UNIT 4

4.1 Hazard and Vulnerability Profile of India

Indian sub-continent has unique geo-climatic and socio-political conditions that
make it vulnerable to both the natural as well as manmade disasters. Around 6% of
the population of India is impacted annually by the exposures to disasters. They Key
natural disasters in India include floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides
and avalanches that have resulted in loss of lives and livelihoods.
According to a Planning Commission report, the key vulnerabilities of India
include the following
∙ Coastal States, particularly in the East Coast and Gujarat on west coast, are
vulnerable to cyclones.
∙ 4 crore hectare land mass is vulnerable to floods and river
erosion. ∙ 68 per cent of net sown area is vulnerable to drought.
∙ 55 per cent of total area is in Seismic Zones III-V and vulnerable to earthquakes of
moderate to high density.
∙ Sub-Himalayan/ Western Ghat are vulnerable to landslides.
∙ Vulnerability to disasters or emergencies of Chemical, Biological Radiological and
Nuclear (CBRN) origin has increased on account of socioeconomic
development. The changing climate also exasperates the vulnerabilities. The
occurrence of heat waves, cold waves, floods, droughts, intense cyclones and
flash floods is getting increased due to climate change and global warming.
∙ Further, Disaster vulnerability is function of poverty and poverty is inextricably
linked to disaster vulnerability. Poverty compels the people to compromise in
matters of shelters and dwellings and more and more people live at unsafe
places. Moreover, the low cost material used in making the dwellings makes
them more unsafe to live.
They have been discussed below :

4.1.1 Hydrological and Climate Related Hazards

A) Floods
∙ Floods can be caused by heavy rainfall, inadequate capacity of rivers to carry the
high flood discharge, inadequate drainage to carry away the rainwater quickly to
streams/ rivers. ice jams or landslides blocking streams, typhoons and cyclones
etc.

∙ Further, flash floods occur because of high rate of water flow particularly in areas
with less permeability of soil.
∙ Over 40 million hectare of landmass in India is prone to floods.
∙ Nearly 75 % of the total annual rainfall is concentrated over a short south-west
monsoon season of three to four months from June to September.
∙ As a result there is a very heavy discharge from the rivers during this period
causing widespread floods.
∙ Flood problem is chronic in at least 10 states. From October to December each
year, a very large area of South India, including Tamil Nadu, the coastal
regions of Andhra Pradesh and the union territory of Puducherry, receives up
to 30 percent of its annual rainfall from the northeast monsoon (or winter
monsoon).
∙ These have caused devesatiing floods in Chennai in 2015. Most devastating floods
in recent times have been the 2013 Assam floods, 2013 Uttarakhand Floods,
2012 Brahamputra Floods etc.

B) Cyclones
∙ India has a very long coastline which is exposed to tropical cyclones arising in the
Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
∙ Indian Ocean is one of the six major cyclone-prone regions in the world. ∙ In
India cyclones occur usually in April-May, and also between October and
December.
∙ The Eastern coastline is more prone to cyclones as about 80 percent of total
cyclones generated in the region hit there.
∙ The worst hitting cyclones have been the Andhra Pradesh cyclone of November
1977 and the super cyclone of Odisha in the year 1999.
∙ The impact of the cyclones is mainly confined to the coastal districts, the
maximum destruction being within 100 km. from the centre of the cyclones and
on either side of the storm track.
∙ The principal dangers from a cyclone include the gales and strong winds; torrential
rain and high tidal waves (storm surges).
∙ Most casualties are caused by coastal inundation by tidal waves and storm surges.

C) Heat waves, Cold waves and fog

∙ Heat waves refer to the extreme positive departure from the maximum temperature
in summers.

∙ The fatalities caused by heat waves have increased in recent decades. ∙ The
problem of heat wave is compounded by a decrease in Diurnal Temperature
Range (DTR).
∙ In urban areas, the heat wave is increasing gaining notoriety for more and more
fatalities.
∙ Cold waves occur mainly due to the extreme low temperature coupled with
incursion of dry cold winds from north-west.
∙ Most affected areas of country due to the cold waves include the western and
north-western regions and also Bihar, UP directly affected by the western
disturbances.
 D) Thunderstorm, Hailstorm, Dust Storm etc
∙ India’s central, north-eastern, north-western and northern parts are generally
affected by these.
∙ The southern coastal areas are less prone to thunderstorms, hailstorms and dust
storms.
∙ The hailstorms are more frequent in Assam, Uttarakhand and some parts of
Maharashtra.
∙ Dust storms are common in Rajasthan, MP and Haryana. Tornadoes are rare in
India.

E) Droughts
∙ Drought refers to the situation of less moisture in the soil (which makes the land
unproductive) and scarcity of water for drinking, irrigation, industrial uses and
other purposes, usually caused by deficient/less than average rainfall over a long
period of time.
∙ Some states of India feature the perennial drought such as Rajasthan, Odisha,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh etc.
∙ Sixteen percent of the country’s total area is drought-prone and approximately 50
million people are affected annually by droughts. In India about 68 percent of
net sown area in the country is drought-prone.
∙ Most of the drought-prone areas identified by the Government of India lie in arid,
semi-arid and sub-humid areas of the country.
∙ In the arid and semi-arid zones, very severe droughts occur once in every eight to
nine years.
4.1.2 Geological Disasters

