~ - TURE NOTE BIOMI7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY L RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research is commonly defined as the art of scientific investigation. It is a careful inquiry for new facts in any branch of knowledge; a methodological search for the truth through study, observation, comparison and experiment. According to Kothari and Garg (2014), the term research” refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation Objectives of Research The major aim of every research is to find out what is not known. Depending of the specific purpose, the objective of a research will either be to 1. Gain new insight about or familiarity with a phenomenon 2. Describe the characteristics of an object, person or group ‘ ; 3. To establish relationship between variables a r f i 4, Understand the frequency of an event or phenomenon. f ‘Types of research raf i 1. Fundamental research This type of research is interested in finding out the general or basic principles which govern nature or human behaviour. The end products are usually theories and principles which help to understand natural processes or behaviour. Examples are research aimed at producing a mathematical theory or a theory of social behaviour. 2. Applied Research This aim at finding solutions to societal problems. It’s usually derive from the general principles or theories to attempt finding solutions to specific social or physical problem. An example is to study the effect of a marketing strategy on consumer acceptance of anew nutritionally enhanced food product. 3. Descriptive research ; ‘This use surveys and fact finding enquiies to desoribe the sate of aTsis as moment. Here the researcher do not have or try to control the variables ‘ip 4. Analytical research o a f This is similar to descriptive res :4 METHODOLOGY LECTUR) E jptual research pally on facts and experience and observation to derive its it is a data based research while conceptual research deals with (rationalization) to make conclusions or deductions. It is also pirical or conce| ical research relies pri lusion. In other words, logic and reasoning fown as abstract research, 6. Quantitative or qualitative research Research is quantitative if the parameters used can be measured in quantitative terms such as numbers, weight, etc but when the values cannot be easily measured such as taste, intelligence, choice, ete., it is referred to as a qualitative research Based on the mode of data collection, research can also be grouped into three namely a) Library research: This involves the collation and review of already published data which may be the form of newspapers, journals, books, videos and tapes, etc. the data here is largely secondary b) Field research: Here data is collected from the field using tools such as questionnaires, @ surveys or interviews c) Laboratory research: Here, the data is collected by means of controlled experiments. In practice, many scientific studies may involve all the three to reach a reliable conclusion. Importance of Research 1. It inculcates discipline and promotes habits of logical thinking and organization 2. Research provides the basis for all government policies and programs 3. It is used to provide operational solutions to industrial or business problems 4, It helps to understand social problems and provides answers to societal problems 5. It provides means of livelihood for persons engaged in it 5. It leads to the development of new products, styles and behaviour Research Methods and Research Methodology Research methods refer to those methods or techniques used to carry out research or perform and -xperiment. They include means for data collection (survey, questionnaire, experiments, etc) and Jata analysis (statistical techniques). Research methodology deals with studying how is done. It evaluates the suitability of the research methods to the problem studied indication of how reliable the data generated is or would be. Methodology indicates methods or techniques is relevant or suit the problem studied by the researcher. Types of DataPURE Une METHODOLOGY into two, primary and secondary data. Primary data are those ‘ed for the first time by the researcher and so are original in data those sets of data or information collected by someone else and or may subjected to varying degrees of processing or editing. Scientific data can also be ‘as either quantitative or qualitative. The later is descriptive such as taste and feel, titative data are measurable in numerical terms e.g. Height, weight, etc. quantitative be discrete or continuous. Discrete data take only certain values like whole numbers continuous data take values within a range for instance 1 to 10. are broadly grouped or have been collect Collection already stated, research can be grouped into library, field or laboratory research based on the ‘mode of data collection used. The type of research, the means or method of data collection and the techniques involved as summarized by Kothari [Type of Research Methods Techniques Library Analysis of historical Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape and Film listening and Research records analysis Analysis of documents Statistical compilations and manipulations, reference and abstract guides, contents analysis Field Research Non-participant direct ‘Observational behavioural observation scales, use of score cards, ete Participant