Types of Assessment

Assessments are used to evaluate students' academic progress. For

students receiving special education services, the data collected from
assessments is also used to evaluate progress toward academic
goals in a student's IEP. Additionally, the IEP committee will use
assessment data to determine appropriate goals to include in a
student's IEP going forward. You should be familiar with important
terms regarding types of assessment.

Assessment Before Instruction

Some assessment occurs before instruction even begins. This way,
teachers can use data to target their instruction to meet students'
needs.

● A universal screener is used to gather data on all students. The

purpose is typically to put students into groups, such as
intervention groups.
● A diagnostic assessment, sometimes known as a
pre-assessment, is used to identify students' specific strengths
and weaknesses.

Informal and Formal Assessment

Assessments may be informal or formal.

● Informal assessments happen throughout instruction. While

teachers do plan to informally assess their students during
 instruction, these are flexible assessments that can be easily
adjusted to fit the flow of the lesson. A lot of informal
assessment occurs through observation. Teachers may notice
students' facial expressions and comments during instruction to
ascertain their understanding of the material. Teachers may also
prompt students to respond to questions using signals, such as
thumbs up or thumbs down, or by recording and displaying
answers on individual whiteboards for a quick check.
● Formal assessments can happen both during and after an
instructional unit. They are planned ahead of time and involve
some type of set scoring guidelines. They include things like
quizzes, tests, and projects or writing assignments scored with
some kind of scale or rubric.

Formative and Summative Assessment

Assessments may be formative or summative.

● Formative assessments are assessments for learning. They are

used to guide instruction meaning they're administered to
assess students' progress toward meeting a learning objective
so teachers can adjust instruction as needed. They help teachers
answer the question, "What do I teach next?"
● Summative assessments are assessments of learning. They are
used to gauge instruction by determining whether or not
students mastered a learning objective. Teachers use them to
answer the question, "What did my students learn?" meaning
what do they know now or what are they able to do.
 Formative assessment informs instruction toward the
learning objective

Summative assessment sums up students' performance on

the learning objective

Criterion-Referenced and Norm-Referenced

Assessment
Assessments may be criterion-referenced or norm-referenced.

● Criterion-referenced assessments compare student

performance to a predetermined standard, which is a criteria.
Scores on these types of tests come in the form of a percentage.
Tests administered at the end of an instructional unit and state
achievement tests are common examples.
● Norm-referenced assessments compare students to each other
and rank them according to performance. Scores on these types
of tests come in the form of a percentile, grade-level equivalency,
or stanine using a normal bell-shaped curve. Common examples
include the Scholastic Aptitude Test or SAT and Intelligence
Quotient (IQ) tests.

Criterion-referenced assessment looks at how students

perform against a set criteria
 Norm-referenced assessment looks at how students perform
against the normal curve

Assessment Terms
It is important to note that these assessment terms are not mutually
exclusive. For example, diagnostic tests are typically both formal and
formative. Summative assessments can be both formal and
criterion-referenced, but they can be norm-referenced too.

If assessment terms appear in questions on your exam, determine the

purpose of the assessment to guide you to the best answer. What is
the goal of the assessment? What does it need to accomplish?

More Assessment Terms

Here are some additional assessment terms that are important to
know:

● Progress Monitoring - periodic assessments given to keep track

of student growth toward a specific goal or objective
● Curriculum-Based Assessment - measures student progress
using materials taken directly from the curriculum
● Performance-Based Assessment - students apply knowledge or
skills to complete a process or create a product
○ typically requires high-order thinking
○ typically scored with rubric or checklist
● Portfolio - collection of student work to show growth over time
○ students often select their own pieces and include
self-reflection
 ○ typically scored with rubric or checklist
● Exit Slip - short response completed and submitted at the end of
a lesson
○ ex. - students complete a math problem or use a new
vocabulary word in a sentence and turn it in before leaving
class or transitioning to the next subject

Again, these terms don't live in a vacuum. A performance-based

assessment could be formative if the teacher uses the results to guide
the next set of lessons toward the learning objective, or it could be
summative if the process or product students complete is the final
assessment of their level of mastery.

