s. value, the form factor and peak factor of a periodic current,
having the following values for equal time intervals, changing suddenly from one
value to the next. 0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 60, 50, 20, 10, 5, 0, 5, 10 A etc.,. What would be
the r.m.s. value of a sine wave, having the same peak value?
Only one half of the cycle is considered.
The r.m.s. value is given by,

I=
i
2
1  i22  ...  in2 
n

5 2  10 2  20 2  50 2  60 2  50 2  20 2  10 2  5 2  0 2
= = 31.065 A
10
The average value is given by,
i1  i2  ...  in 5  10  20  50  60  50  20  10  5  0
Iav = = = 23 A
n 10
r.m.s. value I 31.065
Kf = = = = 1.35,
average value I av 23
maximum value I 60
KP = = m = = 1.93
r.m.s value I 31.065
For the sine wave, the r.m.s. value is given by, I= 0.707 I m = 0.707 x 60 = 42.42 A.

3.4 Find the sum of the electromotive forces e 1 = 30 sin t, e2 = 20 sin (t + /3),
e3 = 15 cos t, e4 = 10 sin (t  /3) and e5 = 20 cos (t + 2/3). Express the result
in the form e = Em sin (t ± ).
The cosine functions e3 and e5 are converted into sine functions and are written as
e3 = 15 cos t = 15 sin (t+90°)
e5 = 20 cos (t + 2/3) = 20 sin (t + 2/3 + /2) = 20 sin (t + 210°)
All the voltages are represented on XY plane, as shown in Fig. 3.12.
X = 30 + 20 cos 60° + 0  20 cos 30° + 10 cos 60° = 27.68
Y = 0 + 20 sin 60° + 15  20 sin 30°  10 sin 60° = 13.66

E mr  27.68 2  13.66 2 = 30.87 volts

13.66
r = tan 1 = 26.27°
27.68

40 | P a g e
 The equation for the resultant voltage may be written as
er = Emr sin (t ± r) = 30.87 sin (t + 26.27°)

3.5 A circuit consists of a resistance of 20 , an inductance of 0.05 H connected in series.

A supply of 230 V at 50 Hz is applied across the circuit. Find the current, power
factor and power consumed by the circuit. Draw the vector diagram.
R L

V
ER EL 00 EL =141.92 V
I =2
E
=38
o

I
 0
ER = 180.8 V

E
Fig. 3.40 Fig. 3.41
XL = 2fL = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 0.05 = 15.7 

Z= R 2  X L2 = 20 2  15.7 2 = 25.42 
E 230
I= = = 9.04 A
Z 25.42
R 20
p.f. = = = 0.786 lagging
Z 25.42
P = = E I cos  = 230 x 9.04 x 0.786 = 1634.43 watts.
To draw the vector diagram, calculate,
ER = I R = 9.04 x 20 = 180.8 V
EL = I XL = 9.04 x 15.7 = 141.92 V

41 | P a g e
 XL 15.7
 = tan 1 = tan 1 = 38°
R 20
The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 3.41.

3.6 A circuit consists of a resistance of 25  and a capacitance of 100 F connected in

series. A supply of 200 V at 50 Hz is applied across the circuit. Find the current,
power factor and power consumed by the circuit. Draw the vector diagram.
R C
0 ER = 123.5 V
= 51.87
o I
ER EC
I E EC =157.34 V
=
20
0 V

E
Fig. 3.42 Fig. 3.43
1 1
XC = = = 31.85 
2fC 2  3.14  50  100  10 6

Z= R 2  X C2 = 25 2  31.85 2 = 40.48 
E 200 R 25
I= = = 4.94 A, p.f. = = = 0.617 leading
Z 40.48 Z 40.48
P = E I cos  = 200 x 4.94 x 0.617 = 609.59 watts
To draw the vector diagram, calculate,
ER = IR = 4.94 x 25 = 123.5 V, EC = I XC = 4.94 x 31.85 = 157.34 V
XC 31.85
 = tan 1 = tan 1 = 51.87°
R 25
The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 3.43.

3.7 A circuit consists of a resistance of 10 , an inductance of 16 mH and a

capacitance of 150 F connected in series. A supply of 100 V at 50 Hz is given to
the circuit. Find the current, p.f. and power consumed by the circuit. Draw the
vector diagram.

42 | P a g e
 EL= 26.47 V

R L C 0 ER = 52.7 V
o I
= 58. 32
ER EL EC
E
I =
10
0
V
 EC EL
= 88.46 V
E
Fig. 3.44 Fig. 3.45 EC = 111.88 V

XL = 2f L = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 16 x 103 = 5.024 

1 1
XC = = = 21.23 
2fC 2  3.14  50  150  10 6

Z= R 2   X C  X L 2 = 10 2  21.23  5.0242 = 18.96 

E 100
I= = = 5.27 A
Z 18.96
R 10
p.f. = = = 0.527 leading
Z 18.96
P = E I cos , = 100 x 5.27 x 0.527 = 277.73 watts.
To draw the vector diagram, calculate,
ER = IR = 5.27 x 10 = 52.7 V
EL = IXL = 5.27 x 5.024 = 26.47 V
EC = I XC = 5.27 x 21.23 = 111.88 V
XC  X L 21.23  5.024
 = tan 1 = tan 1 = 58.32°
R 10
The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 3.45.

6 L 3.8 An inductive coil takes a current of 33.24 A from 230

V, 50 Hz supply. If the resistance of the coil is 6 ,
ER EL calculate the inductance of the coil and the power taken
I by the coil.

 E 230
Z= = = 6.92 
E I 33.24
230 V, 50 Hz
XL = Z 2  R2 = 6.92 2  6 2 = 3.45 
Fig. 3.46

43 | P a g e
 XL 3.45
L= = = 0.01098 H = 10.98 mH
2 f 2  3.14  50

P = I2 R = 33.242 x 6 = 6,629 watts

3.9 An e.m.f. given by 100 sin (t/4) V is applied to a circuit and the current is
20 sin (314t  1.5708) A. Find the (i) frequency and (ii) circuit elements.
314
i)  = 314 = 2f,  f= = 50 Hz
2  3.14
E 100 / 2
Z= = =5 
I 20 / 2
 3.14  180 
p.f. = cos  = cos (1  2) = cos     1.5708 
 4   

= cos 45.05° = 0.71 lagging

R R
cos  = = = 0.71,  R = 3.55 
Z 5
The current lags the voltage. Hence, the other element is inductance.

XL = Z 2  R2 = 52  3.552 = 3.52 
XL 3.52
L = = = 0.01 henry
2 f 2  3.14  50

3.10 Find an expression for the current and calculate the power, when a voltage
e = 283 sin 100 t is applied to a coil having R = 50  and L = 0.159 H.
XL =  L = 100  x 0.159 = 49.93 

Z= R 2  X L2 = 502  49.932 = 70.71 

XL 49.93
 = tan 1 = tan 1 = 45° lagging
R 50
Em 283
Im = = =4A
Z 70.71
The expression for the current is
i = Im sin (t  ) = 4 sin (100  t  45°) A
283 4
P = E I cos  =  cos {0(45)} = 400.22 watts.
2 2

44 | P a g e
3.13 In a circuit supplied from 50 Hz, the voltage and current have maximum
values of 500 V and 10 A respectively. At t = 0, their respective values are 400 V
and 4 A, both increasing positively. (i) Write expressions for instantaneous values
(ii) Find the angle between V and I and (iii) I at t = 0.015 sec.
Soln.: i) e = Em sin (t + 1) i.e. 400 = 500 sin (t + 1)
When t = 0, 400 = 500 sin 1 ,  1 = 53.13°
The equation for voltage is e = 500 sin (t + 53.13°) volts
i = Im sin (t + 2) i.e. 4 = 10 sin (t + 2)
When t = 0, 4 = 10 sin 2,  2 = 23.57°
The equation for current is : i = 10 sin (t + 23.57°) amps
ii)  = 1  2 = 53.13°  23.57° = 29.55°
iii) i = 10 sin (t + 23.57°) = 10 sin (360 x 50 x 0.015 + 23.57)
= 10 sin 293.57° =  9.1 A
3.14 The equation of an alternating current is given by i = 42.42 sin 628 t. Calculate
(i) maximum value (ii) frequency (iii) r.m.s. value (iv) average value and (v) form
factor.
Soln.: i) Im = 42.42 A ii) 2  f = 628,  f = 100 Hz
iii) I = 0.707 Im = 0.707 x 42.42 = 30 A
iv) Iav = 0.637 Im = 0.637 x 42.42 = 27 A
I 30
v) Form factor = = = 1.11
I av 27

THREE PHASE CIRCUITS

Generation of 3 Phase E.M.Fs in a 3 Phase Circuit
In a 3 phase system, there are three equal voltages or EMFs of the same frequency
having a phase difference of 120 degrees. These voltages can be produced by a three-
phase AC generator having three identical windings displaced apart from each other by
120 degrees electrical.
When these windings are kept stationary, and the magnetic field is rotated as shown in
the figure A below or when the windings are kept stationary, and the magnetic field is
rotated as shown below in figure B, an emf is induced in each winding. The magnitude
and frequency of these EMFs are the same but are displaced apart from one another by
an angle of 120 degrees.

45 | P a g e
 Consider three identical coils a1a2, b1b2 and c1c2 as shown in the above figure. In this
figure a1, b1 and c1 are the starting terminals, whereas a2, b2 and c2 are the finish
terminals of the three coils. The phase difference of 120 degrees has to be maintained
between the start terminals a1, b1 and c1.

Now, let the three coils mounted on the same axis, and they are rotated by either
keeping coil stationary and moving the magnetic field or vice versa in an anticlockwise
direction at (ω) radians per seconds. Three EMFs are induced in the three coils
respectively.

Considering the figure C, the analysis of their magnitudes and directions are given as
follows:
The emf induced in the coil a1a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction as
shown by the waveform in the above figure C represented as ea1a2.
The coil b1b2 is 120 degrees electrically behind the coil a1a2. The emf induced in this coil
is negative and is becoming maximum negative as shown by the wave eb1b2.

46 | P a g e
Similarly, the coil c1c2 is 120 degrees electrically behind the coil b1b2, or we can also say
that the coil c1c2 is 240 degrees behind the coil a1a2. The emf induced in the coil is
positive and is decreasing as shown in figure C represented by the waveform ec1c2.

Phasor Diagram

The EMFs induced in the three coils in 3 phase circuits are of the same magnitude and
frequency and are displaced by an angle of 120 degrees from each other as shown below in
the phasor diagram:

These EMFs of 3 phase circuits can be expressed in the form of the various equations
given below:

What are the advantages of three phase systems over single phase systems?
Advantages of three phase systems:
1. A three phase apparatus is more efficient than a single phase apparatus.
2. For the same capacity, a three phase apparatus costs less than a single phase
apparatus.
3. The size of a three phase apparatus is smaller in size than the size of a single phase
apparatus of the same capacity and hence, requires less material for construction.
4. For transmitting the same amount of power, over the same distance, under the same
power loss, the amount of conductor material required is less in the case of a three
phase system than in the case of single phase system.
5. Three phase motors produce uniform torque whereas, the torque produced by single
phase motors is pulsating.

47 | P a g e
 6. The connection of single phase generators in parallel give rise to harmonics,
whereas, three phase generators can be conveniently connected in parallel without
giving rise to the generation of harmonics.
7. In the case of a three phase star system, two different voltages can be obtained, one
between lines and the other between the line and phase, whereas, only one voltage
can be obtained in a single phase system.

