QUANTUM PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

22PH4101

STUDENT ID:

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2024 - 25

STUDENT NAME:
Table of Contents
1. Session 01: Introductory Session

2. Session 02: Calculate the lattice constant of a given cubic material using the
Powder XRD method. ............................................................................................ 01

3. Session 03: To determine the wavelength of a semiconductor laser using a

grating. 09

4. Session 04: To determine the particle size of lycopodium powder using laser
diffraction ............................................................................................................. 16

5. Session 05: Determine the Planck’s constant using a Planck's constant

apparatus.. ............................................................................................................ 25

6. Session 06: Demonstrate the laws of photoelectric effect (virtually .................... 36

7. Session 07: Determine the numerical aperture of an optical fiber using a

Numerical Aperture kit ........................................................................................ 46

8. Session 08: To study the absorption properties of a given glass material .......... 55

9. Session 09: Study the photoluminescence studies on a given material ............... 66

10. Session 10: Determination of the bandgap of the semiconductor ....................... 77

11. Session 11: Illustrate the dual nature of matter using Davison and Germer’s
experiment (virtual lab). ....................................................................................... 85
A.Y. 2024-25 LAB/SKILL CONTINUOUS EVALUATION

S. No Date Experiment Name Pre- In-Lab (25M) Post- Viva Total Faculty
Lab Program / Data Analysis Lab Voce (50M) Signature
(10M) Procedure and & (10M) (5M)

(5M) Results Inference

(10M) (10M)
1. Introductory Session
2. Calculate the lattice constant of a given
cubic material using the Powder XRD
method.
3. To determine the wavelength of a
semiconductor laser using a grating.
4. To determine the particle size of
lycopodium powder using laser
diffraction
5. Determine the Planck’s constant using a
Planck's constant apparatus.
6. Demonstrate the laws of photoelectric
effect (virtually).
7. Determine the numerical aperture of an
optical fiber using a Numerical Aperture
kit
8. To study the absorption properties of a
given glass material
9. Study the photoluminescence studies on a
given material
Determination of the bandgap of the
10. semiconductor
11. Illustrate the dual nature of matter using
Davison and Germer’s experiment
(virtual lab).
 Experiment No Student ID
Date Student Name

Experiment Title: Calculate the lattice constant of a given cubic material using
the Powder XRD method.

Aim/Objective: To determine the lattice constant ‘a’ of the given cubic crystal using powder
X-ray diffraction film patterns.

Description:

This Section must contain detailed information pertaining to the Aim/Objective of the
Laboratory Session

Pre-Requisites:

Crystal Structure, Bragg‟s Law, Miller Indices, XRD,

Pre-Lab:

1. State crystal structure?

2. List out various types of lattice parameters for identifying crystal structure?
3. Discuss significance of Miller Indices?
4. List out the factors effecting crystal structure?
5. Discuss the importance of lattice parameters in identifying the crystal structure.
6. Explain the types of unit cells
7. State lattice and basis.
8. Sketch the structures of SC,BCC and FCC
9. List out the examples of SC,BCC and FCC
10. Explain the significance of Crystal Grating.

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In-Lab:

APPARATUS: Powder XRD film strip, Hull-Debye chart, scale

DIAGRAM:

FORMULA:

Let the distance between the two symmetric arcs around the exit hole corresponding to any
particular crystal plane having miller indices (hkl) as measured from the stretched powder
XRD film strip pattern be Sand Rbe the inner radius of the Debye-Scherrer camera (SeeFig. 1
(a-c). R value can either be collected from the data sheet provided by the manufacturer of the
camera or be calculated from the distance between the centres of entrance hole and exit hole
on the stretched film strip = πR).

 Then the Bragg angle θ for that particular crystal plane can be calculated from the
equation

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𝑆 180
𝜃= × (1)
4𝑅 𝜋

If n is the order of diffraction, d is the inter-planar distance for the particular set of Bragg‟s
planes represented by the Miller Indices (hkl), and λ is the wavelength of incident
monochromatic X-rays; then according to Bragg‟s law,

𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Or
𝑛𝜆
𝑑= (in Ǻ) (2)
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Using these inter-planar spacing d, and Miller Indices (hkl) values for different sets of
Bragg‟s planes, the lattice constant a of the given cubic structured material can be
calculated using the formula
𝑎 = 𝑑 √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2

Or
𝑛𝜆
𝑎 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2 (in Ǻ) (3)

PROCEDURE:
1. Place the Powder XRD film strip on the flat surface of the Comparator or Travelling
Microscope and measure the distances S between different sets of symmetric arcs
corresponding to different sets of Bragg‟s planes as shown in Fig.1(c).
2. Tabulate the values and calculate the diffraction angles θ for different sets of Bragg‟s
planes using eq. (1).
3. Substitute the θ values in eq. (2) and calculate the inter-planar spacing d for different
sets of Bragg‟s Planes.
4. Obtain the Miller Indices (hkl) of the Bragg‟s planes either from the Hull-Debye chart
or from the standard XRD pattern so of the specified samples or from any other standard
calculation methods.
5. Substitute these d and (hkl) values in eq.(3)and calculate the lattice constant a.
6. Calculate the average value of lattice constant a of the given cubic structured crystalline
solid material.

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Data and Results:

OBSERVATIONS:

Radius of the Debye-Scherrer Camera, R= cm

Wavelength of incident X-rays, λ = 1. 542 Å (for Cu-Kα

Radiation) Diffraction Order n = 1

Table1. Copper (Cu) [FCC]

Distance Lattice
between the Inter-planar Constant
Bragg’s angle Miller
S. two 𝑆 180 separation 𝑎 = 𝑑 √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
𝑛𝜆
Indices
No. symmetric 𝜃= ×
4𝑅 𝜋 𝑑= (hkl)
arcs 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (Å)
(degrees)
S (cm)  (Å)

Average lattice parameter= Å.

Table 2. Tungsten (W) [BCC]

Lattice
Distance Constant
between the Inter-planar
Bragg’s angle Miller 𝑎 = 𝑑 √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
S. two separation
(degrees) Indices
No. symmetric 𝑛𝜆
𝑆 180 𝑑= (hkl) (Å)
arcs 𝜃= × 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
S (cm) 4𝑅 𝜋
(degrees) (Å)
 

Average lattice parameter = Å.

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Supplementary Procedure to obtain the (hkl) Values from the Hull-Debye Chart: (for
information/ demonstration purpose only, and not for presenting in the examination).

1. Standard Hull - Debye chart for a particular crystal system represents Lattice Constant
a versus inter-planar spacing d graphs for several possible orientations of Bragg‟s
planes represented by different Miller indices (hkl).
2. Take a rectangular strip of graph sheet and mark your inter-planar spacing d values as
vertical lines on the graph strip along the one-dimensional X-axis by taking the scale
assameas the scale on theX-axis of the Standard Hull-Debye Chart provided to you.
3. Move the graph strip along the Y-axis direction until as maximum number of your
obtained d- values as possible exactly coincide with different graphs on the charts
imultaneously at a particular value of a on Y-axis as shown in Fig. 2.
4. Identify the related (hkl) values and tabulate them for the corresponding d-values.

Fig.2. Determination of (hkl) values from the known d values from the Hull-Debye chart

Analysis and Inferences:

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. While taking reading, move the comparator or travelling microscope in only one direction
(either towards right side or towards left side).

2. Take readings without parallax error.

RESULT:
Using the Powder XRD Film pattern, the Lattice Constant of the given cubic crystalline
material is determined as a = Å for Cu [a standard =3.61Å] and

= Å for W [a standard =3.16Å].

VIVAQUESTIONS:

1. State the principle behind the X-Ray Crystallography?

2. List out the uses of XRD?
3. Explain significance of Bragg’s Law?
4. How are X-rays produced?
5. State inter planar spacing.
6. Mention some of the crystal planes
7. Discuss the role of crystal planes in diffraction pattern.
8. State inter planar Spacing.
9. Explain the miller indices significance
10. State the difference between Bragg’s angle and Diffraction Angle.

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Post-Lab:

The determination of crystalline planes for given cubic materials.

