TEST PREPARATION

Design is also a process that is used to systematically solve problems. The process of originating and
developing a plan for a new object

design process is a systematic problem-solving strategy, with criteria and constraints, used to
develop many possible solutions to solve or satisfy human needs or wants and to narrow down the
possible solutions to one final choice.

EXAMPLES OF DESIGN PROCESS

NASA’S MODEL

1. IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM→2.Identify Criteria and constraints→3.Brainstorm possible

solutions→4. Generate ideas →5.Explore possibilities →6.select an approach →7.Build a
model or prototype→8.Refine the design.
Another example of Design process
1.Identifying problems and opportunities 2.Framing a design brief 3.Investigation and
research 4.Generating alternative solutions 5.Choosing a solution 6.Developmental work
7.Modeling and prototyping 8.Testing and evaluating 9.Redesigning and improving
Another example of design process
1.Define a Problem 2. Brainstorm 3. Research and Generate Ideas 4. Identify Criteria and
Specify Constraints 5. Explore Possibilities 6. Select an Approach 7. Develop a Design
Proposal 8. Make a Model or Prototype 9. Test and Evaluate the Design using
Specifications 10. Refine the Design 11. Create or Make Solution 12. Communicate
Processes and Results

Explanation of each part

1Identify the Problem
◼ Understand the scope and the nature of the problem ◼ Identify the correct issues and
background of the problem ◼ Clearly define the problem
2Develop a Design Brief
Identify Criteria and Constraints ◼ What exactly should the equipment do in terms of
functionality? ◼ What should it not do? ◼ Draft the design brief
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Design levels

1.Adaptive design
The process in which the design parameters of existing machines are slightly modified and a new member is
formed without changing much of the existing structure but the efficiency of the model is improved. e.g.
various bicycle models, phone models, wristwatch models.
Eg. -Design of an improved formula1 racing car shock absorber in the semester project ----Mass production
of branded nose masks for UJ students to prevent the emergence of the predicted 3rd wave of the COVID-19
pandemic

• Developed design
The engineer imposes the working principle of one machine part on another machine part to produce a new
product which may have better working quality, shape, and performance. e.g. developing a motorcycle from
the working principle of an automobile internal combustion engine.
Eg. Development of autonomous fire fighting drones based on the design of helicopters
• New designs
A new design is likened to an invention that was never in existence. This is achieved by studying the scientific
principles of various theories, properties of various materials, characteristics of various objects and apply
these tin order to develop a new product. Such designs may be patented (IP).
Eg. The development of flying cars which is protected by Intellectual Property right

Standard, codes, regulations

A standard is defined as a criterion, rule, principle, or description considered by an authority, or by general
consent or usage and acceptance, as a basis for comparison or judgment or as an approved model. EG. ◼
ISO ◼ BS ◼ DIN ◼ TS

Standards categorization by source categorization by source

of development:
1. Governmental regulations and standards 2. Consensus standards 3. Technical society, trade association,
and industry standards 4. Company standards 5.
Standards of good engineering practice 6. Standards of consumer expectations
Standards categorization by function
Interchangeability standards 2. Performance standards 3. Construction standards 4.
Safety standards 5. Test-procedure or test-method standards

Ethics in engineering
◼ System of moral principles , Principles of right and wrong ◼ Principles of conduct governing behavior
of an individual or a group

How Ethics Fits into Engineering

◼ Build Products such as conveyor systems, elevators, bridges, automobile. ◼ Develop processes such
as desalination system to convert sea water to fresh water. If the bridge has an inadequate support, it
will fail. If the gas tank is positioned too close to the bumper, it might explode from a small accident.
If a medical instrument isn’t accurate, improper doses of medication can be given. If the process for
refining gas produces too much toxins, it harms the local community

Engineering ethics
.Decisions made by engineers usually have serious consequences to people -- often to multitudes of
people. ◼ Ethics and ethical reasoning guide decision-making.