observation Interactional recording, possible use of tape recorders, photo graphic techniques Mass observation Recording mass behaviour, interview using independent observers in public places Mail questionnaire Identification of social and economic background of respondents Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, Personal interviewTURE NU LE METHODOLOGY 1 are interviewed simultanegusly Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for information and for discerning opinion; may also be used as a follow up of questionnaire Case study and life history Cross sectional collection of data for intensive analysis, longitudinal collection of data of intensive character Small group study ofrandom Use of audio-visual recording behaviour, play and role devices, use of observers, etc analysis Research Sample and Sampling Methods Sample in research is defined as a representative group of a study population. In many research studies, it is not possible to collect data from all the people or sources or respondents. For instance, if a researcher is interested in finding out the effect on milk consumption on the performance of school children in a country, it will not be possible to collect data from all the children of school age in that country. Hence a representative group will have to select for the study, that representative group is known as “sample”. The process of selecting a samile is known as “sample design() and a survey carried out on the basis of a sample is }aewtt & “sample survey“. The sampling method used depends largely on the nature and the aitg0f th study. Common examples of sampling methods are: Random sampling This is also known as probability sampling and members of the sample jae GhUSdHf without any bias provided they belong to the population. Random sampling can be Sifijilt I which all members of the population are given equal chance of getting into the sample of gomplex random sampling which combines a mixture of random and non random methods. Examples ef complex random sampling are: 2) Systematic random sampling: This selects every i" item of a population. For instange, the village heads or the first student in every class. b) Stratified sampling: here the population is first subdivided into smaller homogenous groups (strata) and members are then selected to represent each group in the sample. 4 c) Cluster sampling: Here the population is grouped into a non homogeneous group such ag e cluster. The cluster may be geographical. Then a cluster is selected and members are assumed to — f be representative of the whole population j , ; 'a ae auld for instance regions within a country, then ing: This involves selecting sampling LGAs are selected from the preselected stales and regions selected, next d r. “hon aelected from the selected LGAS to evaluate the effectiveness of a newly 1O0ls al school curriculum mpling: purposive sampling, the basis for choosing a member of the sample is set prior to the pling. This is particularly useful in cases where all the members of the population may not have the features required in the survey. For instance, a researcher interested in knowing problem ‘of cocoa farmers in Nigeria is likely to sample respondents from only cocoa growing states of Nigeria instead of the whole country. Importance of sampling a) Save time and money b) Ensure accurate measurement especially where the population is infinite or not well defined ©) Save resources in experiments where the materials may be damaged or destroyed 4) Estimate sampling error and hence accuracy of research findi Bey rite pl y 1 ate i ae Sampling Size ’ Whichever technique employed, it is important that the size of the sample be big enough represent the population so studied. Adequate sample size depends on the population, the nature of the study and the sample technique to be used. Primary data ° Primary data are largely collected by the following means (i) observation (ii) interview (iii) questionnaires, (iv) schedules (v) consumer panels and (e) mechanical devices. The observation is the commonest method of collecting data in social science research. However; for the data to be valid and reliable, the process has to be designed systematically planni fit the research purpose, adequately recorded and subjected to checks and controls. done accurately, observation method eliminates subjective biases. Interviews Usually involve collection of oral-verbal responses from ses (data) can be collected via personal or telep! y require face-to-face contact, Interviews mayOLOGY LECTURE NOTE j geseancl! METHO! srison between different sets of data difficult, Unstructured interviews [ eater skill on the part of the interviewer, They are used more go require Cee? formulatory studies while structured interviews are better used for descriptive Fee ey also be described as focussed, clinical or non-directive spility makes com i jeep Knowledge and It studi . seh ‘tinerviews pay attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects and Foc ea inly t0 develop hypotheses. Clinical interview is concerned discovering the used main ) ; or vations underlying an experience or effect. Nom-directive interview uses the barest minimum of direct questioning only to encourage the respondents 10 talk about the given Non-personal (Tele) interviews involve soliciting for information from remote respondents without significant contact between respondents and interviewer. It