 Procedure/Program:

This Section is meant for the student to write the program/Procedure for Experiment

(Leave at least 2-3Pagesfor each Procedure/ Program/Solution)

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 Data and Results:

This Section is meant for the students to collect, record the results generated during the
Program/Experiment execution. Include instructions on how to present the results, such as
creating tables, graphs, or visualizations.
(Leave at least1 Page for recording the results)

Evaluator Remark (if Any):

Marks Secured: out of 50

Signature of the Evaluator with Date

Evaluator MUST ask Viva-voce prior to signing and posting marks for each experiment.

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Experiment Title: Determination of wavelength of semiconductor Laser by using a

Grating
Aim/Objective: To determine the wavelength of laser beam using diffraction.

Apparatus: LASER light, Diffraction grating, White screen, power supply, scale.

Description:

Sin 
FORMULA: Wavelength (  ) =
nN

Where ‘  ‘ is the angle of diffraction.

l 180
 = x
r 

‘n’is the order of the spectrum

‘N’ is the number of lines per cm of the grating.

‘l’ is the distance of nth principal maxima from the central maxima. r is the distance of the screen from
the grating.

Pre-Requisites: Diode laser, transmission grating, screen, meter scale.

Pre-Lab:
1. mention the main objective of the experiment to determine the wavelength of a laser using a
grating?
2. Explain the principle of diffraction and how diffraction grating disperses light into its component
wavelengths?
3. Describe the experimental setup to measure the diffraction pattern produced by the grating.
4. Mention the type of laser source is required for the experiment and why is it important for the laser
to emit the single wavelength?
5. Explain the why it is necessary to conduct the experiment in a dark room or an environment with
minimal ambient light?

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In-Lab:
 Procedure/Program:

Mount the grating on the stand. Illuminate the grating with laser beam. The beam on the grating
produces several spots due to diffraction. The bright spot is central maximum. The other spots on both
sides of central maximum are principal maxima. Measure the distance (l) of the nth principal maxima
from the central maxima. And also measure the distance (r ) of screen from the grating. Note the
number of lines per cm given on the grating plate. Calculate wavelength using the formula given
below.
Sin 
Wavelength (  ) =
nN
(Leave at least 2-3 Pages to record the Procedure/Program)
 Data and Results:
 Tabular column:

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 Analysis and Inferences:

The wavelength of the laser is obtained as ……………….. Ǻ.

VIVA-VOCE Questions (In-Lab):

1. Mention the Abbreviation of LASER
2. State grating and how it is giving the diffraction pattern?
3. Mention the condition to get the diffraction phenomenon.
4. Explain the diffraction pattern formed on the screen and what information can be obtained from
the pattern?
5. List the practical applications of this experiment?
6. Mention the material with which the number of lines drawn on grating plate.
7. State wavelength.
8. Mention the units of wavelength of light.
9. Discuss how the diffraction play an important role in the determination of structure of materials.
10. Discuss the effect if the distance between the screen and grating changes.

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Post-Lab: Determine the wavelength of various colors of Laser using diffraction grating.
 Procedure/Program:
1. Briefly overview of the experiment objective which is to determine the wavelength of a laser using
a grating.
2. Provide a step-by-step description of the experimental procedure followed during the experiment.

(Leave at least 2-3 Pages for each Procedure/ Program/ Solution)

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 Data and Results:

1. Present the raw data obtained during the experiment such as measurements taken from the
diffraction pattern.
2. Include the measurements of the grating spacing and any calibration data, if applicable.

(Leave at least 1 Page for recording the results)

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 Analysis and Inferences:

1. Explain how you analyzed the data to determine the wavelength of the laser.
2. Discuss the uncertainty associated with the measured wavelength, including any sources of error.

(Leave at least 1 Page for recording the analysis and inferences)

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Evaluator Remark (if Any):

Marks Secured: _____out of 50

Signature of the Evaluator with Date

Note: Evaluator MUST ask Viva-voce prior to signing and posting marks for each experiment.

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Experiment Title: PARTICLE SIZE BY LASER DIFFRACTION

Aim/Objective: To determine particle size of lycopodium powder by LASER diffraction.

Description:

This Section must contain detailed information pertaining to the Aim/Objective of the
Laboratory Session

Pre-Requisites:

Understanding of Particle size analysis methods, Sample characteristics, Particle description,

Sample Size

Pre-Lab:

1. State the principle behind particle size analysis using laser diffraction?
2. Write the meaning of LASER
3. Discuss the advantages of using laser diffraction over particle size analysis
techniques?
4. Can laser diffraction be used for both dry and wet samples.
5. State diffraction.
6. Discuss the types of diffraction.
7. List out the types of LASER
8. Mention the units for Wavelength

In-Lab:

APPARATUS: Diode LASER, Glass plate containing finely copodium powder, Screen,
Scale

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DIAGRAM:

FORMULA:
Particle size (𝒅) = (𝒏𝝀𝑫)/𝒓 𝝁𝒎

where,

 is the wavelength of laser light (6900Å)

D is the distance between glass plate and screen (cm)
r is the distance between central maximum and nth order bright fringe(cm)
n is the order of the fringe.
PROCEDURE:

 A plane glass plate with the lycopodium powder of particle size in the range of micro
meter sprayed over it is taken.
 The powders prayed glass plate is kept in between the LASER source and the screen
(wall in our case).
 The LASER beam is allowed to fall on the glass plate, then the LASER beam gets
diffracted by the particles present on the glass plate.
 A good diffraction pattern(rings) on the screen should be obtained by adjusting the
distance between the glass plate and the screen.
 Measure the distance between the glass plate and the screen(D) only after obtaining
good diffraction pattern on the screen.
 Then, measure the distance between the central maximum and several ordered
(n=1,2,3) bright fringes (r).
 Substitute the values in the given formula and find the size of the particle of the given
powder using the given formula.
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 Then, change the distance between the glass plate and the screen (D) and repeat the a
fore mentioned procedure to tabulate the values.
 Find the average particle size in cm and convert it into micrometer (m).
 Finally, write the result.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. LASER source, lens, glass plate and screen should be recti linear at the same height.
2. The LASER light should not be seen directly.
3. Diffraction fringes should be clear.
4. Measurements should be taken without parallax error.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Distance between the Distance between central Particle size

glass plate and the Order maximum and nth order
S. No. (𝒅) = (𝒏𝝀𝑫)/𝒓 (Å)
screen (D) (cm) (n) bright fringe (r) (cm)

1
2

2
2

3 2

4
2

Average size of the particle (d) = Å

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RESULT:

The average particle size of the lycopodium powder (d) is determined to be μm

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VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Discuss the principle behind particle size analysis by laser diffraction?

2. Mention the safety precautions should be taken when conducting a laser
diffraction experiment?
3. Discuss the role of lycopodium powder in getting diffraction?
4. Mention the effect in diffraction pattern observed if the distance between screen
and glass plate increased.
5. For higher distances, the diffraction rings diameter increases or decreases.
6. Mention the number of orders of diffraction pattern observed during the
experiment.
7. Mention the color of the LASER used in the experiment and its wave length.
8. Do diffracted waves interfere with each other?
9. List out the characteristics of LASER.
10. State the interference phenomenon.

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Post-Lab:

Determine the Particle Size of a given powder using various colours of Laser.

 Procedure/Program:

This Section is meant for the student to write the program/Procedure for Experiment

(Leave at least 2-3Pagesfor each Procedure/ Program/Solution)

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 Data and Results:

This Section is meant for the students to collect, record the results generated during the
Program/Experiment execution. Include instructions on how to present the results, such as
creating tables, graphs, or visualizations.

(Leave at least1 Page for recording the results)

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 Analysis and Inferences:

This Section is meant for the students to analyse the data, perform calculations Include
questions or prompts to encourage critical thinking and interpretation of the data.

(Leave at least 1Page for recording the analysis and inferences)

Evaluator Remark (if Any):

Marks Secured: out of 50

Signature of the Evaluator with Date

Evaluator MUST ask Viva-voce prior to signing and posting marks for each experiment.

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Experiment Title: Determination of Planck’s constant

Aim: To determine the value of Plancks constant “h”.