Ethics in engineering (ECSA 2017)

Professional engineers are expected to follow defined standards in the following categories: ◼
Competency ◼ Integrity ◼ Public interest ◼ Environment ◼
Dignity of the profession
Typical Ethical Issues that Engineers Encounter
◼ Safety ◼ Acceptable risk ◼ Compliance ◼ Confidentiality ◼ Environmental health ◼ Data integrity ◼
Conflict of interest ◼ Honesty/Dishonesty ◼ Societal impact ◼ Fairness ◼ Accounting for uncertainty.

EXTRA ℹ
Engineers should follow their professional code of ethics because: A. The public will trust engineers
more if they know engineers have a code of ethics. B. It helps them avoid legal problems, such as
getting sued. C. It provides a clear definition of what the public has as right to expect from responsible
engineers. D. It raises the image of the profession and hence gets engineers more pay.

OHSA
The Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA) are supported by subordinate legislation, Regulations
and Codes of Practice, which give practical guidelines on how to manage health and safety issues.

Amended Occupational Health and Safety Act (No. 85 of 1993 ) ◼ To provide for the health and safety
of persons at work and for the health and safety of persons in connection with the use of plant and
machinery ◼ the protection of persons other than persons at work against hazards to health and safety
arising out of or in connection with the activities of persons at work ◼ to establish an advisory council
for occupational health and safety ◼ and to provide for matters connected therewith.

Systems engineering
Systems Engineering integrates all the disciplines and specialty groups into a team effort forming a
structured development process that proceeds from concept to production to operation. Systems
Engineering considers both the business and the technical needs of all customers with the goal of
providing a quality product that meets the user needs
• Systems Engineering is an interdisciplinary approach and means to enable the realization of successful
systems. • It focuses on defining customer needs and required functionality early in the development
cycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while
considering the complete problem.

SIMILAR
This process is usually comprised of the following seven tasks: State the problem, Investigate
alternatives, Model the system, Integrate, Launch the system, Assess performance, and Re-evaluate S
Factors influencing design
1. Strength & stiffness 2. Surface finishing and tolerance 3. Manufacturability 4. Ergonomics &
aesthetics 5. Working atmosphere 6. Wear & hardness
requirements 7. Cooling & lubrication 8. Safety & reliability 9. Noise requirement 10. Cost 11.
Manufacturability 12. Ergonomics & aesthetics 13. Working atmosphere 14. Wear & hardness
requirements 15. Cooling & lubrication

Material selection criteria

Selection of materials is influenced by service use conditions. The right material must be selected
to avoid failure before end of service life. Common mechanical properties are: Material selection
criteria
1. Strength: Ability to bear applied load without failing 2. Hardness: Ability to resist surface
abrasion 3. Toughness: Ability to resist shock load 4. Ductility: Allows to be drawn into thin
wires 5. Malleability: Ease to roll into thin sheets
 Materials
Metals & alloys ◼ Steel ◼ Iron ◼ Copper ◼ Magnesium Composites
Ceramics ◼ Refractory composites ◼ Glass Polymers ◼ Rubber ◼
Plastics

Common manufacturing processes

Shaping ,Joining ,Machining ,Non-conventional machining ,Heat treatment of the product,
Surface finishing
Common shaping processes
Casting ,Forging, Extruding, Rolling
Common machining processes
Turning ,Shaping ,Milling, Drilling
Common joining processes
Welding, Riveting, Brazing ,Screw Fastening
Common surface finishing processes
Grinding ,Honing ,Lapping, Electroplating ,Buffing
Non-conventional machining processes
Ultrasonic machining ,Laser beam machining ,Abrasive jet machining
Electrochemical machining Chemical machining
Communication of engineering design
The output of an engineering design consists of specifications for a product or a process.
Much of the output is in the form of drawings that convey instructions for the manufacturing
of components, the design considerations, considered calculations, the assembly of
components into machines, machine installations, and maintenance.

A design report documents the solution to a unique problem.