In a three phase star connection, find the relation between line and phase values of
currents and voltages. Also derive the equation for three phase power.
Star connection (Y):
A star connection is formed, when the ends of the three coils are joined together at
point n, the other three ends being free as shown in fig.4.8. The point n is known as the
neutral point. Ean, Ebn and Ecn are the phase voltages and each one of them is equal to E ph.
Eab, Ebc and Eca are the line voltages and each of them is equal to E  .

Fig.4.8

From the above diagram, we observe that, the currents flowing through the lines are the
same as the currents flowing through the phases.
Hence, line current = phase current i.e., I  = Iph

The vector diagram of line voltages and phase voltages for the
star connection is shown in Fig. 4.9.
The line voltage Eab is given by, Eab = Ean + Enb = Ean  Ebn
The vector sum of Ean and Ebn gives Eab as shown in the
vector d iagram of Fig. 4.5.
Draw a perpendicular AC on OB, AOC = 30°

48 | P a g e
 From triangle OAC,
OC OB / 2 E ab /2
cos 30° = = 
OA OA E an

3
 Eab = 2 Ean cos 30° = 2 Ean = 3 Ean
2
E = 3 Eph
 Line voltage = 3 phase voltage
The power consumed by the three phase circuit is given by,
P = 3 x power in each phase
E
= 3 x Eph Iph cos  = 3 x  I  cos  = 3 E  .I  cos 
3
Note:  is the angle between Eph and Iph and not E and I  .

In a three phase delta connection, find the relation between line and phase values of
currents and voltages. Also derive the equation for three phase power.

For forming a delta connection, the three coils are,

connected, end to end, as shown in the Fig.4.10. Ia, Ib and Ic
are the line currents and each is equal to I  , Iab, Ibc and Ica
are the phase currents and each is equal to Iph. From the
diagram shown in Fig.4.10, we observe that, the voltages
between the lines are the same as the voltages between the
phases.
Fig.4.10
Hence, E = Eph

The vector diagram of phase currents and line currents is as

shown in Fig.4.11.
Applying Kirchhoff's current law to point a,
Ia = Iab  Ica
Ia is given by the vector sum of Iab and Ica. Draw AC
perpendicular to OB. AOC = 30°
From triangle OAC,
OC OB / 2 I a / 2
cos 30° =  
OA OA I ab Fig.4.11

49 | P a g e
 3
 Ia = 2 Iab cos 30° = 2 Iab
2
Ia = 3 Iab
I = 3 Iph

 Line current = 3 phase current.

The three phase power is given by
I
P = 3 Eph Iph cos  = 3 x E x cos  = 3 E I  cos 
3

WORKED EXAMPLES
4.1 When three balanced impedances are connected in star, across a 3 phase,
415V, 50 Hz supply, the line current drawn is 20 A, at a lagging p.f. of 0.4.
Determine the parameters of the impedance in each phase.
As the p.f. is lagging, the impedance consists of resistance and inductance.
V 415
Vph = = = 239.6 V
3 3
I  = Iph = 20 A
V ph 239.6
Z= = = 11.98 
I ph 20

R R
cos  = i.e. 0.4 = ,  R = 4.792 
Z 11.98

XL = Z 2  R 2 = 11.982  4.792 2 = 10.98  Fig.4.16

XL 10.98
L= = = 0.035 H = 35 mH
2πf 2  3.14  50
4.5 A star connected load consists of 6  resistance and
8  inductive reactance in each phase. A supply of
440 V at 50 Hz is applied to the load. Find the line
current, power factor & power consumed by the
load.
V 440
Vph = = = 254 V
3 3

50 | P a g e
 Zph = 6 2  8 2 = 10 
Fig.4.17
Vph 254
Iph = = = 25.4 A = I 
Z ph 10

R 6
p.f. = = = 0.6 lagging
Z 10
Power = 3 E I  cos  = 3 x 440 x 25.4 x 0.6

= 11,614.44 watts.
4.6 A delta connected load consists of a resistance of 10  and a capacitance of
100F in each phase. A supply of 410 V at 50 Hz is applied to the load. Find
the line current, power factor and power consumed by the load.
1 1
XC = = = 31.85 
2 f C 2  3.14  50  100  10 6

Zph = 10 2  31.852 = 33.38 

Vph = V  = 410 V
V ph 410
Iph = = = 12.28 A
Z ph 33.38

I = 3 Iph = 3 x 12.28 = 21.27 A

R 10 Fig.4.18
p.f =  = 0.3 leading
Z 33.38
Power = 3 E I  cos  = 3 x 410 x 21.27 x 0.3 = 4,531.41 watts

4.8 A delta connected load is arranged as in fig.4.19. The supply voltage is 415 V
at 50 Hz. Calculate (i) the phase currents (ii) the line currents and (iii) the total
power in the circuit.
E ph 415
Iph = =
Z ph 8  j4
415
= = 46.4  26.57° A
8.944 26.57
I   3 I ph = 3 x 46.4 = 80.367 A

P = 3 I 2ph R = 3 x 46.42 x 8 = 51,671.04 W Fig.4.19

51 | P a g e
4.11 Three coils each having a resistance of 10 
and an inductance of 0.02 H are connected in
star across 440V, 50 Hz, 3 phase supply.
Calculate the line current and total power
consumed.
XL = 2  f L
= 2 x 50 x 0.02 = 6.28 

Z= R 2  X L2 = 10 2  6.282 = 11.81 

E ph 440 3 Fig.4.20
Iph = = = 21.51 A = I 
Z 11.81
P = 3 I 2ph R = 3 x 21.512 x 10

= 13,880.403 W.
4.13 Three 100  resistors are connected in (i) star and (ii) delta across a 415 V,
50 Hz, 3 phase supply. Calculate the line and phase currents and the power
consumed in each case.
i) Star connection :
V 415 V ph 415 / 3
Vph = = V , Iph = = = 2.396 A = I 
3 3 R 100

P = 3 V I  cos  = 3 x 415 x 2.396 x 1 = 1,722 W

= 1.722 kW [Note : cos  = 1,  the load is resistive]

ii) Delta connection:
V ph 415
Iph = = = 4.15 A
R 100
I = 3 Iph = 3 x 4.15 = 7.188 A

P = 3 V I  cos  = 3 x 415 x 7.188 x 1

= 5,166 W = 5.166 kW
4.14 A three phase Y connected supply with a phase voltage of 230 V is supplying a
balanced  load. The load draws 15 kW at 0.8 p.f. lagging. Find the line
current and current in each phase of the load. What is load impedance per
phase? (VTU – July/ Aug 2005)
V = 3 Vph = 3 x 230 = 398.37 V

52 | P a g e
For  connected load, Vph = V = 398.37 V

P = 3 V I  cos  i.e. 15 x 103 = 3 x 398.97 x I  x 0.8

 I  = 27.17 A
27.17
Iph = = 15.6889 A
3
Vph 398.37
| Zph | = = = 25.3918 
I ph 15.688

Zph = 25.3918 cos 1 0.8 = 25.3918 36.87° 

= (20.313 + j 15.2351) 

53 | P a g e
 MODULE-3
Syllabus:-
DC Machines:
DC Generator: Principle of operation, constructional details, induced emf expression,
types of generators.Relation between induced emf and terminal voltage, Simple numerical.
DC Motor: Principle of operation, back emf and its significance. Torque equation, types
of motors, characteristics and speed control (armature & field)of DC motors(series & shunt
only). Applications of DC motors, Simple numerical.

D.C. GENERATOR
Explain the working principle of a D.C. Generator.
A D.C. generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The electrical energy is generated in the form of an alternating voltage in
the windings of the D.C. generator. This alternating voltage is converted into direct or
constant voltage by commutator. Hence, when a load is connected to the terminals of a
D.C. generator, direct current flows through the load. The principle used for the generation
of voltage is electromagnetic induction. It is based on the principle of dynamically induced
e.m.f .
State & explain Fleming’s right hand rule.
no
ito
M

Field
m.f.
.
de
uce
d
Fig. 1

This rule gives the direction of the induced e.m.f.. When the thumb, the fore finger and the
middle finger of the right hand are held mutually perpendicular to each other, the thumb in
the direction of the motion of the conductor, the fore finger in the direction of the magnetic
field, then the direction of the middle finger gives the direction of the induced e.m.f. This
is best illustrated from the Fig. 1. It is based on the principle of dynamically induced e.m.f
 e = B  v sin  = Em sin 

With a neat sketch, explain the construction of the various parts of a D.C. Generator
and the purpose they serve.
Fig.2 shows the various parts of a D.C. generator.

54 | P a g e
A D.C. generator mainly consists of two parts (i) Stationary part and (ii) Rotating part. The
stationary part produces a constant magnetic flux and the rotating part converts the
mechanical energy into electrical energy. The stationary part and the rotating part are
separated by a small air gap.
The stationary part consists of (i) Yoke or magnetic frame (ii) Main poles along with
pole shoes and pole coils (iii) Base plate (iv) Lifting eye (v) Brush box with brushes and
(vi) Terminal box.
The rotating part consists of the (i) Armature (ii) Armature windings (iii) Commutator
and (iv) Shaft. The construction of the various parts and the purpose they serve in the D.C.
generator are described in the following sections:

Fig.2

Stator
55 | P a g e
The main function of the stator is to provide magnetic fields where the coil spins. A stator
includes two magnets with opposite polarities facing each other. These magnets are located
to fit in the region of the rotor.
Rotor or Armature Core

A rotor in a DC machine includes slotted iron laminations with slots that are stacked to
shape a cylindrical armature core. The function of the lamination is to decrease the loss
caused due to eddy current.

Yoke

The external structure of the DC generator is known as Yoke. It is made of either cast iron
or steel. It provides the necessary mechanical power for carrying the magnetic flux given
through the poles.

Poles

The function of a pole is to hold the field windings. These windings are wound on poles
and are either connected in series or parallel by the armature windings.

Pole Shoe

Pole shoe is mainly utilized for spreading the magnetic flux to prevent the field coil from
falling.

Armature Windings

Armature windings are in a closed circuit form and are connected in series to parallel to
enhance the produced current sum.

Field Windings

They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on each pole
and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form
alternate North and South poles.

Commutator

A commutator works like a rectifier that changes AC voltage to DC voltage within the
armature winding. It is designed with a copper segment, and each copper segment is
protected from the other with the help of mica sheets. It is located on the shaft of the
machine.

Brushes

56 | P a g e
The electrical connections can be ensured between the commutator as well as the exterior
load circuit with the help of brushes.
Shaft
The shaft is a mechanical piece in a DC machine that produces the rotational force known
as torque and brings about rotation. It is made from mild steel and has maximum breaking
strength.
Bearings
Bearings are used in a system to achieve smooth movement between the different
components. The main function of bearings is to minimize the friction between the rotating
and stationary parts of the machine.

Derive the E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. Generator.

Let Z = Total number of armature conductors.
 = Useful flux per pole in webers.
N = Speed of the armature in revolutions per minute. (r.p.m.).
P = Number of poles
A = Number of parallel paths.
The flux cut by a conductor in one revolution =  P = d.
The time taken by the conductor to make one revolution = 60/N Sec = dt. Hence,
d  P  PN
The E.M.F. induced in one conductor =   volts
dt 60/N 60
The E.M.F. induced per parallel path = E.M.F. induced per conductor x Number of
conductors per parallel path.
 PN Z  ZNP
E=  = volts (1)
60 A 60A
Equation (1) is the E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. generator.
For lap winding , A = P
 ZN
E= Volts
60
For wave winding , A=2
 ZNP
E= Volts
120
What are the different types of D.C generators & briefly explain separately excited
DC generator.
57 | P a g e
 Depending on the nature of excitation provided to the field windings, D.C generators
are broadly classified as,
a) Separately excited D.C generator and
b) Self excited D.C generator
The self excited D.C generator is further classified as
(i) D.C shunt generator (ii) D.C series generator and (iii) D.C compound generator.
The D.C compound generator is further classified as cumulatively compounded and
differentially compounded generators. Depending on the way in which the field windings
are connected to the armature, the cumulatively compounded and differentially
compounded generators are further classified as long shunt and short shunt generators.