A) Earthquakes
∙ Earthquake is almost impossible to be predicted, so it is the most destructive of all
natural disasters.
∙ It is almost impossible to make arrangements and preparations against damages
and collapses of buildings and other man-made structures hit by an earthquake. ∙
More than half of India’s total area is vulnerable to seismic activity of varying
intensities.
∙ The most vulnerable regions are located in the Himalayan, Sub-Himalayan belt
and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
∙ The Himalayan ranges are among world’s youngest fold mountains so the
subterranean Himalayans are geologically very active.
∙ The Himalayan frontal arc, flanked by the Arakan Yoma fold belt in the east and
the Chaman fault in the west make one of the seismically active regions in the
world.
B) Tsunami
∙ Tsunami refers to the displacement of a large volume of a body of water such as
Ocean.
∙ Most Tsunamis are seismically generated, result of abrupt deformation of sea floor
resulting vertical displacement of the overlying water.
∙ The Tsunami waves are small in amplitude and long wavelength (often hundred of
kilometers long).
∙ The east and west coasts of India and the island regions are likely to be affected by
Tsunamis generated mainly by subduction zone related earthquakes from the
two potential source regions, viz. the Andaman-Nicobar-Sumatra Island Arc and
the Makran subduction zone north of Arabian Sea.
C) Landslides
∙ Landslides are common in India in Himalayan region as well as Western
Ghats. The Himalayan ranges are among the youngest fold mountains of world.
∙ They comprise a series of seven curvilinear parallel folds running along a
grand arc of around 3400 kilometers.
∙ The landslides in this region are probably more frequent than any other areas in the
world.
∙ The Western Ghats, particularly Nilgiri hills also are notorious for frequent
landslides.

4.1.3 Industrial, Chemical and Nuclear Disasters

∙ The industrial and chemical disasters can occur due to accident, negligence or
incompetence.
∙ They may result in huge loss to lives and property.
∙ The Hazardous industries and the workers in these industries are particularly
vulnerable to chemical and industrial disasters.
∙ The most significant chemical accidents in recorded history was the 1984
Bhopal Gas disaster, in which more than 3,000 people were killed after a highly
toxic
vapour, (methyl isocyanate), was released at a Union Carbide pesticides factory.

4.2 Components of Disaster Relief

∙ Disaster relief means first aid provided for alleviating the suffering of domestic
disaster victims.
∙ Hence it aims to meet the immediate needs of the victims of a disastrous event.
∙ Usually, it includes humanitarian services and transportation, food, clothing,
medicine, beds and bedding, temporary shelter and housing, medical materiel,
medical and technical personnel, and repairs to essential services.
∙ From earlier times, disaster relief is considered a local responsibility of the federal
government to provide assistance, when local and state relief capacities are
exhausted.
4.2.1 Water
∙ Global access to safe water, adequate sanitation, and proper hygiene education can
reduce illness and death from disease, leading to improved health, poverty
reduction, and socio-economic development. However, many countries are
challenged to provide these basic necessities to their populations, leaving people
at risk for water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-related diseases.

Community water systems and water safety plans

∙ A couple pumps water out of a community well Human health and well-being are
strongly affected by the environment in which we live - the air we breathe, the
water we drink, and the food and nutrients we eat. Community water systems
and water safety plans are important ways to ensure the health of the
community.

∙ In many places, communities lack the capacity to effectively adapt their current
systems for water, sanitation, and hygiene to the community’s changing needs
(population growth, changes in water quality).
∙ According to the World Health Organization, the objectives of a water safety plan
are to ensure safe drinking water through good water supply practices, which
include :
o Preventing contamination of source waters;
o Treating the water to reduce or remove contamination that could be present to
the extent necessary to meet the water quality targets; and

o Preventing re-contamination during storage, distribution, and handling of

drinking water.

Prepare an emergency water supply

∙ Store at least 1 gallon of water per day for each person and each pet. Consider
storing more water than this for hot climates, for pregnant women, and for
people who are sick.
∙ Store at least a 3-day supply of water for each person and each pet. Try to store a
2-week supply if possible.
∙ Observe the expiration date for store-bought water; replace other stored water
every 6 months.
∙ Store a bottle of unscented liquid household chlorine bleach to disinfect your water
and to use for general cleaning and sanitizing. Try to store bleach in an area
where the average temperature stays around 70°F (21°C). Because the amount
of active chlorine in bleach decreases over time due to normal decay, consider
replacing the bottle each year.
• Note : Alcohol dehydrate the body, which increases the need for drinking water.
Water Containers (Cleaning and Storage)
∙ Unopened commercially bottled water is the safest and most reliable emergency
water supply.
∙ Use of food-grade water storage containers, such as those found at surplus or
camping supply stores, is recommended if you prepare stored water yourself. ∙
Before filling with safe water, use these steps to clean and sanitize storage
containers :

∙ Wash the storage container with dishwashing soap and water and rinse completely
with clean water.
∙ Sanitize the container by adding a solution made by mixing 1 teaspoon of
unscented liquid household chlorine bleach in one quart of water.
∙ Cover the container and shake it well so that the sanitizing bleach solution touches
all inside surfaces of the container.
∙ Wait at least 30 seconds and then pour the sanitizing solution out of the
container. ∙ Let the empty sanitized container air-dry before use OR rinse the
empty container
with clean, safe water that already is available.
∙ Avoid using the following containers to store safe water:
∙ Containers that cannot be sealed tightly
∙ Containers that can break, such as glass bottles
∙ Containers that have ever held toxic solid or liquid chemicals, such as bleach or
pesticides
∙ Plastic or cardboard bottles, jugs, and containers used for milk or fruit juices

For proper water storage :

∙ Label container as “drinking water” and include storage date.
∙ Replace stored water that is not commercially bottled every six
months. ∙ Keep stored water in a place with a fairly constant cool
temperature. ∙ Do not store water containers in direct sunlight.
∙ Do not store water containers in areas where toxic substances such as gasoline or
pesticides are present.
4.2.2 Food

Prepare an emergency food supply

A disaster can easily disrupt the food supply at any time, so plan to have at least
a 3-day supply of food on hand.
Keep foods that :
∙ Have a long storage life.
∙ Require little or no cooking, water, or refrigeration, in case utilities are
disrupted. ∙ Meet the needs of babies or other family members who are on
special diets. ∙ Meet pets’ needs.

