Abesamis, Gregg Angelo A.

Research Assignment

1. Definition of Stress and Strain for a Rod in Tension:

• Explain how stress and strain are defined when a rod is subjected to tension.

o When a rod is subjected to tension, it experiences both stress and strain. Stress
is the force per unit area acting on the rod, while strain is the deformation
caused by this stress. In tension, the rod is pulled from both ends, causing it to
elongate. We can usually observe this phenomenon in cables that are used for
lifting, like cranes. The ratio of this elongation to the original length is known as
tensile strain. There are many materials being used within the engineering and
manufacturing industry, and for many materials, within a certain range of stress,
stress and strain are directly proportional, a relationship described by Hooke's
law.

• Provide concise definitions and any relevant equations.

o There are multiple formulas that are used in finding out the stress-strain of a
material. For one, there is the stress formula, σ = F/A, where F is the load being
given to the material, and A is the cross-sectional area of the material bearing
the load.

o Another formula is the strain formula, ε = ΔL/L, where ΔL is the change in length
of the material that underwent tensile loading, while L is the original length of
the material.

o Another formula being referenced with regards to stress-strain is the Hooke’s

Law. σ = E * ε, stating that stress and strain are directly proportional, where E is
Young’s Modulus, or a measure of the stiffness of a material.

2. Dimensions for Stress and Strain in SI and USCS:

• Identify and explain the conventional units used for measuring stress and strain in both
the SI (International System of Units) and USCS (United States Customary System).

o The SI system, or the International System of Units, was developed in the late
18th century during the French Revolution. Its goal was to create a unified and
standardized system of measurement that would be used globally, unfortunately
it is not the case today, as Americans refuse to use SI units. The original system,
known as the Système International d'Unités, was based on seven base units:
meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela, and mole. Eventually, the
system has evolved and expanded to include derived units and prefixes for
expressing very small or very large quantities.

o The USCS, or the United States Customary System, is a system of measurement

that is primarily used in the United States and a few other countries. It is a
descendant of the English system, which was used throughout the British
Empire. The USCS is characterized by its use of units such as feet, pounds,
gallons, and Fahrenheit.
Abesamis, Gregg Angelo A. Research Assignment

o The SI Units for stress is usually Pascals, which can also be denoted by N/m 2.

o In the English units, or USCS, it is denoted by psi, or lb/in 2.

3. Sketch a Stress–Strain Diagram:

• Draw a stress-strain diagram for a typical material under tension.

• Label important features such as the proportional limit, yield point, ultimate tensile
strength, and fracture point.

o
4. Difference Between Elastic and Plastic Behavior of Materials:

• Describe the difference between elastic and plastic behavior.

o Elastic Behavior occurs when a material deforms under stress but returns to its
original shape when the stress is removed. This is like a spring stretching and
then bouncing back to its original length. As the word elastic says, it is like an
elastic rubber band that is in its original position when it is at rest, meaning it is
not stretched. Plastic Behavior occurs when a material deforms under stress and
does not return to its original shape after the stress is removed. This is like
bending a paperclip; it will not straighten out completely even if you let go. Even
then, you can still bend it back to its original position but it won’t be perfect, and
you may have lessened its structural integrity
Abesamis, Gregg Angelo A. Research Assignment

o Elastic

o Plastic

5. Definitions of Key Terms:

• Define the following terms with brief descriptions:

o Elastic Modulus

• A key characteristic of materials that measures their resistance to elastic

deformation is their elastic modulus. It's a measurement of a material's
capacity to stretch or compress under a specific load without irreversibly
changing. This characteristic is essential for many engineering
applications, ranging from understanding the behavior of materials
under severe circumstances to constructing buildings.
There are three primary types of elastic modulo. We have heard of
Young’s Modulus which measures a material’s resistance to tensile or
compressive stress. Another one is Shear modulus which, measures the
resistance to shearing stress. Lastly, bulk modulus, which measures
resistance to hydrostatic pressure.