We need to approach these questions with purpose in mind.

Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) in

Special Education
Curriculum-based assessments measure student progress using
materials taken directly from the curriculum. Measuring students'
mastery of curriculum standards is a valuable tool in Special
Education for several reasons, including:

● Monitoring Student Progress: CBM allows educators to track

students' academic performance and growth in real-time. This
continuous monitoring helps identify areas where students excel
or need additional support.
● Evaluating Instructional Effectiveness: By regularly assessing
students, teachers can determine the effectiveness of their
instructional strategies. If students are not making expected
 progress, teachers can adjust their methods to better meet
students' needs.
● Setting and Adjusting Goals: CBM provides data that can be
used to set realistic and measurable goals for students'
Individualized Education Programs (IEPs). It also helps in
adjusting these goals based on the student's progress.
● Making Data-Driven Decisions: The data collected through CBM
can inform a wide range of educational decisions, from
modifying instruction to allocating resources and supports.
● Enhancing Communication: CBM graphs and reports can
facilitate productive communication between teachers, parents,
and other stakeholders during IEP meetings, providing a clear
picture of the student's current performance and progress.
● Supporting Diverse Learners: CBM is particularly useful in
special education because it can be tailored to assess a variety
of skills across different subjects, such as reading, math, and
writing. This flexibility ensures that the unique needs of each
student are addressed.

By integrating CBM into their teaching practices, educators can create

a more responsive and effective learning environment for students
with special needs.

Evaluating Progress Against Curriculum

Throughout the teaching process, students must be checked for
understanding. Informal strategies such as exit tickets and journal
checks may be used as well as more formal ones, such as quizzes or
conferences. In addition to classroom checks, district and statewide
testing can be used to monitor progress. Benchmark tests can assist
with monitoring progress and ensure that the student knows their
accommodations and how to use them. This periodic check allows for
intervention if a student is not making adequate progress towards
their goals. The biggest limitation of formal assessments such as
benchmarks and state testing is that they are strictly written to the
state standards. If a student has an IEP, their goals will align with
state standards, but they will be learning it on a level that is
appropriate to the student. They will not be responsible for knowing
the entire curriculum and the tests will not provide valid results for
these students.

Additional ways to evaluate progress are through portfolio work,

task/work analysis, and functional assessments. This allows a
student to display skills that will help them reach their goals but are
not direct representations of knowledge learned. For example, if a
student's goal is to independently write a short fiction story, they may
have a portfolio that shows how they plan a story and an outline that
accompanies it. Then they may use a rubric to grade their own draft
for task analysis. This work can be shown as progress towards the
goal.

Determining Eligibility and RtI

Like most components of special education, determining eligibility is a
process. All students who are struggling in the general education
curriculum must be given opportunities to re-learn material after the
initial teaching. If the child does not make progress in the curriculum
through RtI, then the referral process to special education services
would begin, starting with parental consent. If summative evaluations
reveal that the student's progress is continually below grade-level
standards, the special education teacher uses pre-referral intervention
procedures before considering special education services.
Screening tools (specific types of assessment based on perceived
areas of need) are used throughout the RtI and further assessment
processes to determine next steps. A variety of screening and
assessment tools should be used throughout RtI and/or later
assessment for special education eligibility to ensure the team has
the most accurate data on the student's strengths and struggles.

Response to Intervention (RtI)

● Pre-referral process mandated in the federal Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
● Research-based instructional intervention system delivered in
the general education classroom
● Process used to monitor and measure student progress in the
general education curriculum
● Tiered, systematic process for students who are experiencing
learning or behavioral difficulties and may not meet the
grade-level achievement standards
If the child does not make progress in the curriculum through RtI, then
the referral process for special education services can begin. The
referral can come from the student's parent or legal guardian; school
personnel such as a general education teacher, special education
teacher, counselor, or administrator; or any other person involved in
educating or caring for the student. However, the parent or legal
guardian must consent to the evaluation regardless of who requests it
before it can begin.
 If the child does not make adequate progress in the
curriculum through RtI, then the referral process to special
education services can begin, starting with parental consent.