∙ Are not very salty or spicy, as these foods increase the need for drinking water,
which may be in short supply.

How to store emergency food

∙ When storing food, it is not necessary to buy dehydrated or other types of
emergency food.
∙ Check the expiration dates on canned foods and dry mixes. Home-canned food
usually needs to be thrown out after a year.
∙ Use and replace food before its expiration date.

∙ Certain storage conditions can enhance the shelf life of canned or dried foods.
The ideal location is a cool, dry, dark place. The best temperature is 40 ° to 70
°F. ∙ Store foods away from ranges or refrigerator exhausts. Heat causes many
foods to spoil more quickly.
∙ Store food away from petroleum products, such as gasoline, oil, paints, and
solvents. Some food products absorb their smell.
∙ Protect food from rodents and insects. Items stored in boxes or in paper cartons
will keep longer if they are heavily wrapped or stored in waterproof, airtight
containers.

Preparing food
Preparing food after a disaster or emergency may be difficult due to damage to
your home and loss of electricity, gas, and water. Having the following items
available will help you to prepare meals safely :

Cooking utensils
∙ Knives, forks, and spoons
∙ Paper plates, cups, and towels
∙ A manual can- and bottle-opener
∙ Heavy-duty aluminum foil
∙ Propane gas or charcoal grill; camp stove
∙ Fuel for cooking, such as charcoal. (CAUTION : Only use charcoal grills or camp
stoves outside of your home to avoid smoke inhalation and carbon monoxide
poisoning.)

Clean and sanitize food-contact surfaces in a four-step process :

∙ Wash with soap and hot, clean water.

∙ Rinse with clean water.

∙ Sanitize by immersing for 1 minute in a solution of 1 cup (8 oz/240 mL) of
unscented household chlorine bleach in 5 gallons of clean water.
∙ Allow to air dry.

4.2.3 Sanitation and Hygiene

∙ Sanitation and hygiene are critical to health, survival, and development. Many
countries are challenged in providing adequate sanitation for their entire
populations, leaving people at risk for water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-
related diseases.
∙ Throughout the world, an estimated 2.4 billion people lack basic sanitation (more
than 32 % of the world’s population).
∙ Basic sanitation is described as having access to facilities for the safe disposal of
human waste (feces and urine), as well as having the ability to maintain hygienic
conditions, through services such as garbage collection, industrial/hazardous
waste management, and wastewater treatment and disposal.

The need for latrines and toilets

∙ Proper sanitation facilities (for example, toilets and latrines) promote health
because they allow people to dispose of their waste appropriately.
∙ Throughout the developing world, many people do not have access to suitable
sanitation facilities, resulting in improper waste disposal.

Absence of basic sanitation facilities can

∙ Result in an unhealthy environment contaminated by human waste. Without proper
sanitation facilities, waste from infected individuals can contaminate a
community’s land and water, increasing the risk of infection for other
individuals.
∙ Proper waste disposal can slow the infection cycle of many disease-causing
agents ∙ Contribute to the spread of many diseases/conditions that can cause
widespread illness and death. Without proper sanitation facilities, people often
have no choice but to live in and drink water from an environment contaminated
with waste
from infected individuals, thereby putting themselves at risk for future
infection. ∙ Inadequate waste disposal drives the infection cycle of many agents
that can be spread through contaminated soil, food, water, and insects such as
flies.
Personal hygiene and handwashing after a disaster or emergency
∙ Handwashing under faucet
∙ Disaster kit
∙ Handwashing
∙ When to wash hands
∙ Bathing
∙ Dental hygiene

∙ Wound care
∙ Good basic personal hygiene and handwashing are critical to help prevent the
spread of illness and disease. Clean, safe running water is essential for proper
hygiene and handwashing.
∙ Hygiene is especially important in an emergency such as a flood, hurricane, or
earthquake, but finding clean, safe running water can sometimes be difficult.
The following information will help to ensure good hygiene and handwashing in
the event of an emergency.
∙ Disaster supplies kit (Hygiene supplies)
∙ Before an emergency, make sure you have created a disaster supplies kit.

Handwashing
Keeping hands clean during an emergency helps prevent the spread of germs. If
your tap water is not safe to use, wash your hands with soap and water that has been
boiled or disinfected. Follow these steps to make sure you wash your hands properly
:
∙ Wet your hands with clean, running water (warm or cold) and apply soap. ∙
Rub your hands together to make a lather and scrub them well; be sure to scrub
the backs of your hands, between your fingers, and under your nails. ∙ Continue
rubbing your hands for at least 20 seconds. Need a timer ? Hum the “Happy
Birthday” song from beginning to end twice.
∙ Rinse your hands well under running water.
∙ Dry your hands using a clean towel or air dry them.
∙ A temporary hand washing station pdf icon[PDF-38 kB]external icon can be
created by using a large water jug that contains clean water (for example, boiled
or disinfected).