Apparatus: Planck’s constant study kit, light source, wavelength filters, connecting wires.
Description:
Diagram:

Theory: From Einstein theory of Photo-electric effect

ℎ𝜈 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑤0 ……………………….(1)
where, hν is the energy of incident light photon.
½ mV2 is kinetic energy gained by electrons.
w0 is the work function
If v0 is the threshold frequency, then work function wo = hv0. If V0 is stopping potential, then

½ mV2 = eV0 ……………………….(2)

Where ‘e’ is the charge of electron, from equations 1 and 2

hv = hv0 + eV0

eV0 = hv – hv0

Vo = (h/e)v – (h/e)v0………………….(3)

The above equation can be compared with a straight line Y = mx + c ……………….(4)

Pre-Requisites:
Theory knowledge on Plank’s constant, Photoelectric effect, Monochromatic light source

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Pre-Lab Questions:
1. Explain the Planck’s constant and its importance

2. Describe the photoelectric effect

3. List out the essential components of experimental setup required for the determining Planck’s
constant.

4. How do you measure the stopping potential in the photoelectric effect setup?

5. Explain how the frequency of incident light affects the kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons?

6. Discuss the role of photo metal in getting current.

7. Mention the nature of light

8. Mention the properties of light which will be explained on the basis of particle nature of light

9. List out the laws of photoelectric effect laws.

10. Mention the units of Planck’s constant.

(Leave Space between each question for the write up)

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IN-LAB:
Model Graph:

A graph is drawn by taking frequency values on x-axis and stopping potential value on y-axis. As
shown in the graph, a straight line not passing through origin will come. Then equate the slope of
the above straight line with (h/e) value of the equation 3.
V0 = (h/e)V – (h/e)V0
h/e = Tan θ,
h = e Tan θ……………….. (5)
From equation (5), Planck’s constant can be calculated.
 Procedure: The connections are made as per the circuit diagram. Light of fixed wavelength (red light)
is made to fall photocell by placing the red filter in the path of light. The potentiometer is varied until
the photo current becomes zero and the value of stopping potential is noted.
Following the same procedure, for different filters (orange and yellow) the stopping potential values are
noted.

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(Leave at least 2-3 Pages to record the Procedure/Program)

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 Data and Results:

FOR HIGH INTENSITY:

Wavelength Stopping
S. No Filter Frequency (Hz)
(Å) Potential (V0)

1 R 6907 4.35 x 1014

2 O 6234 4.81 x 1014
3 Y 5790 5.18 x 1014
4 G 5500 5.89 x 1014
5 B 4602 6.52 x 1014

(Leave at least 1 Page to record the results)

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CALCULATIONS:

 Analysis and Inferences:

Result: The value of planck's constant, h = …………………j-sec.

(Leave at least 1 Page for each Program)

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Sample VIVA-VOCE Questions (In-Lab):

1. Mention Planck’s constant, and explain its significance?

2. Explain the photoelectric effect in simple terms.

3. How the photoelectric effect used to determine Planck’s constant.

4. Why it is important to repeat the experiment with different light intensities?

5. State the objective of the experiment, which is to determine Planck’s constant using the
photoelectric effect.

6. Briefly outline the step by step procedure followed during the experiment.

7. Discuss the conditions for conducting photoelectric effect experiment.

8. State the meaning of photo electrons

9. List out the characteristics of photoelectrons

10. Describe the experimental apparatus and setup used in the experiment, including the light source.

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POST-LAB: Verify the photo-electric effect (h value) at different intensities and compare in single
graph
 Procedure/Program:

(Leave at least 2-3 Pages for each Procedure/ Program/ Solution)

FOR MEDIUM INTENSITY:

Wavelength Stopping
S. No Filter Frequency (Hz)
(Å) Potential (V0)

1 R 6907 4.35 x 1014

2 O 6234 4.81 x 1014
3 Y 5790 5.18 x 1014
4 G 5500 5.89 x 1014
5 B 4602 6.52 x 1014

FOR LOW INTENSITY:

Wavelength Stopping
S. No Filter Frequency (Hz)
(Å) Potential (V0)
1 R 6907 4.35 x 1014
2 O 6234 4.81 x 1014
3 Y 5790 5.18 x 1014
4 G 5500 5.89 x 1014
5 B 4602 6.52 x 1014

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 Data and Results:

1. Detail any equations or formulas used in the analysis.
2. Explain any graphs or plots used to represent the experimental results.

(Leave at least 1 Page for recording the results)

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 Analysis and Inferences:

1. Explain how the data was analysed to determine Planck’s constant.
2. Discuss any variations in the data and potential sources of error.

(Leave at least 1 Page for recording the analysis and inferences)

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Evaluator Remark (if Any):

Marks Secured: _____out of 50

Signature of the Evaluator with Date

Note: Evaluator MUST ask Viva-Voce prior to signing and posting marks for each experiment.

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Experiment Title: Verification of Laws of Photoelectric Effect

Aim: To verification of Laws of Photoelectric Effect

Apparatus: Photocell, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Source of light, Connecting wires, filters.

Diagram:

Theory:

Laws of Photoelectric Effect

1st law: For a given metal and freq. of incident radiation the no. of photoelectrons ejected per sec.
is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.

2nd law: For a given metal there exists a certain minimum freq. of incident radiation below which
no emission of photoelectrons takes place. This frequency is called threshold frequency.

3rd law: Above the threshold, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron is
independent ofthe intensity of the incident light but depends only upon the frequency of the incident
light.

4th law: The photoelectric emission is instantaneous.

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Explanation of laws:

Einstein Photoelectric equation

ℎ𝜈=1/2𝑚𝑣2+𝑤0

1st law: Since one incident photon ejects one photoelectron from a metal surface, the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second depends upon the number of photons falling on the metal surface
per second, which in turn depends on the intensity of incident light. If the intensity of light is increased,
the number of incident photons increases, which results in an increase in the number of photoelectrons
ejected. This is the first law of photoelectric emission.

2nd law: Einstein Photoelectric equation

ℎ𝜈=1/2𝑚v2+𝜈0

where ℎ𝜈 is the energy of the incident light photon. 1/2𝑚v2 is kinetic energy gained by electrons. 𝜈0
is the work function.
1/ 𝑚v2= ℎ𝜈-ℎ𝜈0
2
Kmax= ℎ(𝜈-𝜈0)

We see that if 𝜈<𝜈0, maximum kinetic energy is negative, which is impossible; hence, photoelectric
emission does not take place for the incident radiation below a threshold frequency. This is the second
law of the photoelectric equation.

3rd law: We see that if ʋ> ʋ0, maximum kinetic energy is directly proportional to the incident frequency
of incident light. If the intensity of incident light radiation is increased, the no. of incident photons
falling per second on the metal surface increases, but the energy of each photon remains the same.
This is the third law of photoelectric emission.

4th law: Phenomenon is instantaneous.

Experimental Verification:

1. One photon emits one electron. This can be verified

a) by showing the dependence of photoelectric current on the intensity of light, more photons are
generated; hence, more will be the current, which shows more emission of electrons.

b) by showing the independence of photoelectric current of the frequency of light. When we change
the frequency of the given light source we are increasing the energy of photons, but there is no
change in the photocurrent, which shows that increasing energy does not increase the no. of

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c) electrons. Hence photocurrent does not depend on frequency.

2. Kinetic energy of photoelectron is given by

Kmax= ℎ(𝜈-𝜈0)
a) This can be verified by showing dependence of stopping potential on the frequency of light. With
increasing the energy of the given source, value of stopping potential also increases.

b) by showing independence of stopping potential with intensity of light. But when we change the no.
of photons , i.e. changing the intensity , there is no change in the stopping potential. It shows it does
not depend on intensity of light source.

Pre-Requisites:

Plank’s constant, photoelectric effect, Monochromatic light source

Pre-Lab:

1. Explain the Planck’s constant and its importance

2. Describe the photoelectric effect
3. List out the essential components of the experimental setup required for determining
Planck’s constant.
4. How do you measure the stopping potential in the photoelectric effect setup?
5. Can you explain how the frequency of incident light affects the kinetic energy of
emitted photoelectrons?
6. Discuss the role of photo-metal in getting current.
7. Mention the natural light
8. Mention the properties of light which will be explained on the basis of particle nature
of light
9. List out the laws of photoelectric effect laws.
10. Mention the units of Planck’s constant.

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In-Lab:

Model Graph:

Procedure: Photoelectric current is dependent on intensity.

1. Make a connection of the photocell as shown in Figure 1.

2. Switch on the lamp and bring it near the photocell in very small steps and note down the
position of the lamp and corresponding deflections in the microammeter.
3. Now increase the distance between the photocell and the lamp in very small steps and go on
notingthe corresponding deflections.
4. Tabulate the various readings and plot the curve between 1 and2 deflection θ.
𝑑
5. As intensity of light varies inversely proportional to d2. The graph of ammeter deflection vs
1/d2 shown below gives a variation of photoelectric current with intensity.