used the mean of mass communication such as telephone, mails, radio, etc. to collect for oral information (data). Generally, interviews help to generate bigger and in-depth data particularly where the interviewer possess the skills needed to overcome the resistance and bias, but it is usually very expensive particularly where the sample size is large and widely distributed. and write down shapers i Seo Se ares _ Its efficacy is limit literacy level of respondents a rate of return for response. For a questionnaire to be effective; it must be comparatively short and simple, the questions should proceed in logical sequence, free of technical terms and vague expressions, make provision for indications of uncertainty, .g., “do not know,” “no preference Questionnaires usually appear in two form, structured and unstructured, Structured questionnaires have definite, concrete and pr predetermined graded responses. When these are lacking, determined questions and often with is termed Unstructured questionnaire do not usually have definite, concrete and pre-determined questions and often with predetermined graded responses. In practice, most questionnaires contain a mixture of both and hence are termed mixed questionnaires, Secondary Data Secondary data refers to data that had been collected and analysed previously. They inelude data collected from journals, conference proceedings, periodicals, newspapers, government agencies, te. for secondary data to be useful, the source of the data must be reliable, suitable for the Purpose and adequate to justify the conelusion(s) derived. Selection of Appropriate Method \ In selection of, adequate method of data collection, the following factors should be considered; 6117 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY LE ‘Nature, scope and object of enquiry 2. Availability of funds 3. Time factor 4, Level of Precision required Research Hy pothesis uiypothesis refers f assumptions or some suppositions to be proved or disproved by the foPtch, [tis a formal question that he intends to resolve. A hypothesis may be defined as a proposition o & set of proposition set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts (Kothari and Karg, 2014) Characteristics of hypothesis 1. It must be clear and precise. 2. It should be capable of being tested. A hypothesis is from it which, in tum, can be cor ed in scope and must be specific. 5. It must be stated in simple terms and free of ambiguity 6. It must be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be cot of established facts. 7. be testable within reasonable time 8. Explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This means that by using the{plO 417 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY LECTURE NOTE The base procedure fr testing hypothesis as outlined by Kothari and Karg (2014) are, 1. Significance level: This is the tolerance level (usuall rejecting the null hypothesis. In case we take the significance level at 5 per cent, then this implies that HO will be rejected when the sampling result (ie., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring if HO is true 2. Parametric tests: These are tests which are used to test the hypothesis using the limit or level of significance previously set for the research or parameter. Most common and important parametric tests are: z-test, t-test; Chi-square test and F-test. These tests are based on the assumption that the data is normally distributed, * Z-test is generally used for comparing the mean of a sample to some known or hypothesised mean for the population, or when population variance is known, ‘The t-test is used for comparing means of two small samples when population | variance is not known, The chi-square (X"-test) is based on chi-square distribution and is used for comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance. F-test is based on F-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the two- ‘independent samples. I is also used in the analysis of variance (ANOVA) to Simultaneously judge forthe significance between more than two sample means and for testing the significance of multiple correlation coefficients, of an Academic Research Proposal @ The following are typical components of each component depends on the discipline ly in percentage) for accepting or academic research proposal, However, the choice of and level of study, Introduction/Background of the Study The researcher introduces the subject matter of the research, components of the topic and the build up to the identifies problem interest in the research area, particular circumstane giving a complete history of the background of the study, the information resulting the background, essential area should be stated; his es surrounding the problem, but without Particular subject matter involved. After giving the general the researcher carefully establishes the need for the study, telling why from the study is needed, Statement of the Problem There should be a clear state be set forth in brief but quit iment ofthe research problem, The statement of the problem should idea of the Problem which u « Crecifc terms so that even an uninformed reader may secure. an inderlies the rationale of the study. Objectives of the Study This entails listing of specifi outcomes; the researcher expects to fulfill in of the problem statement to list the objectives der to achieve the ', giving the reader either in order