It's also important to remember that each Local Education Agency

(LEA) has its own identification, assessment, admission, and
dismissal process. However, each LEA is legally required to adhere to
all the federal and state laws regarding students with a disability,
including the RtI process mandated through IDEA.

Types of Evaluation and Assessments

The special education teacher applies knowledge of the assessment
and evaluation terminology for monitoring the student's progress. The
special education teacher needs to be cognizant of the assessment
terminology and acronyms and the application in designing
appropriate Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) objectives to
address the educational benefit for each individual student.

Evaluation Description Example

Formative Periodic review of the Weekly

Assessmen student's assignment to quiz/test
t monitor his progress. The
goal of formative
assessment is to provide
progress monitoring and
 focus targeted instruction on Writing or
specific student expectations reading
to increase the student's conference
knowledge and skills.
Math
homework

Summative Cumulative evaluation of the State

Assessmen student's progress. The goal Mandated
t of summative assessment is Tests
to evaluate student progress,
application, and End of
understanding of specific Course
student expectations as Exams
indicated in the state's
educational standards or Final
Common Core standards. exams

Semester
exams

Achieveme
nt Test

Self-Assess Self-review of one's progress Rubric

ment with the assignment
Exit Ticket
Informal Unofficial evaluation to Guided
Assessmen monitor the student's practice
t progress
Warm-Up

Exit Ticket

Conferenc
e

Parent-pro
vided
informatio
n

Independen Evaluation conducted by Medical

t independent qualified Tests
Educational assessment personal not
Evaluation associated with the local Psychiatric
(IEE) education agency. Parents Tests
can request this to be done if
they disagree with a Outside
re-evaluation. testing

Informal assessments inform instruction. Formal

assessments go into the gradebook.
Formal assessments will result in data that can be compared to other
students' scores. The teacher must understand percentile rank,
standard scores, and age/grade equivalents.

The percentile rank of a score is the percentage of scores in its

frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it. For example, a
test score that is greater than 55% of the scores of people taking the
test is at the 55th percentile, where 55 is the percentile rank. In a
non-skewed, normal distribution (shown below) most students are
around the 50th percentile.

The teacher should design effective assessments that are culturally

and linguistically appropriate. Teachers work with families to gather
information about a student's struggles outside of the classroom and
to gather copies of outside evaluations. School personnel must obtain
signed permission from parents before contacting the child's doctors
to ask for records or results of external assessments.

Using Standardized Test Data

Special education teachers should demonstrate knowledge in
interpreting standardized achievement test results. It is essential to
effectively meet the diverse learning needs of students with
disabilities, advocate for their educational rights, collaborate with
colleagues and families, and ensure compliance with legal
requirements. By using assessment data to inform instruction,
intervention, and decision-making processes, special education
teachers can help students make meaningful academic progress and
achieve success in school and beyond.

Understanding key vocabulary related to standardized achievement

testing is essential for interpreting test results, communicating
effectively about student performance, and making informed
decisions.

Here are some important terms to know:

Vocabula Definition Example/Explanation

ry

Scaled A standardized On a standardized

Score score derived from achievement test, a
raw test scores to scaled score of 600
allow for indicates that the
comparisons student performed
across different above average
forms or versions compared to the norm
of the test group, with the mean
score being 500 and a
 standard deviation of
100.

Percentil A score indicating A student at the 75th

e Rank the percentage of percentile performed as
test-takers in a well as or better than
norm group who 75% of the norm group.
scored at or below
a particular score

Grade A score indicating A student with a grade

Equivale the grade level at equivalent score of 5.2
nt (GE) which a student's performs at a level
performance is typical of a student in
typical the second month of
fifth grade.

Stanine A method of A stanine of 5

scaling test scores represents average
into nine standard performance, while
score intervals, scores above or below
typically ranging 5 indicate
from 1 to 9 above-average or
below-average
performance,
respectively.
Reliabilit The extent to which Reliable tests produce
y a test yields similar scores for the
consistent results same individuals under
over time or across consistent conditions.
different
administrations

Validity The extent to which Valid tests accurately

a test measures assess the knowledge
what it is intended and skills they are
to measure designed to evaluate.