Separately excited D.C generator:

Fig.3
The excitation to the field winding is provided by a separate D.C voltage source of
voltage Vf. This voltage drives a current If through the field winding due to which, a
magnetic flux is produced. When the armature is rotated by a prime mover, the armature
conductors cut the magnetic flux and hence and E.M.F is induced, which is nothing but
the generated voltage.
Ia = IL Ia=armature
I'L=load
And V = E  Ia Ra
A and AA represent the positive and negative terminals of the armature respectively. Z
and ZZ represent positive and negative terminals of the shunt field winding respectively.

With circuit diagram briefly explain DC Shunt & Series generator

58 | P a g e
 Fig.4
The excitation to the field winding is provided by the generator itself. For self
excitation, it is necessary that the pole cores should have some residual flux r. When the
armature is rotated by a prime mover, the armature conductors cut the residual flux, a small
amount of E.M.F is induced.
Ia = IL + If I'f= Field windings

And C = E  Ia Ra
As already mentioned, there are three types of self-excited D.C generators, which are
discussed in the following sections.
D.C shunt generator:

<--Wrong diagram

Fig.5
The Fig.5 represents a D.C shunt generator. This is called shunt generator because, the
field winding is connected across the armature terminals. I sh is the current flowing through
the shunt field winding.
Ia = IL + Ish
V
Ish =
R sh

Where Rsh = Resistance of the shunt field winding

V = E  Ia Ra
The shunt field winding consists of a large number of very thin turns of copper, so that,
its resistance is quite high and Ish is very small. This is necessary because, the load current

59 | P a g e
should not be drastically reduced due to a large current I sh drawn by the shunt field
winding. Ish and hence the flux produced remains almost constant, irrespective of the load
current, over the operating range of the generator.

D.C series generator:

<--Wrong diagram

Fig.6
Fig.6 represents a D.C series generator. This is called series generator because, the
field winding is connected in series with the armature. The voltage drop across this
winding has to be very small and hence its resistance has to be very less. Therefore, it is
made of a few thick turns of copper. Whatever current flows through the load, same
current flows through the armature and the field winding.
Ia = Ise = IL
Where Ise = current through the series field winding
V = E  Ia (Ra + Rse)
The flux produced depends on Ise = IL, the load current.
Y and YY represent the positive and negative terminals of the series field winding
respectively.

With circuit diagram briefly explain D.C compound generator

A D.C compound generator contains both shunt field winding and series field winding.
If the two field windings are connected in such a way that the fluxes produced by them are
in the same direction and are additive, then the generator is said to be cumulatively
compounded. If the field windings are connected in such a way that the fluxes produced by
them are in opposite direction and the resultant flux is the difference between the two, then
the generator is said to be differentially compounded.
Depending on how the series field winding is connected to the shunt field winding, we
have long shunt compound generator and short shunt compound generator.

Cumulative compounded D.C generator:

60 | P a g e
a) Long shunt:

Fig.7
Fig.7 represents a long shunt cumulatively compounded D.C generator. Current I a
enters the positive terminal of the series field winding and current Ish enters the positive
terminal of the shunt field winding. Hence the fluxes produced by them will have the same
direction and they are additive. The total flux is given by,
 = sh + se
Where  = total flux
sh = flux produced by the shunt field winding
se = flux produced by the series field winding
V
Ish =
R sh
Ia = IL + Ish
and V = E  Ia (Ra + Rse)
b) Short shunt:

Fig.8
Fig.8 represents a short shunt cumulatively compounded D.C generator. For this
generator,
V  I L R se
Ish =
R sh
Ia = IL + Ish
and V = E  Ia Ra  IL Rse
Differentially compounded D.C generator:

61 | P a g e
a) Long shunt:

Fig.9
Fig.9 represents a long shunt differentially compounded D.C generator. Current I a
enters the negative terminal of the series field winding and current Ish enters the positive
terminal of the shunt field winding. Hence, the fluxes produced by them are in opposite
directions. Hence the resultant flux is given by,
 = sh  se
V
Ish =
R sh
Ia = IL + Ish
and V = E  Ia (Ra + Rse)
b) Short shunt:

Fig.10
Fig.10 represents a short shunt differentially connected D.C compound generator. For
this generator
V  I L R se
Ish =
R sh
Ia = IL + Ish
and V = E  Ia Ra  IL Rse

WORKED EXAMPLES
7.1 A 4 pole, 1500 r.p.m. D.C. generator has a lap wound armature, having 32
slots and 8 conductors per slot. If the flux per pole is 0.04 Wb, calculate the

62 | P a g e
 e.m.f. induced in the armature. What would be the e.m.f. induced, if the
winding is wave connected.
For lap winding:
 ZNP 0.04  32  8  1500  4
E= = = 256 volts
60A 60  4
For wave winding A = 2,  E = 256 x 2 = 512 volts.

7.2 The induced E.M.F. in a D.C. generator running at 1500 r.p.m. is 500 V
(a) Calculate the induced E.M.F., when it runs at 1000 r.p.m., the flux
remaining constant. (b) Find the percentage increase in flux, so that the
induced e.m.f. at 1200 r.p.m. is 600 V.
 ZNP
(a) E = = KN Where, K is a constant
60A
E1 N1 500 1500
  i.e. 
E2 N 2 E 2 1000
1000  500
 E2 = = 333.33 volts
1500
 ZNP E E
b) E = ,  EN or  K
60A N N
2 KE2 / N 2 E2 N1 600  1500
   = = 1.5
1 KE1 / N1 E1 N 2 500  1200

The percentage increase in flux is (1. 5 – 1.0) = 0.5 or 50%

7.3 A 4 pole, wave connected generator has a useful flux of 0.02 weber per pole. If
the induced E.M.F. is 288 V at 1200 r.p.m., find the number of conductors in
the armature. If each slot contains 10 conductors, find the number of slots on
the armature.
 ZNP 0.02  Z  1200  4
E= i.e. 288 = ,  Z = 360
60A 60  2
360
Number of slots = = 36
10
7.4 A 4 pole, lap connected D.C. generator runs at 900 r.p.m. and has 40 slots,
each slot containing 10 conductors (a) Find the useful flux per pole, if the
E.M.F. generated is 300 V. (b) What is the average value of the E.M.F. induced
in a field coil having 1000 turns, when field coil is opened and the flux becomes
zero in 0.05 Sec.

63 | P a g e
  ZNP   40  10  900  4
(a) E = i.e. 300 = ,   = 0.05 Wb
60A 60  4
(b) E.M.F. induced in the field coil is given by,

Ef = N
d
= 1000 x
0.05  0  = 1000 volts
dt 0.05
7.5 A 4 pole, lap connected, D.C. generator has 600 armature conductors and runs
at 1200 r.p.m. If the flux per pole is 0.06 Wb, calculate the E.M.F. induced.
Find also the speed at which it should be driven to produce the same E.M.F.,
when wave connected.
When lap connected:
 ZNP 0.06  600  1200  4
E= = = 720 Volts
60A 60  4
When wave connected,
0.06  600  N  4
720 = ,  N = 600 r.p.m.
60  2
7.6 The armature of an 8 pole D.C. generator has 960 conductors and runs at 400
r.p.m. The flux per pole is 40 mWb. Calculate the induced e.m.f. when the
armature is lap wound. At what speed should it be driven to generate 400V, if
the armature is wave connected. (VTU : Model Question Paper-3)
When lap connected:
 ZNP 40  10 3  960  400  8
E= = = 256 V
60A 60  8
When wave connected :
 ZNP 40  10 3  960  N  8
E= i.e. 400 =
60A 60  2
 N = 156.25 r.p.m.

7.7 A 4 pole generator with wave wound armature has 51 slots, each having 24
conductors. The flux per pole is 0.01 Wb. At what speed must the armature
rotate to give an induced e.m.f. of 220V? What will be the voltage developed, if
the winding is lap connected and the armature rotates at the same speed?
(V.T.U – Jan/Feb 2004)
When wave connected:
 ZNP 0.01  51  24  N  4
Eg = i.e. 220 = ,  N = 539 r.p.m.
60A 60  2

64 | P a g e
 When lap connected:
0.01  51  24  539  4
 ZNP
Eg = = = 110 V
60A 60  4
7.8 A shunt generator has a no load induced E.M.F of 150 V and when it is loaded,
the terminal voltage decreases to 140 V. The armature resistance and field resistances
are 0.2  and 100  respectively. Find the load current. Ignore armature reaction.

Fig.11
V 140
Ish = = = 1.4 A
R sh 100
V = E  Ia Ra
140 = 150  (IL + Ish) 0.2
10
 IL + Ish = = 50 A  IL = 50  Ish = 50  1.4 = 48.6 A
0.2
7.9 Estimate the reduction in speed of a separately excited D.C generator working
with a constant excitation on 500 V bus bars to decrease its load from 500 to 250 kW.
The resistance between the terminals is 0.015 . Neglect armature reaction.

Fig.12
500  1, 000
When P = 500 kW, Ia1 = = 1,000 A
500
E1 = Generated voltage
= V + Ia1 Ra = 500 + 1,000  0.015 = 515 V
250 1, 000
When P =250 kW, Ia2 = = 500 A
500
E2 = V + Ia2 Ra = 500 + 500  0.015 = 507.5 V
We know that E  N

65 | P a g e
 As the excitation is constant,  is also constant
EN
E N 507.5 N
 1  1 i.e. = 2
E2 N2 515 N1
N  N2 E  E2 515  507.5
% change in speed = 1  100 = 1  100 = 100
N1 E1 515
= 1.456%

7.10 A 8 pole wave wound D.C shunt generator has 36 slots, 10 conductors in each
slot. The flux per pole is 0.01 Wb. It runs at 1,200 r.p.m. The armature and
field resistances are 0.1  and 100  respectively. Calculate the terminal
voltage when the load current is 120 A. Neglect armature reaction.
Let V = terminal voltage
The generated E.M.F is given by
ZNP 0.01  36 10  1, 200  8
E= = = 288 volts
60A 60  2
V V
Ish = =
R sh 100
V
Ia = IL + Ish = 120 +
100
V = E  Ia Ra
 V 
V = 288  120    0.1  V = 275.72 V
 100 

7.11 A D.C series generator delivers a current of 120 A at 300 V. If the armature
and series field resistances are 0.1  and 0.05  respectively. Find the
armature current and generated E.M.F.
Ia = IL = 120 A
E = V + Ia (Ra + Rse)
= 300 + 120 (0.1 + 0.05) = 318 V

7.12 In 110 V, short shunt compound generator, the resistances of the armature,
shunt and series field windings are 0.06 , 25  and 0.04  respectively. The
load consists of 200 lamps each rated at 55 W, 110 V. Find the generated
E.M.F and the armature current.

