CRWT

2nd semester (Prelims)

The Nature of Text PEER-REVIEW

COTERIE  It is designed to assess the validity, quality and often
n. (pl. -ries) a small group of people with shared interests the originality of articles for publication.
or tastes esp. one that is exclusive of other people  Its ultimate purpose is to maintain the integrity of
ACADEMIC or NON-ACADEMIC science by filtering out invalid or poor quality
articles.
Knowing about the nature of the text prepares you better
in understanding the topic, following references, raising NON-ACADEMIC TEXTS
arguments, and flowing with the discussions.
•authorship is not limited to credentials or writing ability,
EDITORIAL therefore it can be written by anyone
an article that presents the newspaper's opinion on an •creativity is favored over credibility
issue.
•written for the general public
RESEARCH PAPER
•references are not required
a paper that presents the author’s interpretation,
evaluation, or argument of a topic or issue. •are considered as secondary sources
BLOG POST •Most articles published in magazines, in newspapers
an informational website run by an individual, group, or and on websites are often not academic.
corporation that offers regularly updated content about a •These might be accurate and might be useful.
topic
•Since they are not reviewed, they might not be accurate
NOVEL
or useful.
a narrative work of prose fiction that tells a story about
specific human experiences
LAB REPORT
an account of an experiment and what was discovered
during the experiment.
BUSINESS LETTER
a professional and formal letter used as a means of
communication between business clients, employees,
and stakeholders
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
a list of citations to books, articles, and documents AUTHOR’S CREDENTIALS
followed by a brief descriptive and evaluative paragraph
---the author’s qualifications to write with authority on a
ESSAY particular topic.
a piece of nonfiction writing that informs the reader
Questions to consider:
about a topic or argues a perspective
•What educational background does the author have?
ACADEMIC TEXTS
•are written by experts or scholars in a particular field •Has he or she published previously on this topic?

•have undergone the peer-review process •Is the author considered an authority on the topic?

•references are organized and compiled are considered as

primary sources
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2nd semester (Prelims)

AUTHOR’S BIAS •to warn the reader about something

---it is any opinion or prejudice that affects that author’s •to give advice or suggest a course of action
writing and prevents the author from being completely
•to reassure the reader about something
neutral about the topic or issue about which he/she is
writing. •to entertain or amuse the reader
The author’s BIAS can be influenced by: •to advertise a product or service
financial interests HOW DO YOU DEFINE READING?
•Was the research sponsored by a particular company? According to Cline et al (2006)
•Was the author paid to promote a particular point of “Reading is decoding and understanding written texts.”
view?
 Translation of the symbols of writing system into
•Commercial websites may give readers a one-sided spoken words that they represent
view of their product or service.
 Determined by several factors:
How to recognize bias?
•reading purpose
•Only one side of the argument is presented.
•context
What is the author’s
•nature of the text
STANCE, AUDIENCE and PURPOSE?
•readers’ strategies and knowledge
1. AUTHOR’S STANCE
---Reading is decoding and understanding written texts.
---the opinion, position, or point of view of the author.
------Decoding involves three skills: phonological
2. AUDIENCE awareness, alphabetic knowledge, and orthographic
knowledge
---it refers to who the text is aimed at
 Phonological awareness includes the ability to
•Who was the text written for?
segment sounds, rhyme, and identify syllables.
•Was it written for an academic or a general audience?
 Alphabetic knowledge, or The Alphabetic Principle,
3. AUTHOR’S PURPOSE which is the understanding that letters are used to
represent speech sounds.
---the reason why the text was written, the goal of the
author  Orthographic knowledge is the understanding of
the writing system in order to represent language
An academic article:
this can include spelling, punctuation, and
•to make a contribution to his or her field capitalization.

•to add to the bank of knowledge available on a topic 1. Purposes

A non-academic text: ▪to be entertained

•to report on new information using language ▪to get information

accessible to a general audience
▪to understand ideas or theories
•to persuade/convince the reader to adopt a certain
▪to understand the author’s viewpoint
belief or to act in a certain way
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2nd semester (Prelims)

▪to support one’s view According to Heilman (1967)