Item The process of In mathematics, the

Analysis analyzing individual difficulty and
test items to discrimination indices
assess their for each question are
difficulty level, calculated to evaluate
discrimination the effectiveness of the
(ability to test items.
differentiate
between high and
low performers),
and effectiveness
in measuring the
intended construct
Subtest A Section or A reading
component of a comprehension subtest
standardized test assesses students'
designed to ability to comprehend
measure a specific and interpret written
skill or content area text.
within a broader
subject domain

Basal The starting point Once the student

from which test reaches the basal, the
items are administrator assumes
administered the student will answer
all preceding items
It represents the correctly, and testing
level at which the continues from that
test administrator point onward.
assumes the
student will answer
all preceding items
correctly.

Ceiling The point at which Once the student

the test reaches the ceiling, the
administrator administrator assumes
determines that the the student would likely
student is unlikely answer all subsequent
 to answer any more items incorrectly, and
items correctly testing is concluded.

Assessments and IEPs

The special education teacher compiles data generated from the
assessments to present to an IEP committee, including parents,
administrators, and teachers. The committee meets to review the
information and determine eligibility for a student. Then, if eligible,
they design an effective instructional program for students with
disabilities. The measurement of the student's academic progress is a
precursor to effective instructional design as determined by the
student's disability and appropriate grade-level content standards.

Every three years, there is a review of existing data (REED), where the
committee determines if dismissal from the specialized services is
appropriate. A student may meet their goals and continue to need
services or new goals for the next school year and would remain in
special education. They may also have mastered the skills needed to
function independently in a general classroom and can be dismissed.
The REED is a mandated review of all existing evaluation data,
including the initial evaluation, any re-evaluations, classroom
observations, and standardized testing to determine if dismissal of
services is necessary.

Evaluations for Diverse Needs

Students who consistently need extra help and who struggle to keep
up with the curriculum may need special education services. Before
they can be placed in that category, they must be provided Response
to Intervention (RtI) services. Interventions may include small-group
instruction and remediation or services from the English Language
Learner teachers if English is not the child's native language. Teachers
must try interventions and document that they've been unsuccessful
in helping students close achievement gaps before having a child
tested for special education services.

If a child has a disability or their native language is not English, then

evaluations for special education must take this into account. The
child can be tested in their native language, and other
accommodations can be made for a disability, such as larger print,
verbal instructions, or typing responses. This determination is made
by an educational diagnostician who is certified to test students.

Historically, special education programs have disproportionately

included students of color and English Language Learners (ELL
students). One tool that can be used to avoid incorrectly identifying
students with disabilities is Risk Ratio (RR) analysis. In the context of
eligibility for special education services, a student's RR is calculated
based on the statistical probability of students in one racial or ethnic
group being identified for special education services as compared to
that of all other racial or ethnic groups.

If a child receives special education services, their progress must be

consistently monitored. A portfolio of work that shows a child's
growth over the school year is ideal. Other types of formal
assessments can be administered, such as teacher-made tests and
state assessments; however, a child must receive all of their
accommodations when being tested. Extended time, large font, less
writing on a page, and covered overlays are easy accommodations to
offer a student. Modifications should only be done if a student has an
Individualized Education Program (IEP) that mandates changes to the
curriculum. A teacher can differentiate assessments based on a
child's needs to ensure that they are able to display all they know.

Communicating Assessment Results in Special

Education
In the educational setting, a collaborative approach is essential for
assessing and supporting students with disabilities. Effectively
communicating the results of these assessments to parents, other
professionals, and the student, as appropriate, is legally required and
can present an array of challenges that teachers must consider.
These challenges include:

● Complex vocabulary and concepts

○ Teachers should make sure to explain the meaning of any
complex concepts or unfamiliar vocabulary terms so that
parents feel respected and informed. This type of
assessment data analysis can feel overwhelming to
parents, so frequent check-ins to answer potential
questions and ensure comprehension is best practice.
● Data analysis and statistics
○ The data and raw statistics presented in the assessment
results may be difficult for parents to understand. It is
important for experts to explain the results in terms that
parents can understand while ensuring that the raw data is
explained to allow parents to make informed decisions
about what services or interventions.
● Rejection or disbelief of results by parents
 ○ Some parents may struggle to accept the results of
assessment and may refuse or disagree with the proposed
services or interventions. For this reason, a tactful
approach is required and administrative representation on
the team may be beneficial.
○ In some cases, legal mediation may be required between
the school and parent(s) or guardian(s).
● Communication barriers
○ For parents with disabilities or limited English proficiencies
that present communication barriers, translation or other
services may be necessary to ensure parents are able to
make informed decisions and understand the results and
options available to them.