∙ Washing hands with soap and water is the best way to reduce the number of germs
on them. If soap and water are not available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer
that contains at least 60 % alcohol. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers can quickly
reduce the number of germs on hands in some situations, but sanitizers do not
eliminate all types of germs.
∙ Hand sanitizers are not effective when hands are visibly dirty.
When to wash hands
Wash hands with soap and clean, running water (if available) :

∙ Before, during, and after preparing food

∙ Before eating food
∙ After using the toilet
∙ After changing diapers or cleaning up a child who has used the
toilet ∙ Before and after caring for someone who is sick
∙ After blowing your nose, coughing, or sneezing
∙ After touching an animal or animal waste
∙ After touching garbage
∙ Before and after treating a cut or wound
∙ Other hand hygiene resources
∙ Food and water safety and hand hygiene resources
∙ Handwashing : Clean hands save lives
∙ Safe and healthy diapering for emergency settings
∙ Do not use contaminated water to wash dishes, brush your teeth, wash and prepare
food, or make ice.

Bathing
∙ Bathing or showering after a water-related emergency should only be done with
clean, safe water. Sometimes water that is not safe to drink can be used for
bathing, but be careful not to swallow any water or get it in your eyes.
∙ If you have a drinking water well, listen to your local health authorities for advice
on using your well water for showering and bathing. If extensive flooding has
occurred or you suspect that your well may be contaminated, contact your local,
state, or tribal health department for specific advice on well testing and
disinfection.

Dental hygiene
∙ Brushing your teeth after a water-related emergency should only be done with
clean, safe water. Listen to local authorities to find out if tap water is safe to use.
∙ Visit the safe drinking water for personal use page for more information about
making your water safe for brushing your teeth.
∙ You may visit CDC’s Oral Health Web site for complete dental hygiene
information.

Wound care
∙ Keeping wounds clean and covered is crucial during an emergency. Open wounds
and rashes exposed to flood waters can become infected. To protect yourself and
your family :
 ∙ Avoid contact with flood waters if you have an open wound.
∙ Cover clean, open wounds with a waterproof bandage to reduce chance of
infection.
∙ Keep open wounds as clean as possible by washing well with soap and clean
water.
∙ If a wound develops redness, swelling, or oozing, seek immediate medical
care. ∙ Vibrios are naturally occurring bacteria that live in certain coastal waters.
They can cause a skin infection when an open wound is exposed to salt water or
a mix of salt and fresh water, which can occur during floods.
∙ The risk for injury during and after a hurricane and other natural disasters is high.
Prompt first aid can help heal small wounds and prevent infection. Wash your
hands with soap and water before and after providing first aid for a wound to
help prevent infection. Use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer that contains at least
60 % if soap and water are not available. Tetanus, other bacterial infections, and
fungal infections are potential health threats for persons who have open
wounds.

Seek medical attention as soon as possible if :

∙ There is a foreign object (soil, wood, metal, or other objects) embedded in the
wound;
∙ The wound is at special risk of infection (such as a dog bite or a puncture by a dirty
object);
∙ An old wound shows signs of becoming infected (increased pain and soreness,
swelling, redness, draining, or you develop a fever).

Septic and onsite wastewater systems

∙ A well-maintained and constructed septic system will better withstand the stresses
of heavy rains or flooding. Regular inspection is necessary to ensure proper
functioning.
∙ During heavy rains and floods, the ground can become saturated, preventing
proper operation of the system. For example, a septic tank can collapse or float
out of position. Signs that a septic system is not working properly include the
following :
∙ Sinks drain slowly

∙ Toilets drain slowly

∙ Floor drains overflow
∙ Sewage becomes visible outside the home
4.2.4 Shelters
∙ Individual family shelter should always be preferred to communal accommodation
as it provides the necessary privacy, psychological comfort, and emotional
safety.
∙ It also provides safety and security for people and possessions and helps to
preserve or rebuild family unity.
∙ Emergency shelter needs are best met by using the same locally available,
sustainably sourced materials and construction methods as would be normally
used by the refugees themselves or the local hosting population.
∙ Only if adequate quantities cannot be quickly obtained locally should emergency
shelter material be brought into the country.
∙ The simplest structures, and labour-intensive building methods, are preferable.
∙ Materials should be environmentally friendly and obtained in a sustainable
manner.
∙ Plastic sheeting has become the most important shelter component in many
humanitarian response operations often in combination with rigid materials, as
they offer flexibility and can be used in a variety of ways in both urban and rural
settings.

∙ Regardless of the type of emergency shelter used the following principles

generally apply :
o Shelters must provide protection from the elements, space to live and store
belongings, privacy and emotional security.
o Blankets, mats, and tarpaulin must be provided as needed.
o Refugee shelter should be culturally and socially appropriate and familiar
where possible. Suitable local materials are best, if available.

o Shelter must be adequate regardless of seasonal weather patterns, if not it

should be adapted accordingly.
o Wherever possible, persons of concern should be empowered to build their
own shelter, with the necessary organizational and material support. ∙ This will
help to ensure that the shelter will meet their particular needs, promote a sense
of ownership and self-reliance, and reduces costs and construction time
considerably
∙ Each type of emergency shelter has advantages and disadvantages depending on
the context in which it is used. Consider the following points when deciding on
the emergency shelter or combination of shelter types to be used in any given
response :
 Shelter solution Pros Cons

Family tents Traditional relief tent;

Inflexible; may be unstable in high
lightweight; proven design;
winds or heavy snow, difficult to
good headroom; can be
heat.
winterised; large production
Where tents are used for long
capacities.
durations, provisions for repair
materials should be considered.

Plastic sheeting Most important shelter

Collecting wood for shelters'
component in many relief
support frames or stick skeletons
operations; UV-resistant; heavy
can considerably harm the
duty; lightweight, flexible; large
environment if collected from
production
surrounding forests. It is therefore
capacities.
important to always consider
sustainable sources of framing
material which is sufficient to
support plastic.