66 | P a g e
 Fig.7.31
P 200  55
IL = = = 100 A
V 110
V  I L R se 110  100  0.04
Ish = = = 4.56 A
R sh 25
Ia = IL + Ish = 100 + 4.56 = 104.56 A
E = V + Ia Ra + IL Rse
= 110 + 104.56  0.06 + 100  0.04 = 120.27 V

D.C. MOTOR
Explain the working principle of a D.C. motor & Fleming’s left hand rule.
A D.C. motor works on the principle that “whenever a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force”. The magnitude of the force experienced
by the conductor is given by,
F = B I ,
Where, F = Force experienced in Newtons
B = Flux density of the magnetic field in Wb/m2
I = Current flowing through the conductor in amperes
 = Length of the conductor in metres
The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
Fleming's Left Hand Rule:
It states that “when the thumb, fore finger and the middle finger of the left hand are
held mutually perpendicular to each other, the fore finger in the direction of the magnetic

67 | P a g e
field, the middle finger in the direction of the current, then the direction of the thumb
indicates the direction of the force experienced by the conductor”.
What is the significance of back E.M.F. in a D.C. motor ?
Fig. 1 symbolically represents a D.C. shunt motor. V is the applied voltage, due to
which a current Ia flows through the armature conductors. IL is the line current and Ish is the
current flawing through the shunt field winding

IL = Ia + Ish

When a current Ia flows through the armature conductors, a torque is produced and the
armature rotates. The current Ish flowing through the shunt field winding produces a flux 
and hence, an E.M.F. Eb is induced in the armature conductors. The direction of this
induced E.M.F. is such as to oppose the applied
voltage. Hence, this induced E.M.F. Eb is called
as the back E.M.F. The directions of the applied
voltage V and the back E.M.F. Eb are shown in
fig.1
The applied voltage V has to drive current
through the armature conductors against the
opposition of the back E.M.F. and hence work
Figure.1
has to be done. This work done is manifested in the form of mechanical power developed
by the armature. In the absence of back E.M.F., no mechanical power can be developed by
the armature.

Derive an equation for the torque developed in the armature of a D.C. motor.
Torque is the turning moment about an axis. It is equal to the product of the force and the
radius at which it acts.
Consider the armature of the D.C. motor to have a radius r
and let F be the force acting tangential to its surface as shown in
Fig. 2. The torque exerted by the force F on the armature is
given by,
Ta = F x r Nm
Fig.2

The work done by this force F, in one revolution is given by,

W = Force x distance covered in one revolution = F x 2  r W–S
The power developed by the armature = Work done in one second
= F x 2  r x number of revolutions per second

= F  2π r 
N
=
2πN
F  r  = 2 π N Ta watts
60 60 60
68 | P a g e
 The electrical equivalent of the mechanical power developed by the armature of the
D.C. motor is equal to Eb Ia.
2π NTa  ZNP
 = Eb Ia = Ia
60 60A
1 P P
 Ta =  Z I a   Nm = 0.159  Z Ia   Nm (1)
2  A  A
P
= 0.0163  Z Ia   Kgm
 A
Equation (1) gives the gross torque developed by the armature, which includes iron
losses and mechanical losses of the motor. The actual torque available at the shaft to do
useful work, which is known as shaft torque or useful torque Tsh, is less than Ta by an
amount of torque which is equivalent to iron losses and mechanical losses in the D.C.
motor.
 Tsh = Ta – TL
Where, Tsh = Shaft torque
Ta = Armature torque
TL = Torque lost due to iron losses and mechanical losses
The useful torque or shaft torque is given by,
2 π N Tsh
Output of the motor in watts =
60
Output of the motor in watts
 Tsh = Nm
N
2π
60
 The output of a D.C motor is usually expressed in H.P.

Output in H.P.  735.5

 Tsh = Nm
N
2π
60
Give the classification of D.C. motors giving the respective relations between the
applied voltage and the various voltage drops.
Depending on the way in which the field windings are connected to the armature, D.C.
motors are classified into two types.
(1) D.C. shunt motor (2) D.C. series motor and
D.C. Shunt Motor:
Fig.3 represents a D.C. shunt motor. In this type
of motor, the shunt field winding is connected across
the armature. V is the applied voltage due to which a
current IL flows through the line, a current Ish through

69 | P a g e
Fig.3
the shunt field winding and Ia through the armature conductors. The shunt field current is
given by,
V
Ish =
R sh
The armature current is given by,
Ia = IL – Ish
The back E.M.F. induced in the armature is given by,
Eb = V – Ia Ra – B.C.D.  A.R.D.
Where, B.C.D. = Brush contact drop and A.R.D. = Armature reaction drop.

D.C. Series Motor:

Fig. 4 represents a D.C. series motor. In this
type of motor, the series field winding is
connected in series with the armature. V is the
applied voltage due to which a current IL flows
through the line, the series field winding and also
through the armature conductors.
Fig. 4  IL = Ise = Ia

The series field winding carries the armature current and should have very small
resistance so that the voltage drop across it is very small. Hence, it is made of a few thick
turns of copper. The back E.M.F. induced in the armature is given by,
Eb = V – Ia (Ra + Rse) – B.C.D. – A.R.D.

Sketch the various characteristics of D.C. motors and mention their applications.
The characteristics of D.C. motors are studied keeping the applied voltage constant.
The following are the three important characteristics of D.C. motors.
i) Electrical characteristic or Ta / Ia characteristic
ii) N / Ia characteristic and
iii) Mechanical Characteristic or N / T a characteristic.
Characteristics of D.C. Shunt Motors:
(i) Ta / Ia Characteristic:
Fig. 7 represents a D.C. shunt motor on load.
In a D.C. shunt motor, the field current Ish
remains constant irrespective of the load
connected to the motor, because, the applied
voltage remains constant for all loads. Hence the
Fig.7
70 | P a g e
flux produced also remains constant.
P
Ta = 0.159  Z Ia  
 A
In the above equation, Z, P, A and  are constants.  Ta  Ia …………(1)
Hence Ta / Ia characteristic is a straight line
passing through the origin as shown fig. 8.
The shaft torque Tsh is always less than the
armature torque Ta due to iron losses and
mechanical losses in the D.C. motor. Hence it is
shown always to be less than Ta by a torque TL,
which is the torque lost due to the above losses.
From the characteristic, we learn that, a D.C.
shunt motor has a medium starting torque and
hence does not suit where, very large loads are
required to be started.
Fig.8

(ii) N / Ia Characteristic:
The equation for the back E.M.F. Eb is given by,
 ZNP Eb
Eb = ,  N …………. (2)
60A 
as the other quantities are constant.
For D.C. shunt motor,  is constant
 N  Eb  V – Ia Ra
As Ia increases, Ia Ra increases and hence the speed decreases. But the drop I aRa is very
small compared to V and hence, the decrease of speed as the armature current increases is
also small. The variation of speed with respect
to armature current is as shown in Fig.9.
N0 is the no load speed of the motor. From
this characteristic, we understand that the
change in the speed of a D.C. shunt motor is
small, when the armature current or load on
the motor is increased. Hence for all practical
purposes, a D.C. shunt motor may be
considered as almost a constant speed motor.
Fig.9

71 | P a g e
 iii) N / Ta Characteristic:
From the equation (1), we know
that Ta  Ia and hence, N / Ta
characteristic is similar to N / I a
characteristic as shown in fig.8.10.
N0 is the no load speed of the
motor.

Fig.10

Characteristics of D.C. Series Motors:

(a) Ta / Ia Characteristic:

Fig. 11 represents a D.C. series motor on load. As

the load on the motor increases, the current
through the series field winding also increases
and hence the flux produced also increases. The
torque equation of a D.C. motor is given by,
P
Ta = 0.159  Z Ia  
 A
Fig.11
Or Ta   Ia, but   Ia  Ta  Ia2
But after saturation, the flux remains constant and T a  Ia.
The variation of Ta with respect to Ia is as
shown in Fig. 12.
Upto saturation i.e., upto point A, Ta  Ia2 and
hence the curve is a parabola. After saturation i.e.,
beyond point A, Ta  Ia and hence the curve is a
straight line. From the characteristic, we find that

72 | P a g e
 the starting torque of a D.C. series motor is very high.

(b) N / Ia Characteristic:
Eb V  I a R a  R se 
From equation (2), we know that, N α α (3)
 
From the equation (3), we find that as the load on the motor increases, there are two
factors which influence the speed of the motor.
(i) Ia (Ra + Rse) increases and hence the speed decreases.
(ii) The flux  also increases due to which the speed decreases.
But it has been observed that the decrease of speed due to the first factor is negligibly
small as compared to the decrease in speed due to the second factor. Hence for all practical
purpose, we can say
1 1
N but   Ia,  N  (4)
 Ia
The variation of speed with respect to Ia is as shown in fig.13.
From the characteristic, we observe that, as the
load increases, the speed decreases over a wide
range. Hence, a D.C. series motor is considered as a
variable speed motor.
At no load, Ia is very small and hence the speed
will be dangerously high as per equation (4).
Hence, if a D.C. series motor is started without any
load on it, the speed is very high and it may run out
of the foundation due to the centrifugal forces set
Fig.8.13 up. Hence, a D.C. series motor should never be
started without load.
(c) N / Ta Characteristic:
From the N / Ia characteristic of a D.C.
series motor shown in fig.8.13, we find that,
when Ia is small, N is very high.
But, Ta  Ia2 or Ia  Ta
1
 N (5)
Ta

73 | P a g e
 For smaller values of Ta, N is very large and for higher value of Ta the speed decreases.
The variation of speed with respect to torque Ta is as shown in Fig.14.

4
Applications of D.C. Motors:
Application of DC Series motor:- DC series motor is suitable for both high and low power
drives, for fixed and variable speed electric drives. This type of motor has simple
construction. Also, it is easy for design and maintenance.

Because of its high starting torque, this motor uses in the cheap toys and automotive
applications such as,

 Cranes
 Air compressor
 Lifts
 Elevators
 Winching system
 Electric traction
 Hair drier
 Vacuum cleaner and in speed regulation application
 power tools
 Sewing machine
 Electric footing

Application of DC Shunt motor:- We all know that Dc shunt motor provides the constant
speed. This type of motor mostly uses in the constant speed application from no load to full
load. The applications are,

 Wiper
 Automatic windscreen
 Drills
 Conveyors
 Fans
 Boring mills
 Shapers
 Blowers
 Spinning and weighing machine
 Centrifugal pumps
#Must do all ques.
WORKED EXAMPLES
8.1 Determine the total torque developed in a 250 V, 4 pole D.C. shunt motor with
lap winding accommodated in 60 slots, each containing 20 conductors. The
armature current is 50 A and the flux per pole is 23 mWb.

74 | P a g e
 P 4
Ta = 0.159  Z Ia   = 0.159 x 23 x 10 –3 x (60 x 20) x 50 x = 219.42 Nm
 A 4

8.2 A 4 pole, 220V, lap connected D.C. shunt motor has 36 slots, each slot
containing 16 conductors. It draws a
current of 40 A from the supply. The
field resistance and armature
resistances are 110  and 0.1 
respectively. The motor develops an
output power of 6 kW. The flux per
pole is 40 mWb. Calculate (a) the
speed (b) the torque developed by
the armature and (c) the shaft
torque. Fig.8.19
V 220
Ish =  = 2A
Rsh 110
Ia = IL – Ish = 40 – 2 = 38 A
Eb=V–Ia Ra =220–38 x 0.1 = 216.2 V
 ZNP
Eb =
60A
40  10 3 36  16  N  4
i.e. 216.2 =
60  4
 N = 563 r.p.m

E bIa 216.2  38
Ta = = = 139.42 Nm
N 563
2π 2  3.14 
60 60
6  1000
Tsh = = 101.82 Nm
563
2  3.14 
60
8.3 A 4 pole, 500 V shunt motor has 720 wave connected conductors on its
armature. The full load armature current is 60 A and the flux per pole is
0.03Wb. The armature resistance is 0.2  and the contact drop is 1 V per
brush. Calculate the full load speed.
Eb = V – Ia Ra – B.C. D = 500 – 60 x 0.2 – 2 x 1 = 486 V
 ZNP 0.03  720  N  4
But Eb = i.e. 486 = ,  N = 675 r.p.m.
60A 60  2
8.4 The armature resistance of a 25
H.P., 250V D.C. series motor is 0.2 
and the series field resistance is 0.05 .
When the series motor takes 80 A, the
75 | P a g e
 speed is 600 r.p.m. Calculate the speed when the current is 50 A.