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Observations:

S. No Distance Deflection 1
PL=d θ 𝑑2

Procedure: Photocurrent is independent of frequency.

1) Make the connection as shown in the figure.

2) Keeping the distance fixed, we need to change the frequency of a source of light by changing the
filters of the source.
3) Note the reading of the photocurrent in the microammeter corresponding to each filter.

Observation:

S.no. filters Ammeter reading

1 Red
2 Green
3 Yellow
4 blue

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Procedure: Stopping potential is dependent on the frequency of light.

1. Make the connection as shown in the figure.

2. Keep distance between source of light and photocell fixed.
3. By changing the filter, note the reading of stopping potential where current becomes zero.
4. Repeat the process for different filters.

Observation:

S. No. Filters Voltmeter reading

Procedure: Stopping potential is independent of intensity of light.

1) Make the connection as shown in the figure.

2) Now place the photocell and source of light at some distance keeping the frequency of
light source constant.
3) Note the reading of voltmeter.
4) Now repeat the steps varying the distance between light source and photocell. Say 10, 20, 30,
40cm and note the corresponding reading of voltmeter.

Observation:

S .no Distance d cm Voltmeter reading

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Precautions:
1. The source should be very intense.
2. Experiment should be performed in a dark room.
3. The distance between source and cell should be constant for one set of reading.
4. The whole surface of the cathode should be exposed to the incident light.
5. The initial distance should be adjusted so as to get good deflection on the scale.

Sample VIVA-VOCE Questions (In-Lab):

1. Mention Planck’s constant and explain its significance.

2. Explain the photoelectric effect in simple terms.
3. How the photoelectric effect is used to determine Planck’s constant.
4. Why is it important to repeat the experiment with different light intensities?
5. Stat the objective of the experiment, which determines the probability of using the
electromagnetic effect.
6. Briefly outline the step-by-step procedure followed during the experiment.
7. Discuss the conditions for conducting a photoelectric effect experiment.
8. State photoelectrons.
9. List out the characteristics of photoelectrons.
10. Describe the experimental apparatus and setup used in the experiment, including the
light source.

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Post-Lab: Verify the photo-electric effect laws

 Procedure/Program:

(Leave at least2-3 Pages for each Procedure/Program/Solution)

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 Data and Results:

1. Detail equations or formulas used in the analysis.
2. Explain any graphs or plots used to represent the experimental results.

(Leaveatleast1 Page for recording the results)

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 Analysis and Inferences:

1. Explain how the data was analyzed to determine Planck’s constant.
2. Discuss any variations in the data and potential sources of error.

(Leave at least 1 Page for recording the analysis and inferences)

(Leave at least1 Page for recording the results)

Evaluator Remark (if Any):

Marks Secured: out of 50

Signature of the Evaluator with Date

Evaluator MUST ask Viva-voce prior to signing and posting marks for each experiment.

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Experiment Title: Determination of Acceptance angle and Numerical Aperture of

an optical fiber.

Aim/Objective: To determine the Acceptance angle and Numerical Aperture of the given (PMMA)
plastic optical fiber cable.
Apparatus: LASER light, Optical fiber, Stand attached with the scale, White screen,
Description:
Diagram:

Formula:
𝑊
𝑁. 𝐴 =
(4𝐿2 + 𝑊 2 )1/2
Where W is the diameter of the light patch on the screen and L distance of the screen from the fiber end.
Theory:
The numerical aperture of an optical system is a measure of the light collected by an optical
system. It is product of the refractive index ‘n1’ of the incident medium and the sine of the maximum ray
angle ‘θmax’.
Numerical aperture (N.A) = n1Sinθmax ……………. (1)
For air n1 = 1
So, N.A. = Sin θmax ………………. (2)

For a step index fiber, N.A is given by:

N.A = (n2core – n2clad)1/2 ………………. (3)
Suppose light from the fiber end ‘A’ falls on the screen XY. Let the diameter of the light falling on the
screen BD = W and let the distance between the fiber end and the screen A0 = L.
𝑊
Therefore 𝑁. 𝐴 = (4𝐿2 + 𝑊 2 )1/2
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Knowing W and L, the N.A can be calculated and substituted this N.A value in equation (2), the
acceptance angle ‘θmax’ can be calculated.

Pre-Requisites: Optical fiber cable, stand, scale

Pre-Lab:
1. Explain the structure of optical fiber
2. Outline the principle of total internal reflection
3. Mention the main objective of the experiment to determine the acceptance angle and numerical
aperture of a fiber optic cable?
4. Explain the concept of numerical aperture?
5. Describe the experimental setup used in the experiment, including the fiber optic cable, light
source and measurement apparatus.
6. List out the key parameters to measure in the experiment and how are they related to the numerical
aperture?

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In-Lab:
This Section must contain at least 2 Programs/Experiments that links the lecture to be performed during
the laboratory Session.
 Procedure/Program:
 Numerical Aperture measurement schematic diagram is as shown. The measurement of Numerical
Aperture step by step procedure is as follows:
 Step 1:
Connect one end of the cable of to PO and another end to the N.A (i.e. launching O/P of LED
into OF cable).
 Step 2:
Connect power adapter into socket Vin plug the A.C mains. Red light should be appearing at the
end of the fiber on the N.A. To set maximum output turn the SET PO/ it knob clockwise. The
red light intensity should increase.
 Step 3:
Hold the acrylic white screen printed scale at a distance of 10mm 9L from the emitting fiber and
you will view the red spot on the screen to measure the diameter W of the spot.
Substitute the measured values (L) and (W) in N.A formula
𝑊
𝑁. 𝐴 = Sin max =
(4𝐿2 + 𝑊 2 )1/2
Repeat the experiment for the distance of 15 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm and 30 mm and note the readings in the
below table

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 Data and Results:

Sr. No L(mm) W (mm) N.A Max (degrees)

(Leave at least 1 Page to record the results)

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 Analysis and Inferences:

The numerical aperture of given optical fiber is

(Leave at least 1 Page for each Program)

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VIVA-VOCE Questions (In-Lab):

1. Define the numerical aperture?
2. Outline the critical angle.
3. Mention the role of critical angle.
4. Discuss the importance of critical angle in guiding the light.
5. List the applications of optical fiber
6. Mention why we need to find the Numerical Aperture of an optical fiber.
7. List the types of optical fiber
8. State optical sensors.
9. Mention the type of light used in optical fibers.
10. Discuss the role of rarer and denser media in obtaining the internal reflection phenomenon.

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Post-Lab: Determination of Acceptance angle of an optical fiber.

 Procedure/Program:
1. Explain an brief overview of the experiment objective which is to determine the acceptance angle
and numerical aperture of a fiber optic cable.
2. Explain the importance of measuring these parameters in understanding the fiber optic cable’s
light-coupling efficiency.
3. Explain how the light source emits stable and monochromatic light for accurate measurements.

(Leave at least 2-3 Pages for each Procedure/ Program/ Solution)

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 Data and Results:

(Leave at least 1 Page for recording the results)

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 Analysis and Inferences:

1. Explain how you analyzed the data to determine the acceptance angle and calculate the numerical
aperture of the fiber optic cable.
2. Explain the calculations or formulas used to extract the parameters from the experimental
measurements.

(Leave at least 1 Page for recording the analysis and inferences)

Evaluator Remark (if Any):

Marks Secured: _____out of 50

Signature of the Evaluator with Date

Note: Evaluator MUST ask Viva-voce prior to signing and posting marks for each experiment.

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Experiment Title: Measurement of optical bandgap of given material using UV-vis

spectroscopy

Aim/Objective: To measure the optical bandgap of given material using UV-vis spectroscopy.

Apparatus required
Spectrophotometer, Light Source, Monochromatic or Diffraction Grating, Sample Holder,
Detector, Computer or Data Acquisition System, Calibration Standards, Cleaning Supplies.