Materials and tools

Suitable local materials are best,
Required time and training
for construction
if available, and must be suitable
(shelter kits)
for variance in the seasons,
culturally and socially
appropriate and familiar.
 Prefabricated
Permanent or semi-permanent
High unit cost; long shipping time;
shelter and
structures; long lasting.
long production time; transport
containers
challenges; assembly challenges;
inflexibility; disregard cultural and
social norms.

Rental subsidies Greater sense of independence;

Difficult to monitor that shelter
greater integration in a
meets standards; competitive
community; influx of income to
market may result in exploitation
host community.
and abuse; inflation and
speculation may occur; upgrades
or repairs may be needed.

4.2.5 Health

Management of medical supply

∙ Disasters can also cause disruptions to the health care infrastructure. ∙ Hospitals
and health centers may suffer structural damage, or health personnel may be
among the casualties, limiting the ability to provide health services to disaster
victims.
∙ Emergency health kits that contain essential medical supplies and drugs are
often provided to victims as part of the immediate response to disasters. ∙ These
kits are designed to meet the primary health care needs of people without access
to medical facilities.
∙ Each kit covers the needs of about 10,000 persons for three months ∙ The
twelve essential drugs in the basic kit include anti-inflammatories, an antacid, a
disinfectant, oral dehydration salts, an antimalarial, a basic antibiotic (effective
against the most common bacteria), and an ointment for eye infections.

Assessment of immediate health needs

∙ Natural disasters do not usually result in infectious disease outbreaks.
However, certain circumstances can increase the chance for disease
 transmission. ∙ Immediately after a disaster, most increases in disease incidence
are caused by fecal contamination of water and food supplies.
∙ This contamination usually results in intestinal disease. Outbreaks of
communicable diseases are directly associated with population density and
displacement.
∙ If disaster victims live in overcrowded conditions or are forced to leave their
homes, the risk of a disease outbreak increases.

Disposal of dead
∙ In many emergency situations, especially in the immediate aftermath of a natural
disaster such as an earthquake or cyclone, there may be many dead bodies that
require appropriate disposal.
∙ Despite many myths and rumours to the contrary, exposure to dead human bodies
is not in itself a serious health hazard except in specific cases. For this reason,
bodies should as far as possible be handled and buried or cremated by the
families of the dead people, in ways which are as close as possible to their
normal cultural and religious practices. Mass cremation or mass burial should be
avoided if possible.

4.2.6 Waste Management

∙ Depending on their nature and severity, disasters can create large volumes of
debris and waste.
∙ The waste can overwhelm existing solid waste management facilities and impact
on other emergency response and recovery activities.
∙ If poorly managed, the waste can have significant environmental and public health
impacts and can affect the overall recovery process.
Sewer systems and wastewater management
∙ A sewer system pipe opening, along with the dirty water coming out of it. ∙
Community wastewater management and adequate sewer systems play
important roles in sanitation and disease prevention.

∙ Wastewater can contaminate the local environment and drinking water supply,
thereby increasing the risk of disease transmission.
∙ Therefore, to improve health, it is vital to develop a system to manage community
wastewater and sewage.
∙ In many countries, proper wastewater management is not practiced due to lack of
resources, infrastructure, available technology, and space.
4.2.7 Institutional Arrangements
National level
∙ In the event of a disaster of a severe nature, National Crisis Management
Committee under Cabinet Crisis Management Committee under Cabinet
 Secretary gives policy directions and guidelines to the Secretary gives policy
directions and guidelines to the Crisis Management Group where national/
international efforts are required. international efforts are required.
∙ Crisis Management Group in MHA reviews the situation in Inter situation in Inter-
Ministerial meeting to coordinate Ministerial meeting to coordinate various
emergency support functions for the affected various emergency support
functions for the affected States. States.
∙ Union Cabinet may set up a Cabinet Committee/Task Force/GoM for effective
coordination of relief for effective coordination of relief measures in the
wake of calamities of severe nature.
State level
∙ A State level Crisis Management Committee under the Chairmanship of Chief
Secretary is responsible for formulating policies and guidelines for management
of natural disasters in the States.
∙ This committee comprises of concerned functionaries in various State
Departments and representatives of Central Organizations located in the State. ∙
State Relief Commissioner is the Nodal Officer for coordinating the activities
for relief operations in the event of natural disasters.

District level
∙ District level is the focal point in a disaster situation from which disaster management related
activities are coordinated and implemented.
∙ A district level committee exists under the District Collector / Deputy Commissioner.
∙ District Collector is the key functionary for directing, supervising and monitoring
all disaster management operations.
Role of Central and State Governments
∙ Central and State Governments are jointly responsible for undertaking mitigation,
preparedness, response, relief and rehabilitation preparedness, response, relief and rehabilitation
measures.
∙ Central Government supplements the efforts of State Government by providing financial and
logistic support in case of a major calamity.
∙ Involvement of local bodies, NGOs, Self help Involvement of local bodies, Self help groups etc
in relief and response.