Effective communication of assessment results involves participation

from various professionals and members of the IEP, including special
education teachers, school psychologists, and general education
teachers, who play key roles in this process.

Role of the Special Education Teacher

The special education teacher compiles data generated from the
assessments to present to a committee, including parents,
administrators, and teachers. The special education teacher also
serves as a resource to support the parent's understanding of
behavioral, social, medical, and developmental assessments as well
as characteristics of the student's disabilities and supports that may
be available.

Role of the School Psychologist

The school psychologist communicates the results of evaluations,
providing insights into the student's cognitive, emotional, and
behavioral functioning. The committee meets to review the
information and determine eligibility for a student. Even if a child does
not qualify for services, information relayed correctly can be helpful to
a family with an atypical child.

Role of the IEP Committee

If the child is eligible to receive services, the committee, which
includes both special education and general education teachers, will
design an effective instructional program for students with
disabilities. The measurement of the student's academic progress is
required for effective instructional design.. Ensuring that parents
understand all vocabulary used and the meaning of the data provided
is crucial. This may include the provision of translation services as
needed.

Role of the General Education Teacher

The general education teacher plays a crucial role in implementing
and adapting accommodations and other classroom strategies to
meet the needs of the student within the general education setting,
ensuring that the student's learning experience is inclusive and aligned
with their individualized education program (IEP).

Individualized Family Support Plan

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act covers children with
special needs before they even start school! Individuals may be
eligible for early intervention services from ages zero to three. Specific
eligibility criteria varies from state to state, but generally, there are two
ways a child may qualify for an early intervention evaluation.

Children with a developmental delay in the area of physical, cognitive,

social-emotional, adaptive, or communication skills may qualify for an
Early Intervention evaluation. Also, children with specific health
conditions with a high probability of leading to a delay in one or more
areas of development may qualify. Examples of this type of condition
include down syndrome or cerebral palsy.

The early intervention evaluation team observes the child in their

environment and may use other methods, such as play-based
evaluation, to learn about the child's skills. They also talk to the child's
family to discuss concerns, resources, and needs. The child's medical
history is also taken into account.

If the evaluation finds the child eligible for early intervention, an

Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) is developed. An IFSP is a
written legal document that outlines the services eligible children will
receive. It takes the child's present levels of functioning and needs into
account. The document is reviewed every six months, and updated at
least once a year.

Components of an IFSP
An IFSP must legally include:

● Child's Present Levels of Development:

 ○ This section describes the child's current developmental
levels and functional abilities across various areas, such as
cognitive, motor, communication, social-emotional, and
adaptive skills.
● Family Information:
○ It includes the family's concerns, priorities, and resources
related to enhancing the development of their child.
● Outcomes or Goals:
○ The IFSP must include measurable outcomes or goals that
are individualized to the child's needs. These goals are
designed to address the child's developmental delays or
disabilities.
● Services:
○ A description of the specific early intervention services that
the child will receive to achieve the identified outcomes or
goals. This may include services such as speech therapy,
occupational therapy, physical therapy, special instruction,
and assistive technology.
● Natural Environments:
○ The settings where services will be provided should be
specified. IDEA emphasizes the importance of delivering
services in natural environments, such as the child's home,
child care center, or other community settings, to the
maximum extent appropriate.
● Service Coordination:
○ A designated service coordinator is responsible for
facilitating the implementation of the IFSP, coordinating
services, and ensuring that the family is involved in
decision-making processes.
● Transition Plan:
 ○ If the child is nearing the age of three, the IFSP must
include a transition plan outlining the steps that will be
taken to support the child's transition from early
intervention services to preschool or other appropriate
services.
● Frequency, Intensity, and Method of Services:
○ Details regarding how often and for how long each service
will be provided, as well as the methods and strategies that
will be used to deliver them.
● Review and Evaluation Procedures:
○ The IFSP must include procedures for periodically
reviewing and evaluating the child's progress toward
meeting the outcomes or goals outlined in the plan and for
making any necessary adjustments to the plan.
● Signature of Parents and Consent:
○ The IFSP must be signed by the child's parents or
guardians to indicate their agreement with the plan, and
their consent must be obtained before services can be
provided.