2. Context “Critical reading is the ability to arrive at the author’s

main ideas.”
▪set of circumstances (social, cultural, political,
historical) that affect the meaning and interpretation of According to Betts (1957)
a text
“Critical reading is done when the reader analyzes the
▪the when, where, and why of a text material which he reads and questions the validity of
inferences drawn.”
3. Nature of the text
According to Carter (1953)
▪structure
“Critical reading emphasizes the higher through
▪purpose (informative, persuasive, argumentative)
processes having to do with selection-rejection of ideas,
▪context the relationships between ideas, and the organization of
information.”
▪audience
WHAT IS CRITICAL READING?
▪academic or non-academic
Critical reading is an analytic activity. The reader rereads
4. Reader’s Schema
a text to identify patterns of elements: information,
•formal schema - knowledge of text types, genres, values, assumptions, and language usage, throughout
the discussion. These elements are tied together in an
structures interpretation, an assertion of an underlying meaning of
•linguistic schema - knowledge about vocabulary and the text as a whole.
grammar) When you read critically…
•content schema - knowledge of the content area of the •you analyze the circumstances of the publication of a
text) piece of writing.
•culture - set of beliefs, customs, attitudes, etc. •you question how the author reaches his or her
HOW DO YOU DEFINE READING? conclusions and on what evidence these are based

According to Day and Bamford (1998) •you evaluate any original research the author might
have done, as well as any other sources the author uses
“Reading is meaning construction from a printed or to support his or her points
written message
•you compare and contrast this piece of writing with
 the reader connecting information from the written what you already know about the topic.
message with previous knowledge to arrive at
meaning and understanding. •you consider whether it supports what others have
written or whether it presents a new opinion.
According to Goodman (1967)
•you assess the strengths, weaknesses and general
“Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game that validity of a piece of writing, based on your careful
involves interaction between thought and language reading of it.
 Goodman argues that the object of reading is not Questions to Consider
to recognize letters and words, but to make sense
of print: to construct meaning. When you read critically, you should think about the
following questions.
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2nd semester (Prelims)

 Pre-reading Questions: or should you consider it?

•Where was this text published? Was it published in a  Post-reading Questions:

peer-reviewed academic journal, or somewhere else?
•How does the text compare with your own experiences
How can you tell? Why does it matter?
and opinions? Does it support your own experiences, or
•When was this text published? Is the publication date does it contradict them? Does the text contain
important? Is the material still relevant, or is it dated? information (for example, about your home country)
that you know to be incorrect?
•Who wrote the text? What do we know about this
person? What credentials might this author have? What Difference between Reading and Critical Reading
biases might he or she have?
1. PURPOSE
•What is the author’s opinion of the topic being
 READING
discussed? Why did the author write this text? Who is
the text intended for? What does the author want the to get basic grasp of the text
reader to do as a result of reading this text?
 CRITICAL READING
 While-reading Questions:
to form judgments about HOW a text works
•Is this a purely factual piece, or does the author
present a personal opinion here? How can you tell what 2. ACTIVITY
is a fact and what is an opinion?  READING
•Does the text present a convincing argument about the Absorbing/Understanding
topic in question? Has the author done empirical
research, and if so, what conclusions are reached? Does  CRITICAL READING
the research methodology justify the conclusions Analyzing/Interpreting/Evaluating
presented? Are charts and graphs used? What
information do they give? 3. FOCUS

•If the author is not presenting the results of his or her  READING
own empirical research, how are the author’s points What a text SAYS
supported? Are there statistics? If so, where from? How
about quotations from others? If so, who is being  CRITICAL READING
quoted? Does the author rely on anecdotes? If so, are
What a text DOES and MEANS
these convincing? How effective is the author’s use of
supporting detail? 4. DIRECTION
•How do you respond to a text that has no supporting  READING
evidence at all, but is simply a well-written presentation
WITH the text (taking for granted if it is right)
of the author’s own opinion?
 CRITICAL READING
Post-reading Questions:
AGAINST the text (questioning its assumptions and
What is the larger context of this work? How does the
argument, interpreting meaning in context)
text support or contradict other opinions on this topic?
Who might agree with the text? Who might disagree?
What should you do if a text presents an opinion that is
very different from those presented in other articles you
have read on the same topic? Should you ignore it,
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2nd semester (Prelims)

5. RESPONSE  As they learn to read and comprehend texts, they

also develop their ability to see things from another
 READING
person’s perspective. That helps them become
Restatement, Summary more tolerant and understanding of others, even
those who may be different
 CRITICAL READING
•Improving memory and recall
Description, Interpretation, evaluation
 Active involvement in reading comprehension helps
DEFINING READING COMPREHENSION you to remember better what you read. That’s
----Reading comprehension is the ability to process text, because your brain is actively processing the
understand its meaning, and to integrate with what the information as you read, which allows you to
reader already knows. embed it.