4.3 Mitigation, Response and Preparedness

Mitigation : Activities aimed at trying to mitigate the impact of a disaster if prevention is not
possible, such as building schools to be more earthquake resistant. Response : Activities aimed
at understanding needs and responding to them, including rapid assessments, provision of food
and non-food items, provision of water, sanitation and hygiene services, and health and shelter
interventions. In the immediate hours and days after a disaster, when search-and-rescue
activities are critical, it is most often local actors who are first to respond. Information is often
patchy and confused; there can be significant damage to infrastructure, and large movements of
people.
Preparedness : Activities aimed at trying to prepare communities for a disaster, such as
emergency drills or pre-stocking relief items in logistic hubs.
∙ This involves measures designed for lessening the likely effects of emergencies.
∙ Includes appropriate land-use planning, flood mitigation works, improved building codes
improving structural qualities of schools, houses and such other buildings so that medical
causalities can be minimized.
∙ Ensuring the safety of health facilities and public health services including water supply and
sewerage system to reduce the cost of rehabilitation and reconstruction.
∙ Mitigation compliments the disaster preparedness and disaster response activities. ∙
Preparedness efforts include plans or preparations made in advance of an emergency that help
individuals and communities get ready to either respond or to recover. It aims to achieve a
satisfactory level of readiness to respond to any emergency situation through programs that
strengthen the technical and managerial capacity of governments, organizations, and
communities.
∙ These measures can be described as logistical readiness to deal with disasters and can be
enhanced by having response mechanisms and procedures, rehearsals, developing long-term
and short-term strategies, public education and building early warning systems.
∙ The preparations may include the stocking of reserve food and water, the gathering and
screening of willing community volunteers, or citizens education & evacuation plan, holding
disaster drills, and installing smoke detectors, mutual aid agreements, development of hospital
disaster plans, emergency medical service plans, etc.
∙ Preparedness activities increase a community’s ability to respond when a disaster occurs.
The National Incident Management System (NIMS) defines preparedness as "a continuous
cycle of planning, organizing, training, equipping, exercising, evaluating, and taking
corrective action in an effort to ensure effective coordination during incident response."
∙ This preparedness cycle is one element of a broader National Preparedness System to
prevent, respond to, recover from, and mitigate against natural disasters, acts of terrorism, and
other man-made disasters.
∙ Typical preparedness measures include developing mutual aid agreements and
memorandums of understanding, training for both response personnel and concerned citizens,
conducting disaster exercises to reinforce training and test capabilities, and presenting all-
hazards education campaigns.

∙ Unlike mitigation activities, which are aimed at preventing a disaster from occurring, personal
preparedness focuses on preparing equipment and procedures for use when a disaster occurs, i.e.
planning.
∙ Preparedness measures can take many forms including the construction of shelters, installation
of warning devices, creation of back-up life-line services (e.g. power, water, sewage), and
rehearsing evacuation plans.
∙ Two simple measures can help prepare the individual for sitting out the event or evacuating, as
necessary. For evacuation, a disaster supplies kit may be prepared and for sheltering purposes a
stockpile of supplies may be created. These kits may include food, medicine, flashlights, candles
and money.

4.4 Disaster Management Act and Policy

Definitions - In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires -
"Affected area" means an area or part of the country affected by a disaster; "Capacity-building"
includes -
∙ Identification of existing resources and resources to be acquired or created; ∙ Acquiring or
creating resources identified under sub-clause (i);
∙ Organization and training of personnel and coordination of such training for effective
management of disasters;
"Central Government" means the Ministry or Department of the Government of India having
administrative control of disaster management;
"Disaster" means a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from
natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life
or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation of,
environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the
community of the affected area;
"Disaster management" means a continuous and integrated process of planning, organising,
coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for -
Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster;
∙ Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences; ∙ Capacity-
building;
∙ Preparedness to deal with any disaster;
∙ Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster
∙ Evacuation, rescue and relief;
∙ Rehabilitation and reconstruction;
∙ "District Authority" means the District Disaster Management Authority constituted
under sub-section (1) of section 25;
∙ "District Plan" means the plan for disaster management for the district prepared
under section 31;
∙ "Local authority" includes panchayati raj institutions, municipalities, a district
board, cantonment board, town planning authority or Zila Parishad or any
other body or authority, by whatever name called, for the time being invested
by law, for rendering essential services or, with the control and management
of civic services, within a specified local area;
∙ "Mitigation" means measures aimed at reducing the risk, impact or effects of a
disaster or threatening disaster situation;
∙ "National Authority" means the National Disaster Management Authority
established under sub-section (1) of section 3;
∙ "National Executive Committee" means the Executive Committee of the National
Authority constituted under sub-section (1) of section 8;
∙ "National Plan" means the plan for disaster management for the whole of the
country prepared under section 11;
∙ "Preparedness" means the state of readiness to deal with a threatening disaster
situation or disaster and the effects thereof;
∙ "Prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act;
∙ "Reconstruction" means construction or restoration of any property after a
disaster;
∙ "Resources" includes manpower, services, materials and provisions; ∙ "State
Authority" means the State Disaster Management Authority established under
sub-section (1) of section 14 and includes the Disaster Management Authority
for the Union territory constituted under that section;
∙ "State Executive Committee" means the Executive Committee of a State Authority
constituted under sub-section (1) of section 20;
∙ "State Government" means the Department of Government of the State having
administrative control of disaster management and includes Administrator of the
Union territory appointed by the President under article 239 of the Constitution;

∙ "State Plan" means the plan for disaster management for the whole of the State
prepared under section 23.

India : National policy on Disaster Management 2009

This policy aims at :
i) Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and resilience at all levels
through knowledge, innovation and education;
ii) Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology, traditional wisdom and
environmental sustainability;
iii) Mainstreaming disaster management into the developmental planning
process; iv) Establishing institutional and technolegal frameworks to create an
enabling regulatory environment and a compliance regime;
v) Ensuring efficient mechanism for identification, assessment and monitoring of
disaster risks;
vi) Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning systems backed by
responsive and fail-safe communication with information technology support;
vii) Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring approach towards the
needs of the vulnerable sections of the society;
viii) Undertaking reconstruction as an opportunity to build disaster resilient
structures and habitat for ensuring safer living; and
ix) Promoting a productive and proactive partnership with the media for disaster
management.
This policy of 2009 replaces the policy of 2005.
 4.5 Other Related Policies, Plans, Programmes and Legislation

A) Indian Constitution and Natural Disaster

∙ Indian Constitution, the Magna Carta of Fundamental Rights for Indians
guarantees protection of life and security with the purpose of ensuring a welfare
State.
∙ Not only the laws and regulations framed by the Central and State Governments
have to be in conformity with the Constitutional provisions, but also the
authorities have a duty under the Constitution to safeguard and protect the
Fundamental Rights.