o Proportional Limit

• The proportional limit is a critical point in the stress-strain curve of a

material. It defines the line separating nonlinear from elastic behavior.
According to Hooke's law, the stress and strain are exactly proportional
to one another within the proportional limit. This implies that when the
load is released, the material will revert to its initial form.
Abesamis, Gregg Angelo A. Research Assignment

The link between stress and strain grows more complicated beyond the
proportionate limit. When a material behaves elastically in a nonlinear
way, the relationship between strain and stress is no longer straight
forward. The material may even start to distort plastically in some
situations, which means that even when the stress is removed, it won't
go back to its previous shape.

o Elastic Limit

• The elastic limit is another critical point in the stress-strain curve of a

material. It refers to the maximum stress that a substance can withstand
before permanently deforming. When a material is stretched beyond its
elastic limit, it experiences plastic deformation, which prevents it from
returning to its initial shape even when the load is released.

The elastic limit can be somewhat higher or lower depending on the

material and the particular loading circumstances, but it is often near to
the proportional limit. The elastic limit can be affected by a number of
variables, including the microstructure of the material, the existence of
flaws, and the rate of loading.

o Yield Point

• The yield point is the stress at which a material begins to deform

plastically. This is frequently indicated by an abrupt drop in tension as
the amount of strain keeps rising. We call this phenomenon yielding.

For materials engineers, the yield point is a crucial metric because it

indicates how resistant a material is to plastic deformation. A material is
more resistant to yielding if its yield point is higher; conversely, a lower
yield point suggests that the material is more prone to plastic
deformation.

Upper yield point is the initial stress at which plastic deformation begins.

Lower yield point is After yielding, the material stabilizes at this stress
level.

o Ultimate Point

• The highest stress that a material can bear before failing is known as the
ultimate point. This is the breaking or rupture point of the material.

Although the ultimate point is frequently higher than the yield point, it
occasionally falls below it, particularly for materials that show a
considerable degree of strain hardening. A process known as "strain
hardening" occurs when a material undergoes plastic deformation and
subsequently becomes stronger and more resistant to distortion.
Abesamis, Gregg Angelo A. Research Assignment

Whenever you watch hydraulic press channels on YouTube, they

perfectly demonstrate the stress-strain curve on a visual manner which
can be helpful in determining how the real object reacts.

6. Poisson’s Ratio and Comparison of Tensile and Shear Stresses:

• Define Poisson’s ratio.

o A dimensionless material feature known as Poisson's ratio connects a material's

axial and lateral strains under uniaxial stress. Put simply, it quantifies the
amount that a material expands or contracts laterally in response to longitudinal
stretching or compression.

Poisson's ratio (v) is calculated using the formula: -(lateral strain) / (axial strain)

For example, a rubber band will also get narrower when stretched longitudinally.
The same is true for strings of yarn and that is because rubber exhibits a
relatively high Poisson's ratio, meaning that stretching causes it to compress
considerably laterally. Conversely, when stretched, a material like cork that has a
low Poisson's ratio won't shrink all that much laterally.

• Discuss the differences between tensile and shear stresses, providing examples where
applicable.

o Two basic forms of stress that may be applied to a material are shear stress and
tensile stress. Although a force is applied in both cases, the direction of the force
and the resulting deformation are different.

o When a material is pushed or stretched perpendicular to its cross-section,

tensile tension is created. The material elongates or lengthens in response to
this kind of stress. Tensile stress examples are as follows:

- A weight pulling on a rope

- A load-bearing bridge beam

- A machine stretching a metal bar

When a material experiences a force parallel to its cross-section, shear stress

results. Shearing or sliding of the material's layers is a characteristic of this kind
of stress. Shear stress examples are as follows:

- A nail piercing a section of wood

- A saw cutting through a metal plate

- The metal rod being twisted

7. Relationship Between Shear Yield Strength and Yield Strength:

• Explain how the shear yield strength Ssy is related to the yield strength Sy obtained from
a tensile test.
Abesamis, Gregg Angelo A. Research Assignment

o A tensile test, in which a material is exposed to a uniaxial tensile load until it

starts to deform plastically, is commonly used to assess yield strength. At this
moment, the yield strength is the stress.