Eb1 = V – Ia1 (Ra + Rse)

= 250 – 80 x (0.05 + 0.2)
= 230 V
Eb2 = V – Ia2 (Ra + Rse)
= 250 – 50 x (0.05 + 0.2)
= 237.5 V
Eb1 Eb1 Eb 2 Eb 2
N1   , N2  
1 I a1 2 I a2
N1 Eb1 I a 2 600 230 50
   i.e.   ,  N2 = 991.3 r.p.m
N 2 I a1 Eb 2 N2 80 237.5

8.5 A 250V, D.C. shunt motor takes 6 A line current on no load and runs at 1000
r.p.m. The resistance of the field winding and armature are 250  and 0.2 
respectively. If the full load line current is 26 A, Calculate the full load speed,
assuming constant air gap flux.
V 250
Ish =  = 1A
Rsh 250

Ia0 = 6 – 1 = 5A
Eb0 = V – Ia0 Ra
= 250 – 5 x 0.2
= 249 V
On full load: Fig.8.23

Ia1 = 26 – 1 = 25 A, Eb1 = 250 – 25 x 0.2 = 245 V

N 0 Eb 0 1000 249
 i.e.  ,  N1 = 984 r.p.m.
N1 Eb1 N1 245

8.6 A 250 V shunt motor has an armature current of 20 A when running at 1000
r.p.m. against full load torque. The armature resistance is 0.5 . What
resistance must be inserted is series with the armature to reduce the speed to
500 r.p.m. at the same torque and what will be the speed, if the load torque is
halved with this resistance in circuit? Assume the flux to remain constant
throughout.

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Ebl = V – Ia Ra = 250 – 20 x 0.5 = 240V
Let R be the resistance connected in series with the armature. As the torque remains
the same, the armature current also remains the same.
Eb2 = V – Ia (Ra + R) = 250 – 20 x (0.5 + R) = 240 – 20 R
E b1 N1 240 1000
 i.e.  ,  R =6
E b2 N 2 240  20 R 500

77 | P a g e
 MODULE-4
Syllabus:-
Transformers: Necessity of transformer, principle of operation, Types and construction of
single phase transformers, EMF equation, losses, variation of losses with respect to load.
Efficiency and simple numerical.
Three-phase induction Motors: Concept of rotating magnetic field, Principle of
operation, constructional features of motor, types – squirrel cage and wound rotor. Slip and
its significance simple numerical.

TRANSFORMER

What Is a Transformer?

A transformer is a static device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The
transmission current is AC. It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply voltage
without a change in the frequency of AC between circuits. The transformer works on the
basic principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

Explain clearly why the efficiency of a transformer is more than the other electrical
machines.
As the transformer is a static apparatus, there are no moving parts. Hence there are no
mechanical losses in a transformer. Hence, the efficiency of a transformer is very high, of
the order of 95% to 98%.
Necessity of transformer
• Power generation
Transformers increase the voltage of electricity generated by power plants before it is sent
to the grid.
• Power transmission
Transformers convert voltage from a high voltage (transmission line) to a low voltage
(consumer). This allows electricity to travel over long distances.
• Low-voltage devices
Transformers reduce the voltage of conventional power circuits to operate low-voltage
devices, such as doorbells and toy electric trains.
• Safe power
Transformers ensure the power entering your home is safe for your light bulbs and outlets.

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Types of Transfomer
1. Types of transformer based on the transformer's core
a. Core Type Transformer
b. Shell Type Transformer
c. Berry Type Transformer
2. Types of transformer based on voltage conversion
a. Step Up Transformer
b. Step Down Transformer
3. Types of transformer based on its purpose
a. Power Transformer
b. Distribution Transformer
c. Isolation Transformer
d. Instrument Transformers
e. Current Transformer
f. Potential Transformer
4. Transformer types based on windings
a. Two Winding Transformer
b. Autotransformer
5. Transformer types based on the insulation used
a. Dry Type Transformer
b. Oil Immersed Transformer
6. Transformer types based on the number of phases
a. Single Phase Transformer
b. Three Phase Transformer

Explain the working principle of a transformer.

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and
mutual induction.

There are usually two coils – primary coil and secondary coil – on the transformer core.
The core laminations are joined in the form of strips. The two coils have high mutual
inductance. When an alternating current passes through the primary coil, it creates a
varying magnetic flux. As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in
magnetic flux induces an EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary coil, which is linked
to the core having a primary coil. This is mutual induction.

79 | P a g e
Overall, a transformer carries out the following operations:

1. Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to another

2. Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
3. Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
4. Two circuits are linked with mutual induction

What is the basic use of a transformer? Give its constructional details?

The basic use of a transformer is to increase or decrease a.c. voltage.

Figure 1
There are two basic parts of a transformer:
1) Magnetic core 2) winding
1. The core of the transformer is either rectangular or square in size.
2. The core is divided into i) Yoke ii)Limb
3. Core is the Rectangular in shape which is made of thin sheets of silicon steel,
whichare laminated in order to reduce eddy current losses.
4. The laminated sheets are overlapped so that to avoid air gap and they stamped
together to form a core.
5. The steel laminations are insulated from each other by using insulations like varnish
6. The core provides low reluctance path for the flux provided by the winding
7. The vertical portion on which the winding is wound is called Limb.
8. The top and bottom horizontal portion is called Yoke.
9. The core forms the magnetic circuit
10. There are 2 windings i) Primary winding ii) Secondary winding which formsthe
Electric circuit, made up of conducting material like copper.
11. The winding which is connected to the supply is called primary winding
andhaving 'N1' number of turns.

Derive the E.M.F. equation of a transformer.

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N1 – Number of turns in the primary
N2 – Number of turns in the secondary
Φm – Maximum flux in the weber (Wb)
T – Time period. It is the time taken for 1 cycle.
The flux formed is a sinusoidal wave. It rises to a maximum value of Φ m and decreases to a
negative maximum of Φm. So, flux reaches a maximum in one-quarter of a cycle. The time
taken is equal to T/4.
Average rate of change of flux = Φm/(T/4) = 4fΦm
Where, f = frequency
T = 1/f
Induced EMF per turn = Rate of change of flux per turn
Form factor = RMS value / average value
RMS value = 1.11 (4fΦm) = 4.44 fΦm [form factor of a sine wave is 1.11]
RMS value of EMF induced in winding = RMS value of EMF per turn x No. of turns
Primary Winding
RMS value of induced EMF = E1 = 4.44 fΦm * N1
Secondary Winding
RMS value of induced EMF = E2 = 4.44 fΦm * N2

This is the EMF equation of the transformer.

For an ideal transformer at no load condition,
E1 = Supply voltage on the primary winding
E2 = Terminal voltage (theoretical or calculated) on the secondary winding

81 | P a g e
Voltage Transformation Ratio

K is called the voltage transformation ratio, which is a constant.

Case 1:If N2 > N1, K>1, it is called a step-up transformer.
Case 2: If N2< N1, K<1, it is called a step-down transformer.
Transformer Efficiency
Comparing system output with input will confirm transformer efficiency. The system is
called better when its efficiency is high.

Applications of Transformer

 The transformer transmits electrical energy through wires over long distances.
 Transformers with multiple secondaries are used in radio and TV receivers, which r
equire several different voltages.
 Transformers are used as voltage regulators.

82 | P a g e
 WORKED EXAMPLES
9.1 A single phase, 20 kVA transformer has 1000 primary turns and 2500
secondary turns. The net cross sectional area of the core is 100 cm2. When the
primary winding is connected to 500V, 50 Hz supply, calculate (i) the
maximum value of the flux density in the core (ii) the voltage induced in the
secondary winding and (iii) the primary and secondary full load currents.
i) E1 = 4.44 f m N1 i.e. 500 = 4.44 x 50 x m x 1000
 m = 2.252 x 10 Wb –3

 2.252  10 3
Bm = m  4
= 0.2252 Wb/m2
a 100  10
E2 N2 E 2 2500
ii)  i.e.  ,  E2 = 1250 V
E1 N1 500 1000
kVA  1000 20  1000 20  1000
iii) I1 =  = 40 A, I2 = = 16 A
E1 500 1250
9.2 Find the number of turns on the primary and secondary side of a 440/230 V,
50 Hz, single phase transformer, if the net area of a cross section of the core is
30 cm2 and the maximum volume of the flux density is 1 Wb/ m2.
E1 = 4.44 f m N1 = 4.44 f Bm a N1 i.e., 440 = 4.44 x 50 x 1 x 30 x 10 –4 x N1
 N1 = 660.67 turns
E2 N2 230 N2
 i.e.  ,  N2 = 345.35 turns
E1 N1 440 660.67
9.3 The primary winding of a 25 kVA transformer has 200 turns and is connected
to 230V, 50Hz supply. The secondary turns are 50. Calculate
i) No load secondary induced emf
ii) Full load primary and secondary currents
iii) The flux density in the core, if the cross section of the core is 60 cm2.
E2 N2 E2 50
i)  i.e.  ,  E2 = 57.5 V
E1 N1 230 200
25  1000
ii) I1 = = 108.7 A
230
I1 N 2 108.7 50
 i.e.  ,  I2 = 434.8 A
I 2 N1 I2 200
iii) E1 = 4.44 f m N1 i.e. 230 = 4.33 x 50 x m x 200
 5.18  10 3
 m = 5.18 x 10 –3 Wb , Bm = m  4
= 0.863 Wb/m2
a 60  10
9.4 A 100 kVA, 50 Hz single phase transformer has a turns ratio of 1000/ 250. The
primary winding is connected to 500V, 50 Hz supply. Fund the secondary open
circuit voltage and the max. value of the flux in the core.
83 | P a g e
 E2 N2 E2 250
 i.e.   E2 = 125V
E1 N1 500 1000
E1 = 4.44 f m N1 i.e. 500 = 4.44 x 50 x m x 1000
 m = 2.25 x 10 Wb. = 2.25 mWb
–3

9.5 A 4400/400 V, single-phase transformer draws a no load current of 0.8 A and

consumes 600 W. Find the magnetising and iron loss components of currents.
600 W represents the iron loss in the transformer, which is due to I 
600 600
 I =  = 0.136 A , I = I 02  I 2 = 0.8 2  0.136 2 = 0.788 A
V 4400
9.6 A 4400/400 V, single phase transformer draws a no load current of 1 A, at a
p.f. of 0.25. Find the magnetising and iron loss components of no load current.
I = I0 cos 0 = 1 x 0.25 = 0.25 A

I = I 02  I 2 = 12  0.252 = 0.968 A

9.7 The no load current of a single phase transformer is 4 A at 0.3 power factor,
when supplied at 230 V, 50 Hz. The number of turns on the primary winding
is 250. Calculate (i) the maximum value of the flux in the core. (ii) the core loss
and (Hi) the magnetising component of the no load current.
230 = 4.44 x 50 x m x 250,  m = 4.144 X 103 Wb.
Core loss = W0 = V1 I0 cos 0 = 230 x 4 x 0.3 = 276 W
I = I0 cos 0 = 4 x 0.3 = 1.2 A
I = I 02  I 2 = 4 2  1.2 2 = 3.816 A

9.10 A single phase transformer 440/110 V takes a no load current of 4 A at 0.25

p.f. lagging. If the secondary winding supplies a current of 100 A at 0.9 p.f.
lagging. Find the current drawn by the
primary winding.
cos 2 = 0.9  2 = 25.84°
cos0 = 0.25  0 = 75.52°
E 110 1
K= 2  
E1 440 4
1
I 21 = K I2 = x 100 = 25 A
4
Angle between I 21 and I0 = 75.52°  25.84°
= 49.68°
The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 9.8 from
which,
I 12 = I 02  I 21   2 I0 I 21 cos 49.68°
2