IMPORTANCE OF READING COMPREHENSION •Enhancing concentration and focus

•Development of higher academic self-confidence  Research shows that the simple act of
understanding what you read can help to improve
Students who understand what they read feel more your attention span. When you comprehend the
confident in their academic capabilities and are more material, your brain can better filter distractions
likely to succeed in school. and focus on the task.
•Improved writing skills CAPRICIOUS
 Reading comprehension can help improve your (adj.) Governed or characterized by caprice: Impulsive,
writing skills—exposure to different writing styles unpredictable
and ways of communicating ideas in various genres
builds your vocabulary. Synonyms:

 That exposure also leads you to develop your Changeable, inconsistent, unaccountable, unsteady
writing style and improve your communication
FACTS
skills.
 are pieces of information that no one can argue
•Improved problem-solving skills
with.
 Reading comprehension allows finding solutions to
 can be confirmed by numerous independent
problems to come naturally.
sources.
 It also encourages empathic listening, logical
Questions to consider
thinking, thinking flexibility, and persistence to find
solutions. •What evidence/s is/are the author giving me to make
me believe this statement?
•Developing critical thinking and analytical skills
•Could the author be biased in some way?
Another benefit of reading comprehension is that it can
help to improve your critical thinking skills. When trying •Where did you find the information? Is the source
to understand a text, you analyze and make sense of the reliable?
information you are reading. You can then apply that
critical-thinking process to other areas of your life.

•Increased empathy and understanding

 Improving reading comprehension can lead to

increased empathy and understanding, especially
for children and adolescents.
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2nd semester (Prelims)

OPINIONS •Visual Items

---are the personal ideas of the author. STATISTICAL EVIDENCE
•Opinion verbs  numerical data that came from reliable sources and
are product of research (e.g., large-scale scientific
if the author thinks or believes
studies)
•Adjectives
Statistical evidences can come from:
if the author describes something as great, terrible,
polls, census data, experiment results, crime statistics,
amazing, terrifying or any adjectives expressing personal
surveys, economic data
feelings
Ask yourself:
•Adjectives
•Would the same statistics be found if the study were
use of comparative and superlative terms such as
carried out elsewhere?
better, more interesting, not as good, the most
important TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE
•Modal verbs  statements that came from the judgment of
experts and authorities
if the author states that something should or must
happen Testimonial evidences can come from:
The Author’s Evidences •direct interviews with experts
 Determining textual evidences will allow readers to •quotes from an expert’s book, paper, or other material
better evaluate the author’s argument.
•own’s specialized knowledge if one has the credentials
 It will allow readers to validate the assertions of the or experience to support it
author.
ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE
1. EVIDENCE
 evidence based on individual accounts and
 refers to the details provided by the author to narrative; they are not based on scientific research
support his/her claim.
Examples:
 It must be a single fact or set of facts.
•information passed along by word-of-mouth
EVIDENCES must be…
•casual observations of situations
 Precise
•a report of an experience that is not objectively
 Descriptive documented
 F actual Ask yourself:
An author can use the following as evidence: •To what extent are the anecdotes in the text
representative of a larger group?
•Statistical Evidence
•Can the examples of these people be generalized to a
•Testimonial Evidence
larger group?
•Anecdotal Evidence
•Are they extreme cases, chosen specifically to support
•Quotation a dubious claim?
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2nd semester (Prelims)

QUOTATIONS IN SUMMARY:
 These are pieces of text copied directly from •An author’s assertion, claims, or opinions must be
another source. The writer refers to someone else’s supported by evidences.
writing or speech to support the argument.
•A critical reader must evaluate the strength, relevance,
Ask yourself: and adequacy of the evidence in supporting assertions.
•Who is being quoted? •Evaluating evidences allows readers to make a
judgment about the assertion.
•What do you know about this person?
FLEETING
•Are you sure this person said the quotation?
dj. Temporary or short-lived
•What was the context in which the quotation was said?
UBIQUITOUS
VISUAL ITEMS
adj. Being everywhere or being very common
 refers to photographs, illustrations, graphs, charts,
tables, diagrams, and maps. PERNICIOUS
Ask yourself: adj. Harmful or destructive, often in a subtle or gradual
way
•What purpose does the visual support serve?
VORACIOUS
•Why was the picture chosen? What response does the
author want to elicit by using the picture? adj. Having a very eager approach to an activity, often
related to eating or consuming large quantities of
•Why was the picture chosen? What response does the
something
author want to elicit by using the picture?
INDIGNATION

n. anger or annoyance provoked by what is perceived as

unfair treatment

Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed,

and some few to be chewed and digested.