Formula:
Introduction to UV-Vis spectroscopy
In ultraviolet-visible light (UV-vis) spectroscopic, light absorption is measured as a function of
wavelength. The spectrum provides information about electronic transitions occurring in the material. The
Beer-Lambert law states that the Transmittance, i.e., the light transmitted (IT) over the incident intensity
(I0), is dependent on the path length of the light through the sample (l), the absorption cross section (s) of
the sample’s transition, and the difference in the population of the initial state (Nl) and final state
(N2),Equation

This if often termed as Beer-Lambert’s law

Measurement of Absorbance:
From the data to calculate the absorbance (A) of given material at different wavelengths using the
derivation of Beer-Lambert law (formula):

here A, is the absorbance, e is the molar absorptivity coefficient of the material, c is theconcentration of the
absorbing species, and l is the path length of the light through thesample.
The absorbance A can be normalized to the path length l of the light through thematerial (e.g., the thickness
of a film), producing the absorption coefficient a1

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Description:
The main objective of studying the absorption properties and to measure the optical bandgap of a
given material is to understand how the material interacts with electromagnetic radiation, specifically how
it absorbs light across a range of wavelengths. This involves measuring the absorption spectrum of the
glass, which can provide insights into its physical and chemical properties, including its composition,
purity, and the presence of any dopants or impurities. Additionally, understanding the absorption
properties of glass is crucial for various applications, such as in optical fibers, lenses, and filters, where
the transmission and absorption characteristics of the material are critical for performance.
Experimental Setup:
Given material with known dimensions and ensure it is clean and free from surface contaminants
that could affect the absorption measurements. Choose a light source that covers the spectral range of
interest. This could be a broadband source like a tungsten halogen lamp or a monochromatic source like
a laser, depending on the specific absorption properties you want to study. Place the glass sample in a
spectrophotometer or construct a setup with the light source, the sample holder, and a detector (such as a
photodiode or a photomultiplier tube). Ensure that the light beam is well-collimated and that the detector
is properly aligned to capture the light transmitted through the glass. Measure the intensity of light
transmitted through the glass sample (I) and compare it to the intensity of the incident light (I 0) without
the sample in place. This can be done using a spectrophotometer, which will directly provide transmission
spectra. Plot the absorption coefficient as a function of wavelength to identify any absorption bands or
edges that are characteristic of the given material. If necessary, study the effect of environmental factors
such as temperature, pressure, or the presence of other materials on the absorption properties of the glass.
Take multiple measurements to ensure the accuracy and reproducibility of your results. Analyze the
absorption spectrum to identify features that correspond to specific absorption mechanisms in the glass,
such as electronic transitions, lattice vibrations (phonons), or impurity levels.

Figure 1: Diagram showing major components and configuration of an atomic absorption

spectrophotometer.

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Analysis of Band Gap Energies from UV-vis Spectra

An ideal UV-vis spectrum for a perfect direct band gap semiconductor exhibits almost no absorption for
photons with energies below the band gap and a sharp increase in absorption for photons above the band
gap. Since spectra are typically reported in units corresponding to the wavelength of light rather than its
energy, the conversion between wavelength (nm) and band gap energy (eV) units is achieved by:

The band gap in the absorption spectrum corresponds to the point at which absorption begins to increase
from the baseline, since this indicates the minimum amount of energy required for a photon to excite an
electron across the band gap and thus be absorbed in the semiconductor material. Real spectra exhibit a
nonlinear increase in absorption that reflects the local density of states at the conduction band minimum
and valence band maximum, as well as excitonic effects. A detailed band gap analysis involves plotting
and fitting the absorption data to the expected trend lines for direct and indirect band gap semiconductors.
The absorbance A is first normalized to the path length l of the light through the material to produce the
absorption coefficient, a, as per Equation. Values of a > 104 cm-1 often obey the following relation
presented by Tauc and supplied by Davis and Mott

where n can take on values of 3, 2, 3/2, or 1/2, corresponding to indirect (forbidden), indirect(allowed),
direct (forbidden), and direct (allowed) transitions, respectively.

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Procedure:
Atomic absorption is a special application in which ground-state atoms of metals absorb light at very
specific wavelengths corresponding to the energy needed to cause electronic transitions in their electron
orbital’s. Figure 1 shows the configuration of an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The atoms are
created by heating the sample in an acetylene gas flame or a cylindrical graphite tube furnace to a
temperature that burns off most of the organic matrix and produces ground-state atoms of the metal to be
measured. The “cuvette” is the flame or the center of the graphite tube, and the atoms are in the gas state.
The population of atoms is relatively short-lived in the light path, and rapid measurements are necessary.
The thermal energy must be carefully controlled and ionization of metals must be avoided maintaining
the atoms in the ground state. Beer-Lambert Law derivation helps us define the relationship between the
intensity of visible UV radiation and the exact quantity of substance present. The derivation of Beer-
Lambert Law has many applications in modern-day science. Used in modern-day labs for testing of
medicines, organic chemistry and tests with quantification. These are some fields in which this law finds
its uses.

Beer-Lambert Law Statement

The Beer-Lambert law states for a given material sample path length and concentration of the sample are
directly proportional to the absorbance of the light. The Beer-Lambert law is expressed as:
A = εLc
where,
A is the amount of light absorbed for a particular wavelength by the sample
ε is the molar extinction coefficient
L is the distance covered by the light through the solution
c is the concentration of the absorbing species

Following is an equation to solve for molar extinction coefficient:

𝑨
𝝐=
𝑳𝒄
But Beer-Lambert law is a combination of two different laws: Beer’s law and Lambert law. Beer’s law
was stated by August Beer which states that concentration and absorbance are directly proportional to
each other. Johann Heinrich Lambert stated Lambert law. It states that absorbance and path length are
directly proportional (Figure 2).

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Fig. 2. The UV spectrum of gliclazide in methanol.

Pre-Requisites: (This Section contains the list of Software/Tools or required knowledge (Glossary) to complete the task
under the Laboratory Session).
 Sample Preparation: Obtain a high-quality sample of the glass material with known dimensions
and composition. The sample should be properly cleaned and free from surface contaminants that
could affect the absorption measurements.
 Equipment Calibration: Ensure that all equipment, including the spectrophotometer, light sources,
and detectors, are properly calibrated for accurate measurements. Use standard reference materials
if necessary for calibration.
 Environmental Control: If environmental factors such as temperature or humidity can affect the
glass's absorption properties, prepare to control these conditions during the experiment.
 Safety Measures: Understand and implement all necessary safety protocols, especially when
working with intense light sources or glass materials that may have hazardous properties.
 Background Knowledge: Have a good understanding of the theoretical background of light
absorption, including concepts like absorbance, transmittance, and the Beer-Lambert law.
 Experimental Design: Plan your experiment carefully, deciding on the range of wavelengths to be
studied, the thickness of the glass sample, and the number of measurements to be taken for statistical
accuracy.
 Data Analysis Tools: Prepare the software and tools needed for data analysis, such as spreadsheets
or specialized spectroscopy software, to process the absorption data.
 Sample Handling Skills: Develop or have access to skills for handling glass samples without
causing damage or alteration that could affect the absorption properties.

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 Understanding of Glass Properties: Have knowledge of the specific glass material's properties,
such as its composition, melting point, thermal expansion, and any previous data on its absorption
characteristics.

Pre-Lab:
1. State Absorption phenomenon.
2. Explain the difference between absorption and excitation.
3. Define Absorbance.
4. Explain the significance of Beer-Lambert’s law.
5. Discuss the significance of molar extinction coefficient.
6. Explain optical band gap.
7. Discuss the difference between direct and indirect bandgaps.

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In-Lab:
 Procedure/Program:

 Data and Results:

 Analysis and Inferences:

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Sample VIVA-VOCE Questions (In-Lab):

1. What are the key components of a spectrophotometer, and what is the purpose of each component
in measuring absorption properties?
2. How do you prepare a glass sample for absorption measurements, and why is proper sample
preparation important?
3. Describe the Beer-Lambert law and its significance in the study of any material absorption
properties.
4. How can you determine the absorption coefficient of for a material from spectrophotometer data?
5. What factors can affect the accuracy of absorption measurements in glass, and how can you control
or account for them?
6. Explain how the composition of a material can influence its absorption spectrum.
7. How do impurities or dopants affect the absorption properties of material?

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Post-Lab:

Obtain the optical direct and indirect bandgap of given material using absorption spectrum.
 Procedure/Program:

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 Data and Results:

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 Analysis and Inferences:

Evaluator Remark (if Any):

Marks Secured:_____out of 50

Signature of the Evaluator with Date

Evaluator MUST ask Viva-voce prior to signing and posting marks for each experiment.