Keys and Keyways

A key is a piece of mild steel inserted in the axial direction between the shaft and hub or boss
of the pulley to connect these together in order to prevent relative motion between them but
allow sliding movement along the shaft if required.
It is always inserted parallel to the axis of the shaft
A keyway is a slot or recess (grove) cut out in a shaft and hub of the pulley to accommodate a
key. Keyways may be milled vertically, horizontally & sometimes recessed.
used as temporary fastenings and are subjected to considerable crushing and shearing
stresses because of the torque they transmit. Part of the element in machine drawing
(elements of an assembly drawings)
Engineers can choose from a wide range of shaft keys to transmit
torque in power-transmission systems Keys are
used as temporary fastenings and are subjected to considerable crushing and shearing
stresses because of the torque they transmit. Part of the element in machine drawing
(elements of an assembly drawings)
Engineers can choose from a wide range of shaft keys to transmit torque in power-
transmission systems

Bushing (bearing), a type of plain bearing. Bushing (electrical), an insulated device that allows
a conductor to pass through a grounded conducting barrier. Bushing (isolator), a mechanical
device used to reduce vibrations.
Square keys,
Square keys as the name suggests, have square cross sections. They are normally specified for
shafts with 0.25 to1.0-in. diameters but larger square keys are available for shafts up to 6.5-in.
diameter. Designers use them when they want greater key depth than is possible with
rectangular keys. The only difference between a rectangular sunk key and a square sunk key is
that its width and thickness are equal, i.e. w = t = d / 4
Rectangular keys, sometimes called flat keys, are general-purpose components for shafts
between 1.0 and 20-in. diameter. Their width exceeds the height, letting them transmit more
torque without adding slot depth to the shaft or keyway depth to the component. Shafts over
11-in. diameter that use rectangular keys are often milled flat along their length, instead of
machining a keyslot. The mounted component uses a standard broached keyway.
The usual proportions of this key are : Width of key, w = d / 4 ; and thickness of key, t = 2w / 3
= d / 6 where d = Diameter of the shaft or diameter of the hole in the hub. The key has taper 1
in 100 on the top side only.
Parallel keys are inexpensive, readily available, and easy to install. The keyslot in the shaft can
be cut with an end mill or circular saw. Once installed, a setscrew or other retainer must hold
the parallel key in the mounted component. Drives that vibrate or reverse directions often
loosen the screw. When that happens, the parallel key may walk itself out of the assembly.
Feather keys have several advantages compared to traditional keys: 1. The radius end of the
key funnels the key into the component keyway, simplifying assembly. And feather keys easily
insert into shafts. The radius helps align the key in the shaft slot.
2. Feather keys are totally contained. It doesn’t take a setscrew to hold the key in
position and feather keys cannot slide out of an assembly.
3. An installed feather key cannot move axially. This lets workers laterally adjust the
position of mounted components along the shaft. 4. Feather keys cannot fall out of the shaft
and damage nearby machinery. (Loose keys in working machinery are a major cause of
damage and injury.)
5. There is no possibility for a lost key and the related downtime.
6. Disassembly and reassembly with a feather key is hassle-free. 7. Feather keys are precut
to exact lengths. There is no need for cutting, measuring, filing, or fitting.
The only down side is that feather keys are not readily available in the U.S.
The feather key, though a simple mechanical part, can lower the cost of manufacturing and
assembly and possibly reduce warranty callbacks and customer downtime. For such a
mundane low-cost part, it has world-class benefits.
The woodruff key is an easily adjustable key. It is a piece from a cylindrical disc having
segmental cross-section in front view as shown. A woodruff key is capable of tilting in a recess
milled out in the shaft by a cutter having the same curvature as the disc from which the key is
made. This key is largely used in machine tool and automobile construction.
The main advantages of a woodruff key are as follows :
1. It accommodates itself to any taper in the hub or boss of the mating piece.
2. It is useful on tapering shaft ends. Its extra depth in the shaft *prevents any
tendency to turn over in its keyway.
The disadvantages are :
1. The depth of the keyway weakens the shaft.
2. It can not be used as a feather.
Woodruff keys are also relatively short and cannot carry the same load as longer keys. They
are used for light-duty applications and mounting taper-bored components onto tapered shaft
ends. They’re inappropriate for transmitting heavy torque, such as with wide-faced gears or
multigroove V-belt pulleys. Mounting two or more Woodruff keys in line to carry higher loads
is expensive and makes installation more problematic.
A flat saddle key is a taper key which fits in a keyway in the hub and is flat on the shaft as
shown. It is likely to slip round the shaft under load. Therefore, it is used for comparatively
light loads.
A hollow saddle key is a taper key which fits in a keyway in the hub and the bottom of the key
is shaped to fit the curved surface of the shaft. Since hollow saddle keys hold on by friction,
therefore these are suitable for light loads. It is usually used as a temporary fastening in fixing
and setting eccentrics, cams etc.
Sometimes, keys are made integral with the shaft which fits in the keyways broached in the
hub. Such shafts are known as splined shafts. These shafts usually have four, six, ten or
sixteen splines. The splined shafts are relatively stronger than shafts having a single keyway.
The splined shafts are used when the force to be transmitted is large in proportion to the size
of the shaft as in automobile transmission and sliding gear transmissions. By using splined
shafts, we obtain axial movement as well as positive drive is obtained. It is usually assumed
 that the strength of the keyed shaft is 75% of the solid shaft, which is somewhat higher than
the value obtained by the above relation.
In case the keyway is too long and the key is of sliding type, then the angle of twist is
increased in the ratio kθ as given by the following relation:
𝑤 ℎ kθ = 1 +
0.4 ( ) + 0.7 ( )
𝑑 𝑑 where kθ = Reduction factor for
angular twist QUESTIONS PAPER