— FRANCIS BACON

PREVIEWING

 A reading strategy that allows you to use prior

knowledge
WHEN NO EVIDENCE IS PRESENTED  It requires readers to skim the text to get the main
 The author will attempt to convince the reader by idea before reading it in detail.
creating empathy. Evaluate and identify the following:
•The author may describe hypothetical situations that ▪the author
appeal to readers’ emotions.
▪the place of publication
•The author may oversimplify a complex topic.
▪the genre, or type of writing

▪the table of contents

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2nd semester (Prelims)

▪headnotes or an abstract (if available)

▪the title and subtitles

▪section headings

▪other information that stands out (such as images,

graphs, and tables)

1. AUTHOR

•may reveal something about the subject of the text

and its style

•the possible assumptions and biases SKIMMING

Examples of predictions made about the text: •used to get the overall view, gist or impression of the
content
Martin Luther King, Jr.
SCANNING
•The text will probably deal with civil rights.
•used to look for a particular word, phrase, or detail
•The text will be serious and eloquent. from a text
•Topic may be about the social conditions of the 1950s THE “FIRST AND LAST” RULE
and 1960s
•Read the FIRST and LAST paragraphs of the essay for
Stephen King important information.
•The text may be about fear, the craft of writing, or •FIRST PARAGRAPH – central thesis
King’s experiences as a horror novelist.
•LAST PARAGRAPH – conclusive statements
•May use a language accessible to the general audience
•This rule also applies to individual paragraphs.
2. PLACE OF PUBLICATION
•Main points can also be found in the first and last
•may reveal something about the text subject, style, sentence of each paragraph.
and approach
NOTE-TAKING

 UNDERLINING & HIGHLIGHTING

encourages active reading by interacting with the text

Highlighting keywords or phrases will help you:

3. TITLE •Make it easier to see key points when re-reading the

text
•may give an idea of what subject to expect
•Think more carefully about the key concepts and ideas
•it can also reveal the thesis of the text in the text, the bits that are worth highlighting
•reading subtitles, section headings, MAKE WRITTEN NOTES
and subheadings can be useful too Elements that you must include in your written notes:

a)The content of your reading, through summaries,

paraphrasing, and quoting important phrases
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2nd semester (Prelims)

b)Your reaction to the content, which includes PARAPHRASING

emotional reactions and questions
 a restatement of a text in your own words and
1. LINEAR understanding
 note-taking in logical order, using headings and  A paraphrase can be as long as the original or even
subheadings longer, while a summary is much shorter.
2. DIAGRAMMATIC Why SUMMARIZE & PARAPHRASE?
 uses boxes, flowcharts and mind-mapping It can help you…
3. ANNOTATIONS •validate the basis of your ideas
are critical or explanatory notes in the text •support your argument
DEFINING TERMS AND CONCEPTS •clarify in simple terms the complex ideas contained in a
text
 Writers will attempt to provide provisional
definition of important terms and concepts to •build new ideas from existing ideas on the topic
advance their arguments.
•build new ideas from existing ideas on the topic
 Readers may accept the definitions or argue against
it by offering their own definition. CONTEXTUALIZING

 Texts are not written in isolation

TERM

a concrete and fixed definition used to represent or •One needs to place the text in their context, and how it
refer to concepts (legal term, medical term, etc.) can be influenced by the

CONCEPT •author’s biases and personal agenda; and

•social, political, historical, and cultural circumstances

•an abstract or general idea that represents a category,
class, or notion •One also needs to see how the text fits in with other
texts on the same subject: whether it supports
OUTLINING, SUMMARIZING, & PARAPHRASING
previously published material or whether it presents a
 a reading strategy that organizes ideas and the new perspective.
main points of the text
1. SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
OUTLINING
 Academic authors will align themselves with a
 an outline is the skeleton of the text particular school of thought within a field of
discipline.
 pinpointing the main ideas of the text
 Each school of thought will offer distinct
 Outlining the text will allow you to see the
perspectives and interpretations of topics and
relationships among ideas.
issues.
SUMMARIZING
//Identify if the work you are reading is representative
 a brief account of the important points of a text of a particular school of thought//

 Summarizing will help you prepare for writing by

providing a snapshot of the arguments.
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2nd semester (Prelims)

Examples:

Field of study: Human Geography

School of thought: geographical determinism

The poorest parts of the world often have difficult

terrain, geographical factors, together with a lack of
infrastructure in the form of extensive transportation
networks, have meant that these regions have not
developed trade relationships and have been isolated
from outside influences. Consequently, they have not
developed as rapidly as other parts of the world.

2. THE READER

 The reading process involves reader.

 As a reader, you must bring your own opinions and

experiences to the text.

As a reader, you must bring your own opinions and

experiences to the text:

•Does this text match my own experiences with the

topic?

•If so, how does the text contribute to my

understanding of the topic? What can I learn from it?

•If not, what are the differences?

•What might cause any differences?

O Is the text current or dated?

O Is the author qualified?

O Is the author biased?

O Are the evidences used come from unreliable

sources?

IN SUMMARY:

•These reading strategies will allow readers to actively

engage with the text and identify how the text works.

Critical Thinking in reading encourages readers to form

rational decisions based on the text.