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Experiment Title: Demonstration of study of photoluminescence properties of given

material.

Aim/Objective:
The objective of photoluminescence studies on a given material form PL and PL decay measurements.

Apparatus required:
Light Source, Monochromatic or Spectral Filter, Sample Holder, Spectrometer, Detector: Optical
Components, Lenses, mirrors; fiber optics to guide, Temperature Control System, Time-Resolved
Measurement System, Data Acquisition and Analysis Software, Safety Equipment.

Formula:
The PLQY of a material (𝜂) is the ratio of the number of photons emitted by that material (N em), to the
number of photons that were absorbed (Nabs), and is denoted by

The PLQY is a measure of the competition between the radiative and non-radiative pathways in the
material after photo-excitation and the PLQY can therefore also be expressed as,

Where, knr are the radiative recombination and non-radiative recombination rates respectively.

Description:
Photoluminescence is a process in which a substance absorbs electromagnetic radiation in the form of
photons and then re-radiates photons. Quantum mechanically, this can be described as an excitation to a
higher energy state and then a return to a lower energy state accompanied by the emission of a photon.
This involves understanding the mechanisms of light absorption, exciton formation, and subsequent
emission of photons, which can provide insights into the material's band structure, impurity levels, and
potential for use in optoelectronic devices such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, and photovoltaic
cells. A photo detector will use of photomultiplier tube (PMT), avalanche photodiode (APD), or charge-
coupled device (CCD) camera, to detect and quantify the emitted light.

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Experimental Setup:
Methods & Materials: Metal halide perovskites are a promising class of materials for a wide variety of
optoelectronic applications such as photovoltaics, light emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers and optical
sensing.1 They have received widespread attention due to their many attractive synthetic and
photophysical properties (Figure 1). A single crystal of CsPbBr3 was synthesized using the route
described. The PLQY was measured using a Cryosphere that was fibre optically coupled to an FLS1000
Photoluminescence Spectrometer. The FLS1000 was equipped with double monochromators, a 450 W
Xenon lamp and a PMT-900 detector. The sample space was evacuated using a turbomolecular pump and
temperature control provided by a continuous flow liquid nitrogen cryostat. Photoluminescence is the
process of emitting radiation by spontaneous recombination of an optically excited photon. This usually
happens with photon energy ℏω > EG where an electron-hole pair with momentum ℏk= 0 is created
(Figure 2). Due to strong electron phonon coupling, these 'hot' electrons relax, by emitting a photon, to
the minimum of the CB. This process takes place on very fast times cales ≈ 100fs. It can hence be assumed,
that most electrons are completely relaxed prior to recombination via an inter band transition (order of
10−9 to 10−8s). The same holds for holes, which relax to the VB maximum before recombining with an
electron from the CB at k = 0.

Figure 1: FLS1000 Photoluminescence Spectrometer with double excitation and emission

monochromators.

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Figure 2: Electrons (holes) which are excited by photons with an energy of hνL relax via phonon emission
into the lowest (highest) unoccupied state in the conduction band (valence band). The subsequent
recombination under the emission of radiation is called photoluminescence.

Use a light source that can excite the electrons in the material to a higher energy state. This could be a
laser, LED, or any other light source with an appropriate wavelength. The light source should be coupled
to a light delivery system, such as an optical fiber or direct illumination, to ensure efficient excitation of
the sample. Place the sample in a holder that allows for proper illumination and collection of emitted light.
Use a monochromator or a spectrometer to disperse the emitted light into its component wavelengths.
Detect the dispersed light with a photodetector, such as a photomultiplier tube (PMT) or a charge-coupled
device (CCD) camera.
Measurement:
Excite the sample with the light source and measure the emitted light as a function of wavelength. Vary
the excitation wavelength and intensity to study the material's response under different conditions.
Measure the time-resolved photoluminescence if necessary, to understand the decay dynamics of the
excited state.
(i) Absorption and emission spectra
Absorption and emission spectra are the cornerstone of any photophysical characterization, and the
spectra of the two perovskite quantum dots (QD) solutions, henceforth referred to as photoluminescence
quantum yield (PQD-A) and PQD-B are measured. (A, B based on materials)

(ii) Photoluminescence quantum yield

For use in displays, perovskite QDs must have bright emission. The measure of the brightness of
emission is called the photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) and is the ratio of the photons emitted
by a material (Nem) to the photons absorbed (Nabs) (Equation 1). A PLQY of 100% corresponds to every

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absorbed photon being reemitted as photoluminescence and is the ideal scenario for a QD emitter. To be
used in displays, perovskite QDs will likely require a PLQY in excess of 90%. It is therefore important to
measure and optimize the PLQY of newly developed perovskite QDs, and the most accurate method for
measuring PLQY is to use an integrating sphere. In an integrating sphere, the sample is optically excited,
and all scattered and emitted photons are collected and detected, which enables an absolute determination
of the ratio in Equation 1. To determine the PLQY, the emission and scattering peaks of the reference and
sample spectra were integrated and the PLQY was calculated using Equation 2, where Sample and SRef
are the integrated intensities of the scattering peaks of the sample and reference, respectively, Sample is
the integrated intensity of the sample emission, and Ref Scaled is the integrated intensity of the scaled
reference emission.
𝑵𝒆𝒎
𝑷𝑳𝑶𝒀 = (1)
𝑵𝒂𝒃𝒔
𝑬𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 −𝑬𝑹𝒆𝒇 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒅
𝑷𝑳𝑶𝒀 = (2)
𝑺𝑹𝒆𝒇 −𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
𝒕 𝒕 𝒕 𝒕
− − − −
𝑭𝒊𝒕 = 𝑨 + 𝑩𝟏 𝒆 𝝉𝟏
+ 𝑩𝟐 𝒆 𝝉𝟐
+ 𝑩𝟑 𝒆 𝝉𝟑
+ 𝑩𝟒 𝒆 𝝉𝟒
(3)
𝑩𝟏 𝝉𝟐𝟏 +𝑩𝟐 𝝉𝟐𝟐 +𝑩𝟑 𝝉𝟐𝟑 +𝑩𝟒 𝝉𝟐𝟒
〈𝝉〉 = (4)
𝑩𝟏 𝝉𝟏 +𝑩𝟐 𝝉𝟐 +𝑩𝟑 𝝉𝟑 +𝑩𝟒 𝝉𝟒

Procedure:
Photoluminescence (PL) is a process in which a material absorbs photons (light) and then re-
radiates some of the absorbed energy as light. To conduct photoluminescence studies on a given material,
you would typically follow these steps: Ensure the sample is clean and prepared properly to avoid any
surface contamination or defects that could affect the PL signal.
Interpretation:
Interpret the results in the context of the material's electronic structure and physical properties.
Compare the findings with literature values or theoretical predictions to validate the results. Investigate
how impurities, defects, or external factors like temperature and pressure affect the photoluminescence
(Figure 3).

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Figure 3. Variation of the photoluminescence emission spectrum of CsPbBr3 with temperature.

The PLQY calculation was repeated for all temperatures to give the variation in PLQY with temperature
which is shown in Figure 4. It can be seen that the PLQY increases nonlinearly from 0.02% at 200 K to
0.43% at 80 K. This increase in PLQY is due to the charge carriers becoming immobile as the temperature
is lowered, and therefore increasingly unable to reach the non-radiative recombination centres (defects)
that are present in the perovskite. Instead the carriers must combine radiatively which gives rise to an
increase in PLQY with decreasing temperature.

Figure 4: Temperature dependence of the PLQY of CsPbBr3, measured using the Cryosphere
accessory for the FLS1000. The PLQY was calculated using the quantum yield wizard in
Fluoracle.
Pre-Requisites: (This Section contains the list of Software/Tools or required knowledge (Glossary) to complete the task
under the Laboratory Session).