∙ The scope and applicability of these Fundamental Rights and the validity of the
laws passed by the legislatures and the executive actions of the government are
often the subject matter of various decisions by the Supreme Court of India.

B) The Environment Protection Act, 1986

∙ After the Bhopal Gas Leak Tragedy, the Indian Parliament enacted the
Environment (Protection) Act (EPA), 1986 for the purpose of safeguarding and
protecting the environment from unregulated industrial or other activities. Under
the EPA, the central Government is entrusted with responsibility to take all the
measures for protecting and improving the quality of the environment and
preventing controlling and abating environmental pollution.
∙ It prohibits persons carrying on any industry, operation or process from
discharging or emitting any environmental pollutants in excess of prescribed
standards.
∙ The EPA imposes obligations on persons handling any hazardous substance to
follow prescribed procedure and comply with prescribed safeguards.

C) Environment Impact Assessment Statement

∙ In the year 1994, a notification was issued by the Central Government under
Section 3 of EPA making it mandatory on the part of all new industrial units and
those with intent to modernize or expand to submit an Environment Impact
Assessment (EIA) Statement for the purpose of obtaining clearance from the
Central Government for setting up industrial projects.

D) The ‘Manufacture, Storage and Impact of Hazardous Chemical Rules’, 1989 ∙ In

the Year 1989, the Central Government framed the „Manufacture, Storage and
Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules‟, 1987 under the EPA.
∙ The principal objective of the rules is the prevention of major accidents arising
from industrial activity, the limitation of the effects of such accidents both on
humans and the environment, and the harmonization of the various control
measures and the agencies to prevent and limit major accidents.

E) The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 1991.

∙ In the year 1991, with a view to protect the fragile ecosystem of the coastal areas
in India from unregulated developmental activities, the Government of India
 issued Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification under the EPA to control
the developmental activities within 500 meters of High Tide Line (HTL).

F) The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991

∙ The parliament also enacted the “Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991‟ to provide
for public liability insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to the
persons affected by accidents occurring while handling hazardous substances.
∙ The Act imposes on the person, who has control over handling any hazardous
substance, the liability to give the relief specified in the Act to all the victims of
any accident, which occurs while handling such substance.

G) The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997

∙ This Act has been enacted to provide for the establishment of a National
Environment Appellate Authority to hear appeals with respect to restriction of
areas in which any industries, operations or process or class of industries, shall
not be carried out subject to certain safeguards under the EPA.

4.6 Role of GIS and Information Technology Components in Preparedness,

Risk Assessment, Response and Recovery Phases of Disaster ∙ Disasters are
spatial in nature as they strike at a specific location and influence a particular area.
∙ Location intelligence plays a critical role in disaster management. GIS coupled
with remote sensing provides a basic framework that helps in all the stages of
disaster management starting from preparedness, to response and recovery.
∙ Through advanced wireless technologies and web-based GIS applications, disaster
management by governments and other agencies is being revolutionized and is
enhancing the coordination of response efforts as well as planning for disaster
risk reduction.
∙ GIS decision support systems for disaster have been applied in several parts of the
world for effective management.
∙ For assessing disaster risks, one needs an understanding of key disaster event
characteristics such as location of impact (for example, earthquake epicenter,
cyclone landfall), physical characteristics (magnitude in case of earthquakes,
central pressure in case of cyclones), local conditions like land use and type and
height of structures.
∙ These characteristics require an understanding of the geography of the impacted
area in order to model the hazard intensity and severity and to understand the
impact on buildings, infrastructure and population, and at the same time respond
to the disaster for evacuation and rehabilitation works.

∙ Use of GIS and remote sensing, helps conduct all these tasks in a planned an
efficient manner.
∙ Earlier, when the concept of GIS did not exist, response decisions during disasters
were taken mostly on the basis of prior experience and intuition rather than any
live information.
∙ But today, live data on many parameters such as topography, geographic features,
population, infrastructure, demographics can be crucial to the response and
recovery activities.
∙ GIS has the power to integrate data from various sources into a common
platform
and make it readily accessible to various stakeholders for disaster
management. It enables dissemination of critical information in a timely
manner in cases of emergencies.
∙ Further, the visualization of this data helps in analyzing a situation and taking
quick decisions. In advanced countries of the world, GIS has been successfully
utilized to address all phases of disaster management-preparedness, mitigation,
response, and recovery.
∙ It is very helpful to lay a foundation of GIS as all these stages are interconnected.
The output of one stage serves as input to the next stage.

4.6.1 Awareness and Preparedness

Some critical questions that arise during awareness and preparedness for disaster
management are :
∙ What is the population of the area,
∙ Location of buildings and infrastructure,
∙ Social and structural characteristics of the area,
∙ Population at risk, evacuation time and technique,
∙ Location of the safe structures that could be used as shelters and others ? GIS
and remote sensing techniques can be used to build database of critical facilities
such as hospitals, ambulances, fire stations, police stations, schools and other places
which can be helpful for planning purposes.
∙ Disaster maps can be prepared to show the risk zones as well as disaster impact
zones. From a mitigation point of view, hazard maps can be created for various
natural and manmade hazards such as floods, earthquakes, cyclones, forest fires
etc., that help in understanding the risk of a location and planning accordingly
for the same.

∙ For e.g., in areas with high earthquake vulnerability, retrofitting of structures and
enforcing strict building codes is a must. The governments and local agencies
can preplan and improve preparedness by mapping evacuation routes, shelter
planning, debris removal planning, stocking enough supplies, conducting mock
drills etc.