Depending on the needs of the child, services on the IFSP may include:

● speech-language therapy
● physical therapy
● occupational therapy
● psychological services
● home visits
● medical / nursing services
● nutrition services
● hearing / vision services
● social work services
 ● transportation

It's important to remember that this is an individualized family support

plan. In addition to meeting the individual student's needs, the
provided services are meant to help the family help the child.

Once the child reaches age three, a transition meeting may be held to
consider re-evaluation and transition to school-age services. Starting
at age three, a child can have an Individualized Education Program,
which is also known as an IEP.

A Collaborative Path to Special Education

Eligibility
The journey toward qualifying a student for special education services
is a highly collaborative and comprehensive process, involving
teachers, parents, and specialists. Here's an overview of how it
typically unfolds and how collaboration features into each step of the
eligibility process:

Initial Observations and Interventions: The process typically begins

when a general or special education teacher, caretaker, or parent
notices that a student is struggling to make progress in the general
education curriculum or in social or behavioral interactions. This
concern is based on various assessment data and daily observations.

Response to Intervention (RtI): Before moving toward special

education, the school implements a Response to Intervention (RtI)
strategy. This includes instructional and behavioral interventions
aimed at supporting the student within the general education setting.
If these efforts do not yield the desired progress, the school may
consider additional steps.

Classroom Observation and Data Collection: At this point, a special

education teacher steps in to observe the student's progress directly
in the classroom. This observation, combined with a review of existing
assessment data, helps to determine if a formal evaluation is
necessary.

Gathering a Comprehensive Data Profile: During the evaluation phase,

the special education teacher takes on the responsibility of compiling
a complete and detailed profile of the student. This involves collecting
information from various sources, including:

● Classroom Observations: Noting the student's behavior and

interactions during class activities.
● Report Card Grades: Reviewing academic performance over
time.
● Behavioral Incidents: Documenting any notable behavioral
challenges or patterns.

The special education teacher also consults with the general

education teachers to gather additional insights about the student's
experiences and responses to different interventions.

Collaboration and Guardian Approval: Collaboration with the family is

crucial during and following the initial data collection process as a
decision is made about whether or not a formal evaluation is needed.
During this phase, the special education teacher engages with the
student's parents or guardians to learn more about the child's
emotional, medical, and academic history. This holistic approach
ensures that the evaluation considers all aspects of the student's life
and learning environment. Additionally, parents must approve and
consent to any formal evaluations that are conducted, so involving
them early in the process helps ensure that they fully understand the
ways in which their child is struggling academically or behaviorally.

Formal Evaluation and Decision-Making: Once sufficient data has

been collected, an educational diagnostician conducts formalized
testing to further assess the student's needs. The results of these
tests, along with the data gathered by the special education teacher,
contribute to the overall evaluation report.

Creating a Comprehensive Picture: This report paints a

comprehensive picture of the student's strengths, challenges, and
needs. It serves as the basis for determining the student's eligibility for
special education services. Collaborating with experts in a wide range
of experts as well as the student's parents and general education
teachers helps in ensuring a full picture of the child and their abilities
is captured.

Team Collaboration and Parental Involvement: The final step in the

process is a collaborative meeting of all team members involved in the
student's education, including parents, teachers, and specialists. The
team must agree on the proposed services and interventions that will
be included in the student's Individualized Education Program (IEP).

Ensuring Clarity and Understanding: It is essential that parents fully

understand the assessment results and the proposed IEP before they
sign any documents. If needed, the school provides interpretation or
translation services to ensure clear communication.