= 42 + 252 + 2 x 4 x 25 x 0.647
84 | P a g e
I1 = 27.756 A
What are the various losses that occur in a transformer? Give the equations for these
losses.
As the transformer is a static apparatus and does not contain any rotating parts, there
are no mechanical losses viz friction and windage losses. The losses that occur in a
transformer are (i) iron loss and (ii) copper loss.
(i) Iron Loss (Wi): This loss is also called as the core loss and this loss occurs in the iron
portion i.e. the core of the transformer. Iron loss is of two types (i) eddy current loss and
(ii) hysteresis loss.
The eddy current loss (We) occurs due to the flow of eddy currents in the laminations
of the core. The eddy .currents are induced in the laminations, because, the alternating flux
produced by the primary winding links them. These eddy currents cause power loss in the
core and heats up the core of the transformer. The eddy current loss in the core of a
transformer is given by an empirical formula due to Steinmetz which is given by,
We =  B m2 f2 t2 V watts

Where, We = eddy current loss in watts

Bm = maximum value of the flux density in the core in Wb/m2
f = frequency of the supply in Hz
t = thickness of the laminations in metre
V = volume of the core in m3
 = a constant, whose value depends on the quality of the magnetic material
used for making the core.
To keep the eddy current loss as small as possible, the core is made of thin laminations
of high permeability magnetic material, such as silicon steel and they are insulated from
one another by coating them with varnish or an oxide layer.
The hysteresis loss (Wh) occurs because, the core of the transformer is subjected to
cycles of magnetisation. Steinmetz empirical formula for calculating the hysteresis loss in
the core of the transformer is given by,
Wh =  Bm1.6 f V watts

Where, Wh = hysteresis loss in watts

Bm = maximum value of the flux density in the core in Wb/m2
f = frequency of the supply in Hz
V = volume of the core in m3
 = a constant, whose value depends on the quality of the magnetic
material used for making the core.

85 | P a g e
 Hence, Iron losses = Eddy current loss + Hysteresis loss
Wi = We + Wh
=  B m2 f 2 t2 V +  Bm1.6 f V watts (1)

From the equation (1), we find that the iron loss in the transformer depends on Bm, the
maximum value of flux density and f, the frequency of the supply, as other quantities like,
the thickness of laminations, volume of the core are constants. As long as the applied
voltage remains constant, Bm and f remain constant. Therefore, iron loss in the transformer
is considered to be a constant loss at all loads including no load.
(ii) Copper loss (Wcu): This loss is due to the resistances R1 and R2 of the primary and
secondary windings respectively.
Total copper loss = copper loss in primary + copper loss in secondary
Wcu = I12 R1 + I22 R2 watts
= I12 (R1 + R21 )

= I12 R01
= I22 R02 = I22 (R2 + R11 )

From the above equations, we find that the copper losses in the transformer, vary as the
square of the currents, I1 and I2, which vary with load. Hence, copper loss in the
transformer is a variable loss.
The total loss in the transformer is the sum of iron loss and copper loss.
Derive the condition for which the efficiency of a transformer is maximum.
The efficiency of a transformer at any load and p.f. is defined as the ratio of the output
at the secondary winding to the power input to the primary winding.
Power output in watts
Efficiency =  =
Power input in watts
Power input = V1 I1 cos 1
Where, V1 = Primary applied voltage
I1 = Primary current and
cos 1 = Power factor of the primary
Input  losses Input  Copper Loss  Iron Loss
Efficiency =  = 
Input Input
V1 I 1 cos 1  I 12 R01  Wi I R Wi
= = 1  1 01 
V1 I 1 cos 1 V1 cos 1 V1 I1 cos 1

86 | P a g e
 d
The efficiency is maximum, when, =0
dI1

d R01 Wi
=0   =0
dI1 V1 cos 1 V1 I1 cos 1
2

R01 Wi
 
V1 cos 1 V1 I12 cos 1

or Wi = I12 R01
i.e. Iron loss = Copper loss
Hence, the condition for the maximum efficiency of the transformer is that, the iron
loss must be equal to the copper loss.

WORKED EXAMPLES
9.11 A 10 kVA, 400/200 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has a full load copper
loss of 200 W and has a full load efficiency of 96 % at 0.8 p.f. lagging.
Determine the iron loss. What would be the efficiency at half of the full load
and unity p.f.?
Total full load losses = Input – Output
10  1000  0.8
=  (10 x 1000 x 0.8)
0.96
= 333.33 W
Iron loss = 333.33  200 = 133.33 W
Efficiency at half of the full load and u.p.f. is given by,
1 2  10  1000  1
1 2 F .L 
1 2  10  1000  1  133.33  1 22  200
5000
=
5000  133.33  50
= 0.9646 or 96.46%

9.12 A 50 kVA, 3300/330 V, single phase transformer has iron loss and full load
copper loss of 400 W and 600 W respectively. Calculate the efficiency at half
full load and 0.9 p.f. Also calculate the load at which the efficiency is
maximum.

87 | P a g e
 1 2  50  1000  0.9
1 2 F .L 
1 2  50  1000  0.9  400  1 22  600

= 0.976 or 97.6%
Iron loss
Load for maximum efficiency = Full load KVA
Full load copper loss

400
= 50
600
= 40.823 kVA

9.13The maximum efficiency at full load and unity p.f of a single phase 25 kVA,
500/1000V, 50Hz transformer is 98%. Determine its efficiency at (i) 75% load, 0.9 p.f.
and (ii) 50% load, 0.8 p.f. (VTU – Jan/Feb 2006)
Maximum efficiency occurs when Wi = Wcu
1  25  1000  1
 0.98 =
1  25  1000  1  Wi  Wcu

 Wi = Wcu = 255.1 W.
0.75  25  1000  0.9
 0.75 f .l ,0.9 p. f 
0.75  25  1000  0.9  255.1  0.75  255.1
2

= 0.9769 or 97.69 %
0.75  25  1000  0.8
 0.5 f .l ,0.8 p. f 
0.5  25  1000  0.8  2551.  0.52  255.1

= 0.969 or 96.9%
9.14 A transformer working at u.p.f. has an efficiency of 90% at both one half load
and at the full load of 500 W. Determine the efficiency at 75% of full load. (VTU –
July 2006)
At full load
1  500
0.9 = ,  Wi + Wcu = 55.56 watts --- (1)
500  Wi  Wcu

At ½ full load
250
0.9 =
250  Wi  1 22 Wcu

88 | P a g e
 Wcu
 Wi + = 27.78 watts
4
i.e. 4 Wi + Wcu = 111.12 watts --- (2)
Solving equations (1) and (2), we get
Wi = 18.52 watts and Wcu = 37.04 watts
0.75  500
 0.75 f .l 
0.75  500  18.52  0.75  37.04
2

= 0.9056 or 90.56%

89 | P a g e
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Concept of Rotating Magnetic feild

90 | P a g e
91 | P a g e
With neat figures, give the constructional details of a three phase induction motor.
A three phase induction motor mainly consists of two parts. (i) stator and (ii) rotor.
The rotor, which is the rotating part, is separated by the stator, which is the static part, by a
small air gap, which usually varies from 0.4 mm to 4 mm, depending on the rating of the
motor.
(a) Stator:

92 | P a g e
 Fig. 1
Fig 1 shows the stator of the induction motor. It consists of a steel frame, which
encloses a hollow, cylindrical core, made up of thin laminations of silicon steel to reduce
eddy current loss and hysteresis loss. A large number of uniform slots are cut on the inner
periphery of the core. The stator conductors are placed in these slots, which are insulated
from one another and also from the slots. These conductors are connected as a balanced
three phase star winding or delta winding. The windings are wound for a definite number
of poles, depending on the requirement of speed. It is wound for more number of poles, if
the speed required is less and vice-versa, according to the relation.
120 f
NS =
P
Where, NS = synchronous speed in r.p.m.
f = frequency of the supply.
and P = number of poles.
When a three phase supply is given to the stator winding, a magnetic field of constant
magnitude and rotating at synchronous speed, given by the equation N S = 120 f / P is
produced. This rotating magnetic field is mainly responsible for producing the torque in
the rotor, so that, it can rotate at its rated speed, which will be explained in detail in the
later sections of this chapter.
(b) Rotor:
The rotor is the rotating part of the induction motor and is mounted on the shaft of the
motor to which, any mechanical load can be connected. There are two types of rotors
(i) squirrel cage rotor and (ii) phase wound rotor. According to the type of rotor used,
three phase induction motors are classified as squirrel cage induction motors and phase
wound or slip ring induction motors.
93 | P a g e
i) Squirrel cage rotor:

Fig.2
Nearly 90% of the induction motors are of squirrel cage type, as the rotor is simple and
rugged in construction. This type of rotor, shown in Fig.2, consists of a cylindrical
laminated core with parallel slots, for carrying rotor conductors. The rotor conductors are
heavy bars of copper or aluminium. One bar is placed in each slot. All the bars are brazed
or welded at both ends to two copper end rings, thus short circuiting them at both ends. As
the rotor bars are short circuited on themselves, it is not possible to add any external
resistance in series with the rotor circuit during starting. The slots are slightly skewed,
which helps in two ways (i) it reduces the noise due to magnetic hum and makes the rotor
to run quietly and (ii) it reduces the locking tendency between the rotor and the stator.
ii) Phase Wound Rotor:
This rotor is a laminated, cylindrical core having uniform slots on its outer periphery.
A three phase winding, which is star connected is placed in these slots. The open ends of
the star winding are brought out and connected to three insulated slip rings, mounted on
the shaft of the motor, with carbon brushes resting on them.

Fig.3
The three brushes are externally connected to a three phase star connected rheostat,
which is used as a starter during the starting period. When running under normal
conditions, the slip rings are automatically short circuited by means of a metal collar,
which is pushed along the shaft and connects all the rings together. Next, the brushes are
automatically lifted from the slip rings, to reduce the frictional losses, wear and tear. The
equivalent circuit diagram of a phase wound induction motor along with the rotor
connections to the starting resistance is as shown fig.3.
94 | P a g e
Explain clearly the working principle of a three phase induction motor.

When a three phase supply is given to the three phase stator winding, a magnetic field of
constant magnitude 1.5 m and rotating with the synchronous speed NS is produced. This
rotating magnetic field sweeps across the rotor conductors and hence, an e.m.f. is induced
in the rotor conductors. The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such as to oppose the very
cause of it i.e. the relative speed between the rotating magnetic field and the static rotor. As
the rotor conductors are short circuited on themselves, the induced e.m.f. sets up a current
in the rotor conductors in such a direction as to produce a torque, which rotates the rotor in
the same direction as the magnetic field, as shown in Fig.4, so that the relative speed
decreases. The speed of the rotor gradually increases and tries to catch up with the speed of
the rotating magnetic field. But, it fails to reach the synchronous speed, because, if it
catches up with the speed of the magnetic field, the relative speed becomes zero and hence,
no e.m.f. will be induced in the rotor conductors, the torque becomes zero. Hence, the rotor
will not be able to catch up with the speed of the magnetic field, but rotates at a speed
slightly less than the synchronous speed.