QUESTION 2
Briefly discuss four (4) strategic roles of the engineering professional code of ethics as published by the Engineering Council of South
Africa (ECSA) under Act 46 of 2000, and how this is relevant to your electromechanical lifting device in question 1 above. Limit your
discussion to 150 words.
The most strategic role of ECSA as an engineering regulatory body is to ensure that professional engineers apply their knowledge and skills
in the interests of humanity and the environment. ECSA ensures professional conduct with integrity and sincerity. The code ensures
continuous improvement in engineers professional skills and those of their subordinates. It ensures respect of the interests of fellow
beings, and it plays a major role in ensuring the protection of the environment while engineering practice takes place. In line with the
group design project specified in Q1, the professional skills and excellence in line with professional development is being promoted by
ECSA. Furthermore, the safety aspect involving the protection of lives and environment as specified in the ECSA act will guide the choice of
materials and design concept adopted. The materials selected will be to design specification and substandard materials will not be used in
a bid to save cost. This is to ensure proper conduct and integrity of the profession as contained in the ECSA act. Award 8 marks for
specifying at least 4 of the ECSA acts 46 and award 4 marks for successfully linking the acts with Q1 as specified in the question. Award
maximum of only 1 mark for each answer poorly explained or having grammatical/typographical errors.
QUESTION 3
Many factors contribute to the design of an equipment. Briefly identify ten (10) selection criteria that will influence your design and the
choice of materials for the electromechanical lifting device in Question 1. (80 words maximum)
The narrative should include any four but not limited to the following: 1. Costs 2. Strength and stiffness, 3. surface finishing
and tolerance 4. environmental needs and application 5.customer need 6. thermal properties 7. assembly requirement 8.
ergonomics & aesthetics 9. wear and hardness requirements 10. safety and reliability 11. noise requirement 12.
Manufacturability 13. working atmosphere 14. working cycle/hours of continuous work 15. cooling and lubrication 16. Size
17. Desired Comfort and ergonomics Half mark (0.5 mks) should be issued per criteria identified.

Spring
To achieve excellent shock-absorbing springs in the 2021 formula-1 car contest, the springs must comply with spring
design standards. Select ALL correct characteristics from the options provided below (10 Mks)
Must have low modulus of elasticity (Correct option)
B. Must have low torsional resistance (Incorrect option)
C Must provide minimum energy storage for better elasticity (Incorrect option)
D. Must have a high ultimate strength to avoid failure (Correct option)
E. Must possess high stiffness (Correct option)

Springs
MDSMIA2 students are participating in the 2021 South Africa national formula 1 racing car design contest. Each group is expected to
design spring for an ergonomically friendly driver seat. Assuming a high carbon steel material is to be adopted, and the maximum
allowable load on the seat that results in a deflection of 14 mm is 500 N. Design the spring that has a spring index of 8 and spring mean
diameter (Dm) exceeding 39mm but less than 41 mm (39mm < Dm < 41mm). Consider the end conditions shown in Fig 1. [25 Mks]