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 Material Preparation: The sample material should be properly prepared, which may include
cleaning, polishing, or thinning to ensure optimal optical quality and to remove any surface
contaminants that could interfere with the measurements.
 Knowledge of Material Properties: It is important to have prior knowledge of the material's
properties, such as its bandgap, absorption spectrum, and any known impurities or defects that could
affect the photoluminescence behavior.
 Equipment Calibration: All equipment, including the light source, monochromator, spectrometer,
and detector, should be calibrated to ensure accurate and reliable measurements.
 Safety Training: If you are using lasers or other potentially hazardous light sources, appropriate
safety training is required to understand and implement the necessary safety protocols.
 Experimental Design: A clear experimental design should be established, including the range of
excitation wavelengths, the intensity of the excitation light, and the temperature range if
temperature-dependent studies are planned.
 Understanding of Photoluminescence Processes: A solid understanding of the
photoluminescence processes, including absorption, exciton formation, radiative and non-radiative
recombination, and the factors that can influence these processes, is essential.
 Data Analysis Tools: Access to software and tools for data analysis, such as spectral analysis
software and mathematical modeling programs, is necessary to interpret the photoluminescence
data.
 Sample Handling Skills: Proper techniques for handling the samples to avoid contamination or
damage are important, especially for delicate or air-sensitive materials.

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Pre-Lab:
1. Define photoluminescence.
2. Define bandgap.
3. Explain the procedure to interpret the energy levels in the given materials.
4. State quantum efficiency.
5. State quantum yield.
6. List the differences between quantum efficiency and quantum yield.
7. Explain the significance of monochromator.
8. Explain the difference between spectrophotometer and spectrofluorometer.
9. Identify the difference between acceptor and donor.
10. Explain the difference between dopant and activator.

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In-Lab:
The experimental conditions, procedures, and results in a detailed report. Discuss the implications of the
photoluminescence properties for the material's potential applications. Analyze the spectral data to
identify peaks corresponding to different energy transitions within the material. Determine the peak
positions, intensities, and widths to characterize the material's photoluminescence properties. Use models
and fitting procedures to extract quantitative information such as bandgap energy, exciton binding energy,
and radiative lifetimes
 Procedure/Program:

 Data and Results:

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 Analysis and Inferences:

Sample VIVA-VOCE Questions (In-Lab):

1. Can you explain the principle of photoluminescence and how it differs from other luminescence
phenomena?
2. What are the key components required for a photoluminescence experiment, and what is the role
of each component?
3. How do you prepare a sample for photoluminescence studies, and why is sample preparation
important?
4. Describe the process of exciton formation and recombination in the context of photoluminescence.
5. How do you choose an appropriate excitation source for your photoluminescence experiment?
6. What factors can affect the photoluminescence spectrum of a material, and how can you control
them?
7. Explain the significance of the bandgap in a material's photoluminescence behavior.
8. How can you determine the quantum efficiency of a photoluminescent material?

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Post-Lab:
Analyze the photoluminescence properties of Nano material.
 Procedure/Program:

 Data and Results:

(Present the results, such as creating tables, graphs, or visualizations)

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 Analysis and Inferences:

Marks Secured:_____out of 50
Evaluator Remark (if Any):
Signature of the Evaluator with Date

Evaluator MUST ask Viva-voce prior to signing and posting marks for each experiment.

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Experiment Title: Determination of energy band gap of a given material

Aim/Objective: To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor using p-n junction diode.

Apparatus: Energy band gap kit, p-n junction diode, Oven, Thermometer, Stop clock/Timer.

Description:
THEORY:
There exists a small energy gap between valance band and conduction band of a semiconductor.
For conduction of electricity, certain amount of energy is given to the valence electron so that it excites
from valance band to conduction band. The energy needed is the measure of energy band gap, ΔE,
between two bands. When a p-n junction is reverse biased then current is due to minority carriers whose
concentration is dependent on the energy gap. The reverse current I s (saturated value) is a function of the
temperature of the junction diode.
For small range of temperature, the relation is expressed as

ln Is = constant – 5.036 ΔE (103/T)

where T is absolute temperature in kelvin and ΔE is energy gap in electron volt.

A graph is plotted between ln Is and 103/T, which comes out to be a straight line.
The slope of this line will be 5.036 ΔE, giving the value of band gap for the semiconductor.

FORMULA:
ln Is = constant – 5.036 ΔE (103/T)

where, Isis reverse saturation current through diode (µA)

ΔE is energy band gap of semiconductor (eV)
T is absolute temperature (K)

A graph is plotted between log Is and 103/T that comes out to be a straight line. Band gap can be found
from the slope of the plot.

ΔE = Slope of the line / 5.036 (eV)

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Pre-Requisites: Semiconductor diode (Ge), oven, power supply, thermometer, voltmeter and micro-
ammeter.
Pre-Lab:
1. Define semiconductor and List types of semiconductors.
2. Mention the main objective of the experiment to determine the energy band gap of given material?
3. Explain the concept of the energy band gap and its significance in determining a material’s
electronic properties?
4. How does the energy band gap influence the absorption of light by the material?
5. Mention the type of light source is required for the experiment, and why is it important to have to
known and controlled wavelength of the light?
6. Explain the process of measuring the material’s absorbance as a function of light wavelength or
energy?

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In-Lab:
 Procedure/Program:
1. Connect the diode in the circuit, containing micro-ammeter and voltmeter.
2. Fix a thermometer to measure the temperature.
3. Switch the heater and move the control knob to allow the oven temperature to increase up to 60 °C.
4. Tabulate the readings of reverse current Is in micro-ammeter for every 5 °C rise in temperature.
5. As the temperature reaches about 65 °C, switch off the oven. The temperature will rise further, say
about 70-80 °C and will become stable.
6. Now temperature will begin to fall and tabulate the readings of I s for every 5 °C fall in temperature.
(Leave at least 2-3 Pages to record the Procedure/Program)
 Data and Results:

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 OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. Temperature Temperature Reverse

103/T (K-1) ln Is
No (°C) (K) Current Is (µA)

MODEL GRAPH:

(Leave at least 1 Page to record the results)

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 Analysis and Inferences:

Band gap of given semiconductor is: eV

(Leave at least 1 Page for each Program)

Sample VIVA-VOCE Questions (In-Lab):
1. State energy band gap.
2. Mention the values of band gap for various materials.
3. If the temperature increases, is it effect the band gap.
4. State reverse current.
5. Why the circuit is connected in reverse bias mode
6. State resistance
7. Is the resistance affected with temperature?
8. State conductivity
9. Is the conductivity affected with the temperature?
10. Outline the relation between resistivity and conductivity.

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Post-Lab: Determine the energy band gap of silicon/germanium

 Procedure/Program:

This Section is meant for the student to write the program/Procedure for Experiment

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 Data and Results:

This Section is meant for the students to collect, record the results generated during the
Program/Experiment execution. Include instructions on how to present the results, such as creating tables,
graphs, or visualizations.
(Leave at least 1 Page for recording the results)

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Evaluator Remark (if Any):

Marks Secured: out of 50

Signature of the Evaluator with Date

Evaluator MUST ask Viva-voce prior to signing and posting marks for each experiment.

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Experiment Title: Illustrate the dual nature of matter using Davison and
Germer’s experiment (virtual lab)
Aim/Objective:
To understand the experimental setup, analyze the results and procedure that Davisson and
Germer used to support the wave-particle duality concept.

Apparatus required
Electron Gun, Collimator, Nickel Crystal Target, Vacuum Chamber, Detector: Power Supply,
Data Acquisition System, Safety Equipment, etc.

This Section must contain the aim or objectives of the Laboratory session.
The aim or objective of illustrating the dual nature of matter using Davisson and
Germer's experiment is to demonstrate that matter, such as electrons, can exhibit both particle-
like and wave-like properties. This experiment is a key piece of evidence for the principle of
wave-particle duality, which is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics. Co-relating
Davisson Germer Experiment and de Broglie Relation: According to de Broglie,

Formula:
𝒉
𝝀=
𝒑
𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟕
𝝀= ( )
√𝟓𝟒
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟕 𝒏𝒎
λ = wavelength associated with electrons
Thus, Davisson Germer experiment confirms the wave nature of electrons and the de Broglie
relation.

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Description:
Davisson and Germer's experiment is a landmark investigation in quantum mechanics that
provided convincing evidence of the dual nature of matter, particularly demonstrating that
electrons exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behavior. This description will outline the
experiment, its results, and its significance.