Fig.4
Define slip of an Induction motor and derive the relation between the supply
frequency and rotor current frequency.
The difference between the synchronous speed NS of the magnetic field and the actual
speed of the rotor N is called as the slip speed.
 Slip speed = NS – N
The slip of an induction motor is defined as the ratio of the slip speed to the
synchronous speed

95 | P a g e
 NS  N
S =
NS

The slip of an induction motor is usually expressed as a percentage and the percentage
slip is given by,
NS  N
%S = x 100
NS

When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the
supply frequency. When the induction motor is rotating, the frequency of the current
induced in the rotor conductors is proportional to the relative speed or slip speed. If f 1 is
the frequency of the induced current in the rotor, then
120 f 1
NS – N = (1)
P
120 f
But NS = (2)
P
Where, f = frequency of the supply
From equation (1) and (2), we get,
NS  N f1
= =S
NS f

 f1 = S f
The frequency of the rotor current is slip times the frequency of the supply.

WORKED EXAMPLES
11.1 A 3 phase, 4 pole, 440 V, 50 Hz induction motor runs with a slip of 4%. Find
the rotor speed and frequency of the rotor current.
120 f 120  50
NS = = = 1,500 r.p.m.
P 4
NS  N 1,500  N
S = i.e. 0.04 =
NS 1,500

 N = 1,440 r.p.m.
f 1 = S f = 0.04 x 50 = 2 Hz = frequency of rotor current
11.2 The frequency of the e.m.f. in the stator of a 4 pole induction motor is 50 Hz
and that in the rotor is 1½ HZ. What is the slip and at what speed the motor is
running?
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 3
f 1 = S f i.e. = S x 50,  S = 0.03
2
120 f 120  50
NS = = = 1,500 r.p.m.
P 4
NS  N 1,500  N
S = i.e. 0.03 =
NS 1,500

 N = 1455 r.p.m.
11.3 A 6 pole induction motor is connected to a 50 Hz supply. It is running at a
speed of 970 r.p.m. Find the synchronous speed and the slip.
120 f 120  50
NS = = = 1,000 r.p.m.
P 6
NS  N 1,000  970
S = = = 0.03
NS 1,000

11.4 A 10 pole induction motor is supplied by a 6 pole alternator, which is driven at

1200 r.p.m. If the motor runs with a slip of 3%, what is its speed?
120 f
For alternator: N =
P
120 f
i.e. 1200 = ,  f = 60 Hz
6

For induction motor:

120 f 120  60
NS = = = 720 r.p.m.
P 10
NS  N 720  N
S = i.e. 0.03 =
NS 720

 N = 698.4 r.p.m.
11.5 A 4 pole, 50 Hz induction motor has a slip of 1 % at no load. When operated at
full load, the slip is 2.5%. Find the change in speed from no load to full load.
On no load:
120 f 120  50
NS = = = 1,500 r.p.m.
P 4
NS  N 1,500  N 0
S = i.e. 0.01 =
NS 1,500

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  N0 = No load speed = 1,485 r.p.m.
On full load:
NS  N 1,500  N
S = i.e. 0.025 =
NS 1,500

 N = Full load speed = 1,462.5 r.p.m.

 Change in speed = N0 – N = 1,485 – 1,462.5 = 22.5 r.p.m.

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 MODULE – 5
Syllabus:-
Domestic Wiring: Requirements, Types of wiring: casing, capping.Two way
and three way control of load.
Electricity Bill: Power rating of household appliances including air
conditioners, PCs, laptops, printers, etc. Definition of “unit” used for
consumption of electrical energy, two-part electricity tariff, calculation of
electricity bill for domestic consumers.
Equipment Safety measures: Working principle of Fuse and Miniature
circuit breaker (MCB), merits and demerits.
Personal safety measures: Electric Shock, Earthing and its types, Safety
Precautions to avoid shock.

 DOMESTIC WIRING
Explain the various factors that are required to be considered in selecting the type of
wiring for domestic wiring?
The important factors to be considered are
i) durability
ii) safety
iii) appearance
iv) cost
v) accessibility and
vi) maintenance cost
The type of wiring selected should be of proper specification, so that, it is durable and
does not give rise to problems quite often.
Safety is a very important factor in selecting a wiring system and the type of wiring
system selected must be such that, it is fool proof from giving any shocks.
Electrical wiring done should not spoil interior beauty of the house. Hence, the wiring
system selected should enhance the appearance or at least should be concealed, if it can not
give a good appearance.
The type of wiring system selected should not eat much into the budget of the owner, if
he cannot afford it. One has to look for convenience rather than luxury in selecting a
wiring system.

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 The various switches provided must be easily accessible and the plug points to be
connected to the various appliances must be provided nearer to the places where the
appliances are usually kept. There must be provision for the extension of the wiring system
or renewal, if necessary.
The maintenance cost of the wiring system should be as small as possible.
Briefly discuss on different Systems of wiring. Mention its advantages &
disadvantages.
Previously, we discussed the various factors considered for the choice of wiring system
which means that we are choosing the wiring system out of various available ones. The
following are the various systems of wiring used in our country.
a) Cleat wiring
b) Wooden casing and capping wiring
c) CTS or TRS wiring
d) Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring
e) Conduit wiring
i. Surface conduit wiring
ii. Concealed conduit wiring
a) Cleat wiring:
In this type of internal wiring, the wires/cables are drawn in the grooves of the
porcelain cleat which is fixed by screwing. The wires/cables used in the system of wiring
are either VIR (vulcanized insulated rubber) or PVC (polyvinyl chloride) type. The
porcelain cleats used here are made of two halves, one is base and the other is cap. The
base is grooved to accommodate the cables and the cap is put over it and whole of it is then
screwed on wooden plugs (gutties) previously cemented into the wall and ceiling.
The maximum distance between the cleats should not exceed 60 cm so that, wires will
not come in contact either with wall or with each other. To ensure safety and long life, it is
preferred to maintain a distance of 30 cm. For voltages upto 250 V, distance between the
cleat grooves should be a minimum of 2.5 cm for branch circuit and 4 cm for sub-circuits.
It is as shown in Fig.1 (a), (b) and (c).

Fig.1
Advantages:

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 1. In this system of wiring, overall cost is low.
2. Installation and maintenance costs are less.
3. It is easy for inspection, alteration and addition if any.
4. It requires less labour and workmanship i.e. even semiskilled labour can do it with
ease.
5. Material used can be recovered after dismantlement.
6. In case of any fault, it can be easily located.
7. It has got more scrap value.
8. It can be easily removed when not required.
Disadvantages:
1. It is not suitable for wet and damp areas.
2. It doesn't provide good appearance.
3. The wires are subjected to mechanical injury easily.
4. It is easily affected by oil, dust, smoke, moisture etc.
5. The life of this wiring system is low and hence is only suitable for temporary
applications.
Applications: It is usually preferred for temporary installations where the place is dry,
appearance is not so important and cost is the main consideration.
b) Wooden casing and capping wiring:
When the wires/cables used in wiring needs protection, this method of wiring system is
used. The wires/cables run inside a wooden casing having grooves (usually ‘V’ shaped
grooves), which is then covered with wooden capping. VIR or PVC cables are used for
wiring. The casing and capping should be of well seasoned teak wood (or any good quality
wood) free from knots or any other defects. Sometimes teak wood is varnished to protect it
from white ants. The length, in which casing and capping are available, varies from 2.5 m
to 3 m. It is as shown in the Fig.2 (a), (b) and (c).

Fig.2
Advantages:

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 1. Good appearance when compared with cleat wiring system.
2. Low quality wires/cables can be used as they are laid inside.
3. No atmospheric effect on wires.
4. Easy to install and rewire.
5. Moderate cost.
6. By opening the capping, we can easily inspect the wiring in case of any fault.
Disadvantages:
1. There lies a risk of fire, as wood is inflammable.
2. It requires better workmanship and hence labour cost is high.
3. It is not damp proof and hence cannot be used in wet and damp places.
4. If it is not painted or varnished, white ants will attack as a result of which, life will
be reduced.
Applications: It is preferred for low voltage (upto 250 V) installations where the place is
dry and free from the risk of fire.
c) Surface conduit wiring and concealed conduit wiring:
i) Surface conduit wiring: In this system of wiring, conduits are fixed on the surface of
walls or ceilings by means of saddles, secured to wooden gutties with screws at
maximum interval of one meter. The VIR or PVC wires/ cables are drawn by means of
18 SWG GI wire. The earth wire is fixed by means of earth clips. It is as shown in
Fig.3.

fig.3
i) Concealed conduit wiring: In this system of wiring, conduit is buried under the
wall or ceiling. Now-a-days PVc conduit is popularly used as it requires less
time to install and cheaper in cost. The channels are provided in the wall before
plastering and then conduit is fixed in the channels by means of clamps and
hooks. Later wires are drawn by the help of 18 SWG GI wire and lastly it is
covered by cement plastering making it water tight and moisture proof.

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 Compare surface conduit and concealed conduit systems of wiring.
Surface conduit wiring Concealed conduit wiring
i) The conduit/pipe is fixed on the wall. i) The conduit/ pipe is completely sunk
either in wall or slab of RCC.
ii) They are fixed by means of saddles. ii) They are fixed by means of ‘J’ hooks.
iii) Tees and elbows can be used. iii) Only bends are to be used.
iv) It is not fully protected from iv) It is fully protected from mechanical
mechanical injury. injury.
v) It is cheaper compared to concealed v) It is comparatively costlier.
conduit. vi) It is concealed and does not affect the
vi) It has got bad appearance appearance.

With a circuit diagram, explain the working of a two way control of lamp.
Two Way Control of Lamps:
The lamp circuits used for house wiring are quite simple and they are generally
controlled from one point, such as room lighting, bath room lighting etc., but in stair case
wiring, it is necessary to control the lamp circuit from two points i.e. one at the top of the
stair case and the other at the bottom of the stair case. Similarly in big halls, corridors or
bedrooms, it may be necessary to control the lamp from two points. In such cases, a two
way control lamp circuit is used for wiring.
Fig. 4 shows the way in which the connections are made to control a lamp from two
points. Two, two-way switches are used. The wires used between the switches are called
strap wires.

Fig 4

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 For the positions of the switches as shown in Fig.6.17, i.e. when switch 1 is in position
A and the switch 2 is in position D, the lamp circuit is not closed and hence the lamp is
dark. Let us say that the switch 1 is in the down stairs and switch 2 is in the upstairs. When
switch 1 is changed to position B, the lamp circuit is closed and hence the lamp glows.
Walking on to the upstairs, if the switch 2 is changed to position C, again the circuit
continuity is broken and the lamp is switched off. Thus, the lamp can be controlled from
two points. The same switching operations may be repeated while coming down stairs.
Table 1 gives the positions of switches and the lamp conditions, whether it is ON or OFF.
TABLE 1
S.No. Position of Switch 1 Position of Switch 2 Lamp ON or OFF
1 A D OFF
2 A C ON
3 B C OFF
4 B D ON

With a circuit diagram, explain the working of a three way control of lamp.
Three Way Control of Lamps:
Sometimes in very big corridors, godowns or workshops, it may be necessary to
control a lamp from three points. In such cases, the circuit connection requires two, two-
way switches and an intermediate switch as shown in Fig.5

Fig.5
An intermediate switch is a combination of two, two-way switches coupled together. It
has four terminals EFGH. For one position, it connects points EF and GH, which is called

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straight connection. For another position, it connects points EH and GF, which is called
cross connection.
When the switches 1 and 2 are in positions A and C respectively, and the intermediate
switch is in the position of straight connection, i.e., when EF and GH are connected, the
lamp circuit is complete and hence the lamp glows. Now, if the intermediate switch is
changed to the position of cross connection i.e. when points EH and GF are connected, the
lamp circuit is open and hence the lamp is switched off. Now if the position of switch 2 is
changed from C to D, the lamp circuit is again closed and the lamp is switched ON. Thus,
the lamp can be controlled from three points. Table.2 gives the positions of the various
switches and the conditions of the lamp.
Table 2
Position of Position of intermediate Position of
S.No. Lamp ON or OFF
switch 1 switch switch 2
1 A EF, GH C ON
2 A EF, GH D OFF
3 B EF, GH C OFF
4 B EF, GH D ON
5 A EH, GF C OFF
6 A EH, GF D ON
7 B EH, GF C ON
8 B EH, GF D OFF

 ELECTRICITY BILL:
Power rating of household appliances
The Rating of an electrical appliance indicates the voltage at which the
appliance is designed to work and the current consumption at that voltage.
The Power rating of the appliance is related the power it consumes. Every
electrical appliance has a power rating which indicates the amount of
electricity required to do work. . This is usually given in watts (W) or
kilowatts (kW).
The Energy consumption of a device is calculated by multiplying the
wattage of a device and operational hours
Energy consumption = Wattage X operational hours.
UNIT: The unit of electrical energy consumed is kWh. One kilowatt-hour
is the electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance of power 1 kW
when it is used for one hour. Therefore 1kwh =1 unit.