A shear test, in which a material is exposed to a shear stress until it starts to

distort plastically, is used to measure shear yield strength. The shear yield
strength is the stress at this location.

This relationship is denoted by an equation Ssy = Sy / (2 * √3). It is assumed that

the material used is isotropic, meaning that it has the same properties in all
directions. Sy and Ssy is directly proportional.

8. Definition of Factor of Safety:

• Define the concept of the factor of safety in engineering design.

o The ultimate strength of a material or structure divided by the highest expected

load it will bear is represented by a numerical value known as the factor of
safety. It is a crucial idea in engineering design because it makes sure that parts
and structures can sustain the loads that they are intended to support without
breaking.

Importance of Factor of Safety:

Reliability: A structure or component with a greater factor of safety is more

reliable and has a lower failure rate.

Uncertainty: Factors of safety take into consideration unknowns regarding the

characteristics of materials, production techniques, and loading scenarios.

Safety: A carefully considered safety component contributes to the protection of

both persons and property.

It is calculated by using the formula: Factor of safety = Ultimate strength /

Allowable stress, where the ultimate strength is the maximum stress a material
can allow before it reaches failure. The allowable stress is the maximum stress a
material can withstand without succeeding the elastic limits.

9. Appropriate Factor of Safety:

• Discuss when the factor of safety might be considered too small or too large.

o Too Small Factor of Safety:

Increased Risk of Failure: A smaller-than-recommended factor of safety

increases the likelihood of structural or component failure under expected
loads.
Abesamis, Gregg Angelo A. Research Assignment

Safety Hazards: This can lead to serious consequences, such as injury, property
damage, or loss of life.

Economic Losses: Failures can result in significant economic losses due to

repairs, replacement costs, and potential legal liabilities.

o Too Large Factor of Safety:

Overdesign: An excessively large factor of safety can lead to overdesign,

resulting in unnecessary weight, cost, and material usage.

Reduced Efficiency: In some cases, overdesigned structures or components may

be less efficient or perform poorly.

Environmental Impact: Excessive material usage can contribute to

environmental concerns, such as resource depletion and increased waste.

o Consequences of Inadequate Factor of Safety:

There is a chance that the structure or component will fail under the expected
loads if the safety factor is too low. There may be negative consequences from
this, including:

Injury or death: People may be at danger of harm or death if a structure or

component fails.

Property damage: Serious property damage is another possible outcome of

failure.

Economic loss: When a building or component fails, there may be financial

losses as well, such decreased production and higher insurance costs.

10. Trade-offs in Factor of Safety Design:

• Discuss the trade-offs engineers must consider when deciding whether the factor of
safety is too large or too small.

o Cost vs. Safety:

Higher factor of safety: While providing greater safety, a higher factor of safety
typically leads to increased material usage, fabrication costs, and maintenance
expenses.

Lower factor of safety: While reducing costs, a lower factor of safety increases
the risk of failure, potentially leading to serious consequences.

Performance vs Weight:

Higher factor of safety: Generally speaking, a greater factor of safety translates

into a heavier structure or component, which might affect performance in
industries like in aeronautical engineering or automotive engineering where
Abesamis, Gregg Angelo A. Research Assignment

weight is crucial and can be the difference between a crash or not even working
properly.

Lower factor of safety: A lower factor of safety can lead to a lighter design, but
at the risk of reduced performance or increased vulnerability to failure.

o Dependability versus Sustainability:

A higher safety factor: Reliability may be enhanced by a larger safety factor,

which lowers the frequency of failures and maintenance needs.

Lower factor of safety: A reduced factor of safety might lead to more frequent
failures, which would necessitate more regular upkeep and inspections.