Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill, 2011

ENERGY TRANSFER AND

Chapter 2 ANALYSIS

Created by: Assist. Professor Qader Kayhan

September 18, 2024

Objectives
Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms.
Discuss the nature of internal energy.
Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with
energy transfer by heat.
Define the concept of work, including electrical work and several
forms of mechanical work.
Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances, and
mechanisms of energy transfer to or from a system.
Determine that a fluid flowing across a control surface of a
control volume carries energy across the control surface in
addition to any energy transfer across a control surface in that
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may be in the form of heat or work.
INTRODUCTION
Conservation of energy principle.
Consider a well-insulated and well-sealed room.
If we take the entire room-including the air and the refrigerator
(or fan) as the system, which is an adiabatic closed system since
the room is well-insulated and well-sealed, the only energy
interaction involved is the electrical energy crossing the system
boundary and entering system.
The electrical energy is converted into an equivalent amount of
thermal energy stored in the room air. So energy is conserved.
As a result of the conversion of electric energy consumed by the
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FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical and nuclear, and
their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system.
The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e
and expressed as:
Macroscopic energy: a system possesses as a whole with respect
to some outside reference frame. (KE, PE)
Microscopic energy: related to the molecular structure of a
system and the degree of the molecular activity.
Internal energy: the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
Kinetic energy, KE: energy as a result of motion of system
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relative to some reference frame.
FORMS OF ENERGY
1 2
The kinetic energy of a rotating solid body is given by 2
𝐼𝜔

Potential energy, PE: as a result of elevation of system in a

gravitational field.
Total energy of a system consists of kinetic, potential, and
internal energies:

Stationary system: closed system whose velocity and elevation

of the center of gravity remain constant during a process.
Mass flow rate: amount of mass flowing through a cross section
per unit time.
Volume flow rate: volume of a fluid flowing through a cross
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section per unit time.
Physical Insight to Internal Energy
The sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a system; can be
viewed as the sum of kinetic and potential energies of molecules.
Rotational kinetic energy of molecule: moving through space
with some velocity.
Rotational kinetic energy: associated with rotation.
Vibrational kinetic energy: vibrating of molecules about the
center of mass.
Sensible energy: the portion of internal energy of system
associated with the kinetic energies of the molecules.
At higher temperature, molecules have more energy.
Latent energy: the internal energy associated with the phase of
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system.
Physical Insight to Internal Energy
The internal energy is a associated with various binding force
between molecules of a substance.
Chemical energy: the internal energy associated with the atomic
bonds in molecules.
Nuclear energy: the tremendous amount of energy associated
with the strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself.
Electric and magnetic dipole moment energies: when atoms
subjected to external electric and magnetic fields.
Thermal energy: energy which is related to the heat.
The molecules can have organized and disorganized form of
energy.
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Mechanical Energy
The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by and ideal mechanical device such as
an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies are the familiar forms of
mechanical energy. Thermal energy is not mechanical energy.
A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by raising its
pressure, and the turbine extracts mechanical energy from a fluid
by dropping its pressure. Therefore, the pressure of flowing fluid
is also associated with its mechanical energy. W = Pv = P / 

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Mechanical Energy

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ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system into two forms:
heat and work.
A can of cold soda, and hot baked potato.
Heat: the form of energy that is transferred between two systems
(or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature
difference.
Several phrases: heat addition, heat rejection, heat absorption,
heat removal, heat gain, heat loss, …
Body heat: the thermal energy content of a body.
Adiabatic Process: there is no heat transfer. (insulated, or same
temperature- no driving force)
September 18, 2024 Units: kJ, Btu
Historical Background on Heat
Heat is something that produces a sensation of warmth.
Kinetic theory: middle of nineteenth century, it treats molecules as
tiny balls that are in motion and thus possess kinetic energy. Heat
is the energy associated with the random motion of atoms and
molecules.
Caloric theory: asserts that heat is a fluid-like substance called
caloric that is a massless, colorless, odorless and tasteless substance
that can be poured from one body into another.
When caloric was added, temperature increased. Caloric was
removed, temperature decreased. No caloric, said to be
saturated with caloric.
Mechanism: conduction, convection, and radiation.
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ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not
heat, it must be work.
Work: is the energy transfer associated with a force acting
through a distance. (rising piston, rotating shaft, and electric wire
crossing the system boundaries)
Unit: kJ
Power: the work done per unit time.
Heat and work are directional quantities.
Formal sign convention: heat transfer to a system and work
done by a system are positive; heat transfer from a system and
work done on a system are negative.
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ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a
system and its surroundings, and they have these similarities:
1. Both are boundary phenomena.
2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
3. Both are associated with a process, not a state.
4. Both are path functions.
Path functions: have inexact differentials.
Point functions: depends on the state only and have exact
differentials designated by the symbol d.

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ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK

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ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK

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ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK

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ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK

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Electrical Work
Electrons crossing the system boundary do electrical work on the
system. In an electric field, electrons in a wire move under the
effect of electromotive forces, doing work. N, coulombs of
electrical charge

Electric power: is the number of electrical charges flowing per unit

time, that is, the current.