The calculate the expected wavelength of the electrons

1
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

The electron kinetic energy of 54 eV is a small compared to its rest energy of 5.1×10⁵ eV and
so we can ignore relativistic consideration

𝑚𝑣 = √2𝑚𝑇

The electron momentum is

𝑚𝑣 = √2 × 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔 × 54 𝑒𝑣 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/𝑒𝑣

A = 0.91 and 𝜃 = 65o, assuming that n = 1, the Broglie wavelength (λ) of the diffraction electron
is
n λ = 2a sin𝜃
𝜆 = 2 × 0.91 Ao× sin 65o = 1.66 Ao
Now we use De Broglie formula
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
𝑚𝑣 = 4.0× 10-24kg.m/Sec
The electron wavelength is therefore
ℎ
𝜆= = 1.66Ao
𝑚𝑣

The electron wavelength is therefore is in excellent agreements with the observed wavelength.
Davisson and Ger experimental do provide direct verification of De-Broglie hypothesis of the
wave nature of moving bodies.

Experimental Setup:
Initial atomic models proposed by scientists could only explain the particle nature of
electrons but failed to explain the properties related to their wave nature. C.J. Davisson and
L.H. Germer, in the year 1927, carried out an experiment, popularly known as Davisson
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Germer’s experiment, to explain the wave nature of electrons through electron diffraction. They
aimed an electron beam at a crystalline nickel target. The nickel target was specially prepared
to have a regular arrangement of atoms, which would act as a diffraction grating for waves.

Figure 1: The experimental arrangement of the Davisson Germer experiment.

Procedure:
Electrons were accelerated through an electric potential and directed towards the nickel crystal.
The electrons scattered off the crystal in various directions, and the intensity of the scattered
electrons was measured as a function of the scattering angle. The experimental arrangement of
the Davisson Germer experiment is discussed below:
 An electron gun comprising a tungsten filament F was coated with barium oxide and
heated through a low voltage power supply.
 While applying suitable potential difference from a high voltage power supply, the
electron gun emits electrons which were again accelerated to a particular velocity.
 In a cylinder perforated with fine holes along its axis, these emitted electrons were made
to pass through it, thus producing a fine collimated beam.
 The beam produced from the cylinder is again made to fall on the surface of a nickel
crystal. Due to this, the electrons scatter in various directions.
 The beam of electrons produced has a certain amount of intensity which is measured
by the electron detector and after it is connected to a sensitive galvanometer (to record
the current), it is then moved on a circular scale.

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 By moving the detector on the circular scale at different positions that is changing the
θ (angle between the incident and the scattered electron beams), the intensity of the
scattered electron beam is measured for different values of angle of scattering.
Observations of Davisson Germer experiment, From this experiment, we can derive the
below observations:
 We obtained the variation of the intensity (I) of the scattered electrons by changing the
angle of scattering, θ.
 By changing the accelerating potential difference, the accelerated voltage was varied
from 44V to 68 V.
 With the intensity (I) of the scattered electron for an accelerating voltage of 54V at a
scattering angle θ = 50º, we could see a strong peak in the intensity.
 This peak was the result of constructive interference of the electrons scattered from
different layers of the regularly spaced atoms of the crystals.
 With the help of electron diffraction, the wavelength of matter waves was calculated to
be 0.165 nm.

Interpretation:
The wave-like behavior of electrons observed in the experiment supported Louis de Broglie's
hypothesis that all matter has a wavelength associated with it, which is inversely proportional
to its momentum. This wavelength is now known as the de Broglie wavelength. Davisson and
Germer's experiment played a crucial role in the development of quantum mechanics by
providing experimental evidence for the wave nature of particles. It helped to solidify the
concept of wave-particle duality, which is the idea that fundamental particles can exhibit
properties of both particles and waves. This duality is a cornerstone of modern physics and has
far-reaching implications for our understanding of the microscopic world. Finally, Davisson
and Germer's experiment elegantly illustrated the dual nature of matter and paved the way for
a deeper understanding of quantum phenomena.

Pre-Requisites: (This Section contains the list of Software/Tools or required knowledge (Glossary) to
complete the task under the Laboratory Session).
To effectively illustrate the dual nature of matter using Davisson and Germer's experiment, one
should have a foundational understanding of the following pre-requisites:
 Basic knowledge of atomic and subatomic particles, particularly electrons.

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 Understanding of the concepts of waves and particles in classical physics.
 Familiarity with the principles of quantum mechanics, including the idea of wave-
particle duality.
 Knowledge of the historical context of the experiment and the scientific inquiries of the
time.
 Ability to interpret experimental setups and results, including an understanding of
diffraction and scattering.
 Basic mathematical skills to comprehend the relationship between wavelength and
momentum as described by the de Broglie hypothesis.
 Familiarity with the use of crystals in experimental physics and their role in diffraction
experiments.
 An understanding of the significance of the experiment in terms of its contribution to
the field of quantum mechanics.

Pre-Lab:
This Section must contain at least 5 Descriptive type questions or Self-Assessment Questions
which help the student to understand the Program/Experiment that must be performed in the
Laboratory Session.
(Leave Space between each question for the writeup)

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In-Lab:
This Section must contain at least 2 Programs/Experiments that links the lecture to be
performed during the laboratory Session.
 Procedure/Program:
This Section is meant for the student to Write the program/Procedure for Experiment
(Leave at least 2-3 Pages torecord the Procedure/Program)
Observations of Davisson Germer experiment:
From this experiment, we can derive the below observations:

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 Data and Results:

This Section is meant for the students to collect, record the results generated during the
Program/Experiment execution. Include instructions on how to present the results, such as creating
tables, graphs, or visualizations. (Leave at least 1 Page to record the results)

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RESULT
The results of the experiment showed a distinct pattern of intensity peaks and troughs in
the scattered electron distribution. This pattern was strikingly similar to the diffraction patterns
observed when X-rays are scattered by a crystalline solid, indicating that the electrons were
interfering with each other like waves -------------------.

 Analysis and Inferences:

This Section is meant for the students to analyse their data, perform calculations Include
questions or prompts to encourage critical thinking and interpretation of the data
(Leave at least 1 Page for each Program)

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Date Student Name

Sample VIVA-VOCE Questions (In-Lab):

1. Can you explain the basic setup of the Davisson and Germer experiment?
2. What is the purpose of using a nickel crystal in the experiment?
3. How does the electron gun work, and what is its role in the experiment?
4. What do you mean by the dual nature of matter? Provide examples.
5. Describe the wave-particle duality principle and its significance in quantum mechanics.
6. What were the key observations made by Davisson and Germer in their experiment?
7. How do the results of the experiment support the de Broglie hypothesis?
8. What is the de Broglie wavelength, and how is it calculated?
9. Explain the concept of electron diffraction and how it relates to the experiment.
10. How does the vacuum chamber contribute to the accuracy of the experiment?
11. What safety precautions should be taken when conducting this experiment?
12. How would you interpret the diffraction pattern observed in the experiment?
13. What are the implications of Davisson and Germer's findings for modern physics?

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Course Title QUANTUM PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS ACADEMIC YEAR:2024-25
Course Code(s) 22PH4101(R) Page No:93
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Post-Lab:
This Section must contain at least 2 Programs/Experiments/Exercises/Case Studies that can be
completed/executed by the students on their own based on the knowledge gained during the In-
Lab Session.
 Procedure/Program:
This Section is meant for the student to Write the program/Procedure for Experiment
(Leave at least 2-3 Pages for each Procedure/ Program/ Solution)

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Course Title QUANTUM PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS ACADEMIC YEAR:2024-25
Course Code(s) 22PH4101(R) Page No:94
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Date Student Name

 Data and Results:

This Section is meant for the students to collect, record the results generated during the
Program/Experiment execution. Include instructions on how to present the results, such as
creating tables, graphs, or visualizations.
(Leave at least 1 Page for recording the results)

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Course Title QUANTUM PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS ACADEMIC YEAR:2024-25
Course Code(s) 22PH4101(R) Page No:95
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Date Student Name

 Analysis and Inferences:

This Section is meant for the students to analyse their data, perform calculations Include
questions or prompts to encourage critical thinking and interpretation of the data.
(Leave at least 1 Page for recording the analysis and inferences)

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Course Title QUANTUM PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS ACADEMIC YEAR:2024-25
Course Code(s) 22PH4101(R) Page No:96
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Date Student Name

Evaluator Remark (if Any):

Marks Secured:_____out of 50

Signature of the Evaluator with Date

Evaluator MUST ask Viva-voce prior to signing and posting marks for each experiment.

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Course Title QUANTUM PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS ACADEMIC YEAR:2024-25
Course Code(s) 22PH4101(R) Page No:97