Calculation of Power consumption of electrical home appliances.

Let us consider different home appliances to calculate approximate total
energy consumptionof house per month.

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Sl Appliances Watts NO Total no Total no No of Energy consumed
NO of watts kilowatt operational in kwh(units) per
(KW) hours per day= energy
day consumed / 1000
1 Tube light 60 W 10 600 0.6 5 3
2 Fan 75 W 4 300 0.3 8 2.4
3 Refrigerator 200W 1 200 0.2 24 4.8
4 AC 1000W 1 1000 1 5 5
5 Laptop 50W 1 50 0.05 2 0.1
6 Television 50W 1 50 0.05 3 0.15
7 Grinders 1000W 1 1000 1 ½ 0.5
8 Printers 50W 1 50 0.05 ½ 0.025
9 Washing 2000W 1 2000 2 1 2
machine
10 Micro wave 1000W 1 1000 1 1 1
Total 18.9=19units
Therefore per day 19 units of
energy is consumed For 1
month = 19 x 30 = 570 units
per month
Tariff
The electrical energy generated in generating station is delivered to a large
number ofconsumers at reasonable rates.
Definition of tariff: The rate at which the electrical energy is supplied
to a consumer isknown as tariff.
The tariff should include:
1. Recovery of cost of generating electrical energy in power stations
2. Recovery of cost of capital investment in transmission and distribution.
3. Recovery of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy.
4. A suitable profit on capital investment.
There different types tariff. The consumers who have appreciable
maximum demand for themtwo part tariff method is employed.

Two Part Tariff

When the rate of electricity energy is charged on the maximum demand of
the consumer andthe units consumed is called two part tariff.
In this tariff scheme, the total costs charged to the consumers consist of
two components: fixed charges and variable charges . It can be expressed
as:

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Total Cost = [A (kW) + B (kWh)] Rs
Where, Fixed charges - A = charge per kW of max demand
Variable charges - B = charge per kWh of energy consumed.
The fixed charges will depend upon maximum demand of the consumer
and the variable charge will depend upon the energy (units) consumed. The
fixed charges are due to generation, transmission and maintenance.

Advantages
If a consumer does not consume any energy in a particular month, the
supplier will get thereturn equal to the fixed charges.

Disadvantages
If a consumer does not use any electricity, he has to pay the fixed charges
regularly.
The maximum demand of the consumer is not determined. Hence, there is
error of assessment of max demand.

Electricity Bill
Calculation of electricity bill for low tension domestic consumer is as follows.
The electricity bill consists of two components: fixed charges and variable
charges (runningcharges). It can be expressed as:
Total Electricity Bill = [A (kW) + B
(kWh)] + Tax Where, Fixed charges - A
= charge per kW of max demand A=
Total kW X charge per kW

Example: if the sanctioned load is 3KW then A= [1x85 + 2x95] = 275rs

(Note: For 1kw it is 85 rs and above 1kw it 95 rs per kw)

Where Variable charges - B = charge per kwh of energy consumed.

B = No of units consumed x rate
per unit Example: If the no of units
consumed is 120 units then B = [50
x4.1 + 50 x 5.55+ 20 x 7.1] = 624 rs
(Note: For 0- 50 units – 4.1 rs per unit, 50- 100 units – 5.55 rs , 100-
200 units – 7.1rs) Therefore Total Electricity bill for given example
is

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 = 275 +624+ Tax.

 EQUIPMENT SAFETY MEASURES

Protective Devices
Protection for electrical installation must be provided in the event of faults
such as short circuit, overload and earth faults. The protective device must
be fast acting and isolate the faulty part of the circuit immediately. It also
helps in isolating only required part of the circuit without affecting the
remaining circuit during maintenance. The following devices are usually
used to provide the necessary protection:
 Fuses
 Relays
 Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)
 Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB)

Fuse
An Electric Fuse is a protective device which interrupts the flow of
excessive current in an Electric circuit. This works on the principle of
heating effect of the Electric Current

fig.6

A Fuse consists of conducting wire, which has high resistivity and low
melting point. The thickness of the Fuse wire is determined based on the
amount of current flow in the circuit. If a fault causes a flow of excess
Current then a Conductor break the Circuit by melting or separating it, the
thin Conductor used is known as an Electric Fuse. The wire inside the Fuse

108 | P a g e
 melts if there is an occurrence of high Current due to a short Circuit or an
overloaded Circuit. As a result of which the Current stops flowing since the
wire has broken. In order to stop the flow of Electricity, once a Fuse melts,
it can be changed or replaced with a new Fuse. A Fuse is normally made up
of elements like zinc, copper, aluminum and silver.
Advantages of Fuse
1. Fuse is cheapest type of protection in an electrical circuit
2. Fuse needs zero maintenance
3. Operation of fuse is simple and no complexity is involved

Disadvantage of fuse
1. During short circuit or overload once fuse blows off replacing of fuse
takes time. During this period the circuit lost power
2. When fuses are connected in series it is difficult to discriminate the
fuse unless the fuse has significant size difference

With neat diagram explain working principle of Miniature circuit breakers.

Fig.7

Working of MCB
The operation of the MCB includes two stages, i.e., thermal operation
and short circuit operation. The former operation based on the thermal effect
of over current while the later operation is based on the electromagnetic effect
of over current.
All MCBs operate on the air-break principle where the arc between the
contacts is forced into the splitter plates through arc runners. This causes to
spilt single arc into a series of arcs and then extinguishes the arc by extracting
the energy from the arc and by cooling it.
With the use of bimetallic strip, thermal operation is achieved in case
overload conditions. When overload current flows through the MCB, the
bimetallic strip gets heated and causes to deflect. In doing so, it moves the trip

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lever and releases the latch mechanism and hence the contacts open under
spring mechanism.
During the short circuit conditions, the large fault current energizes the
solenoid and the magnetic field of the solenoid attracts the plunger which in
turn strikes the trip lever and hence the immediate release of the latch
mechanism.
The arc is produced during the separation of the contacts at overload as
well as short circuit conditions. This arc is moved into the arc-cute stack
under the influence of a magnetic field. So the arc broken down into partial
arcs in arc chutes and they no longer exist due to the voltage drop of the arcs.

Advantages of MCB
1. A miniature circuit breaker finds in a compact size that can easily
handle and move.
2. MCB is used as the control switch that turns off automatically.
3. The switching performance of MCB is good.
4. An MCB is a reusable type. So, less maintenance is required.
5. The cost of maintenance and replacement is less over fuse.

Disadvantages of MCB
1. The cost of the MCB is more as compared to MCCB and fuse.
2. Also, the distribution board’s cost is high than the rewireable fuse
board.
3. Sometimes, it can not properly work and protect against earth’s faults.
4. It is only used for small current-carrying applications. For example, in
In-home wiring protection, MCB is used.
5. Auxiliary contact does not occur in the MCB circuit.
6.
Comparison between Electric Fuse and MCB
Surface conduit wiring Concealed conduit wiring
i) The conduit/pipe is i) The conduit/ pipe is
fixed on the wall. completely sunk either in
ii) They are fixed by wall or slab of RCC.
means of saddles. ii) They are fixed by means of
iii) Tees and elbows can ‘J’ hooks.
be used. iii) Only bends are to be used.
iv) It is not fully protected iv) It is fully protected from
from mechanical mechanical injury.

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 injury. v) It is comparatively costlier.
v) It is cheaper compared vi) It is concealed and does not
to concealed conduit. affect the appearance.
vi) It has got bad
appearance

 PERSONAL SAFETY MEASURES

Electric shock and precautions

An electric shock is the sudden discharge of electricity through a part of
the body when a person comes in contact with electrical equipment.
The factors affecting the severity of shock are
1. Magnitude of the current through the body
2. Path of the current through the body
3. Time for which current is passed through the body
4. Frequency of the current
5. Physical and physiological condition of the person.

Precautions against Electric shock

Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or
try repairing any electrical equipment or circuits with wet hands. It
increases the conductivity of the electric current.
Never use equipment with damaged insulation. The insulation of
conductors must be proper and in good condition.
Earth connection should be maintained in proper condition
Use of the fuses and cables of proper rating.
Use the rubber soled shoes while working.
Megger tests should be done to check the insulation.
Never touch two different terminals at the same time.
Never remove the plug by pulling wire.
The sockets should be placed at a proper height
Switch off supply and remove the fuses before starting the work with any
installation.
Always use insulated screw drivers, and line testers.

Earthing :
Connection of the body of electric equipment to the general mass of
the earth by wire of negligible resistance is called Earthing. It brings the
body of the equipment to the zero potential during electric shock.

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 Necessity of Earthing
1. To protect the human beings from danger of shock in case they
come in contact withthe charged frame due to defective insulation.
2. It guarantees the safety of electrical appliances and devices from
the excessiveamount of electric current.
3. It protects the appliances from high voltage surges and lightning discharge.
4. It provides an alternative path for leakage of current hence protects the
equipment.
5. It keeps the voltage constant in the healthy phase
6. It protects the Electric system and buildings from lightning.
7. It avoids the risk of fire in the electrical installation system.
8. To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load condition.
Types of Earthing
They are two types of earthing
1. Plate earthing
2. Pipe earthing

Plate Earthing :
In this method a copper plate or GI plate of 60cmX60cmX3.18cm is placed
vertically down inside the ground at a depth of 3m. The plate is surrounded
by the alternate layers of salt and coal with a minimum thickness of about
15cm. The earth wires drawn through the GI pipe are bolted through the
earth plate. The GI pipe is fitted with the funnel on a top in order to have an
effective earthing by pouring the salt water periodically. The schematic
arrangement is as shown below.

112 | P a g e
 Fig.8

The earthing efficiency increases with the increase of the plate area
and depth of the pit. The depth of the pit depends upon the resistivity of the
soil.
The only disadvantage of this method is that discontinuity of earth wires
from the earthing plate which is placed below the ground as it cannot be
observed physically this may cause miss leading and result into heavy
losses under fault condition

Pipe Earthing :

In this method a Galvanized iron pipe of 38 mm diameter and length

of 2 meters with 12 mm holes is placed vertically into the ground at a depth
of 5m.This pipe acts as an earth electrode. The depth depends upon the
condition of the soil
The pit area around the pipe is filled with the alternate layers of salt and
coal for improving the condition of the soil and earthing efficiency. The

113 | P a g e
earth wires are connected to the top section of the pipe above the ground
level with nut and bolts. The funnel is provided to pour the salt water. The
schematic arrangement is as shown below.

Fig.9

The contact surface of GI pipe with the soil is more as compare to the plate.
Hence it can handle large leakage current for the same electrode size. The
earth wires connected to the GI pipe above the ground level can be
physically inspected time to time.
The only disadvantage of pipe earthing is that, the pipe length has to be
increased sufficiently in case of soil of high specific resistivity. This
increases excavation work and hence increased in cost.

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