When both V and I remain constant during time interval.

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MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
There are two requirements for a work interaction between a
system and its surroundings to exist:
1. There must be a force acting on the boundary
2. The boundary must move

In thermodynamics problems, mechanical work is the only form of

work involved. It is associated with the movement of the boundary
of a system or with the movement of entire system as a whole.
Some common forms of mechanical work: shaft work, spring work,
elastic solid bar work, stretching of liquid film work, and
accelerating body work.
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MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
Shaft Work
Energy transmission with a rotating shaft is very common in
engineering practice.

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MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
Spring Work
When the force is applied on a spring, the length of the spring
changes.

Work done on elastic solid bars

Solids are often modeled as linear springs because under the
action of force they contract or elongate.
When the force is lifted, they return to their
original lengths, like a spring. (elastic range)

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MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
When a body is raised in a gravitational field, its potential
energy increases. Likewise, when a body is accelerated, its kinetic
energy increases. The conservation of energy principle requires
that an equivalent amount of energy must be transferred to the
body being raised or accelerated.
Work transfer needed to raise a body is equal to the change in
the potential energy of the body. W = PE = mg z
Work transfer needed to accelerate a body is equal to the
change in kinetic energy of the body. W = KE
Similarly, the potential or kinetic energy of a body represents the
work that can be obtained from the body.
Electrical work, magnetic work, electric polarization work are non-
mechanical.
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MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK

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MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK

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THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics provides a sound basis for
studying the relationships among the various forms of energy and
energy interactions.
The first law states that energy can be
neither created nor destroyed during a
process; it can only change forms.

For all adiabatic processes between two

specified states of the closed system, the net
work done is the same regardless of the
nature of the closed system and the details
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of the process.
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Energy Balance
The net change in the total energy of the system during a process
is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and
the total energy leaving the system during a process.

This relation is often referred to as the energy balance and

applicable to any kind of system undergoing any kind of process.
The successful use of this relation to solve engineering problems
depends on understanding the various forms of energy and
September 18, 2024 recognizing the forms of energy transfer.
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Energy Change of a System

When the initial and final states are specified, the values of
internal energies u1 can be determined directly from the property
table or thermodynamic property relations.
For stationary systems, the changes in kinetic and potential
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THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
Energy can be transferred to or from a system in three forms:
heat, work and mass flow.
1. Heat Transfer, Q: Heat transfer to a system (heat gain)
increases the energy of molecules and thus internal energy of
the system, and heat transfer from a system (heat loss)
decreases it.
2. Work Transfer, W: work transfer to a system (work done on
system) increases the energy of the system, and work transfer
from a system (work done by the system) decreases it.
3. Mass Flow, m: mass enters a system , increases the energy, and
mass leaves the system decreases the energy of system.
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THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES
Efficiency indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer
process is accomplished.

Efficiency of a water heater is defined as the ratio of the energy

delivered to the house by hot water to the energy supplied to the
water heater.
Heating value of the fuel is the amount of heat released when a
unit amount of fuel at room temperature is completely burned and
the combustion products are closed to the room temperature.
Lower heating value when the water leaves as a vapor.
Higher heating value when the water in the combustion gases is
completely condensed and thus the heat of vaporization also
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recovered.
ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES
Generator is a device which converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy, and the effectiveness of a generator is
characterized by the generator efficiency which is the ratio of the
electrical power output to the mechanical power input.
Overall efficiency for the power plant as the ratio of the net
electrical power output to the rate of fuel energy input.

The overall efficiencies are about 26–30 percent for gasoline

automotive engines, 34–40 percent for diesel engines, and up to
60 percent for large power plants.

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ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES

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Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
The transfer of mechanical energy is usually accomplished
by a rotating shaft, and thus mechanical work is often
referred to as shaft work.

The effectiveness of the conversion process between the

mechanical work supplied or extracted and the mechanical
energy of the fluid expressed by the pump efficiency and
turbine efficiency.

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Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
The mechanical efficiency should not be confused with the motor efficiency
and the generator efficiency, which are defined as

A pump is usually packaged together with its motor,

and a turbine with its generator. Therefore, we are
usually interested in the combined or overall efficiency
of pump-motor and turbine-generator combinations.

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Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices

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Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices

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SUMMARY
❑ Forms of energy
✓ Macroscopic = kinetic + potential
✓ Microscopic = internal energy (sensible + latent + chemical + nuclear)
❑ Energy transfer by heat
❑ Energy transfer by work
❑ Mechanical forms of work
❑ The first law of thermodynamics
✓ Energy balance
✓ Energy change of a system
✓ Mechanisms of energy transfer (heat, work, mass flow)
❑ Energy conversion efficiencies
✓ Efficiencies of mechanical and electrical devices (turbines, pumps)
❑ Energy and environment
✓ Ozone and smog
✓ Acid Rain
September 18, 2024 ✓ The Greenhouse effect: Global warming
Homework

P -13, 15, 24, 26, 31, 33, 35, 36, 39, 42, 47, 51, 61, 63, 64, 68,
72, 84, 101, 102.

September 18, 2024