4.6.2 Risk Assessment

∙ A fundamental principal of risk assessment is that risk due to natural catastrophes
such as earthquakes, hurricanes and flood, is location dependent, and that it can
be assessed within an acceptable range of uncertainty if reliable historical and
location specific data is available.
∙ Risk assessment of natural catastrophes has two components-hazard and
vulnerability. The hazard is a measure of the physical intensity of the peril
(earthquake, wind, surge, etc.) at a particular location and the associated
probabilities of these intensities. Hazard is location dependent.
∙ For example a location which is surrounded by seismic faults and has a weak
surface geology has a higher hazard potential than a location for away from
faults and with strong surface geology.
∙ Similarly, hurricane, hazard at a location near the coast and with a flat, bare
terrain is far higher than at a location which is inland and has a rugged terrain. ∙
Vulnerability is a measure of the damage that the peril can cause to the built
environment (house, buildings, infrastructure and utilities) at that location. ∙
Manmade structure respond to different perils in different ways, depending on
the design of their structural systems and methods of constructions. ∙ Flood and
cyclones play havoc with irrigation processes in the coastal areas of Andhra
Pradesh. On the other hand, the Rayalseema and Telenagana regions with
semiarid to arid climatic conditions are frequently affected by droughts. ∙ The
worst affected are the rural people who are not adequately warned about the
impending disasters.
∙ Now, the Andhra Pradesh State Remote Sensing Applications Centre (APSRC) has
developed a remote sensing application to overcome some of the problems that
the state faces.

4.6.3 Planning and Mitigation

∙ Earlier, the role of governments during natural calamities was limited to rescue,
relief and rehabilitation. With changing times, mitigation and main streaming of
disaster risk reduction has become a crucial activity requiring government
intervention.
∙ GIS is enabling development of decision support systems capable of assessing
risk from natural disasters and helping governments in mitigation and planning.
∙ RMSI has developed an innovative ‘Decision support system for disaster risk
reduction’ that utilizes the outcomes of multi-hazard risk assessment for
activities performed for mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.
∙ This framework has been successfully implemented in several nations of the world
and has proven to be an impactful tool for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction.
Mathematical modeling and GIS analytics form the backbone of this
framework.

4.6.4 Response and Recovery

∙ Responding to a disaster adequately requires critical information like the location
where the disaster has occurred, intensity and severity of the event in various
disaster zones, areas of maximum damage, location of impacted population and
the kind of resources needed to evacuate the trapped population.
∙ GIS and remote sensing techniques coupled with technologies like satellite
imagery, aerial photography using aircraft or drones can help find answers to
many such questions.
∙ Soon after a disaster strikes, use of remote sensing technologies (such as aerial
photographs or satellite images) can be used to map the affected locations and
compare the data to historical information to assess the overall damage.
∙ While remote sensing aids in map preparation, GIS can be used for storage of
digitized maps, their visualization and analysis.
∙ There is a greater need for liaisoning of the public and private sector. GIS
organizations such as RMSI are equipped to turn around such tasks at a faster
rate, provided high resolution satellite imagery is made available by the
government bodies or private companies. Further, this is supported by on ground
sample damage assessment surveys conducted by experts. RMSI experts have
participated multiple times in such post disaster surveys, including the Gujarat

earthquake, Mumbai floods in 2005, Surat floods in 2006 and Krishna river
floods in 2008.
∙ Damage assessment helps in estimating the number of households damaged and
families displaced along with casualties and injured in short term, as well as the
damaged infrastructure.
∙ It also helps in re-establishing communication so that it performs better in future or
laying foundation for an emergency communication network that could activates
immediately in the aftermath of a disaster.
∙ At the same time, estimates of economic impacts and social impacts can be
traced
as the information would help in identifying the most affected families,
particularly widows, single parent children, orphans, differently-abled
persons and senior citizens.
∙ Furthermore, GIS platforms have proven to be very useful in connecting dislocated
families. Open applications with abilities to upload the photographs of missing
family members and tagging the location of other family members have been
applied for several disasters worldwide.
∙ GIS technology is increasingly being used in spatial decision support systems. In
the past few years, GIS emerged as a powerful risk assessment tool and is being
put to use to assess risk to property and life stemming from natural hazards such
as earthquakes, hurricanes, cyclones and floods. Manipulation, analysis, and
graphic presentation of the risk and hazard data can be done within a GIS
system, and because these data have associated location information which is
also stored within the GIS, their spatial interrelationships can be determined and
used in computer based risk assessment models. This assessment can be used by
insurance companies to help them make decisions on their insurance policy
rates, by land developers to make decisions on the feasibility of project sites,
and by government planners for better disaster preparedness.
4.7 Disaster Damage Assessment
Damage assessment is an important tool for retrospective and prospective analysis
of disasters to assimilate the extent of impact of a disaster. This forms the basis for
future disaster preparedness and preventive planning. It is essential in determining :
what happened, what the effects were, which areas were hardest hit, what situations
must be given priority and what types of assistance are needed, for example, Local,
State, or Union ? Emergency response can be more effective, equipment and
personnel can be better used, and help can be provided quicker if a thorough
damage assessment is performed beforehand. The basic objectives of damage
assessment could be summarised as follows :
∙ To make a rapid assessment of areas affected to know the extent of impact for
purpose of immediate rescue and relief operations;
∙ To prepare estimates for the amount of relief to be provided and the mode of relief,
be it food, clothing, medicines, shelter or other essential commodities; o To
make a detailed assessment regarding requirements for long-term relief and
rehabilitation planning; and
o To identify focus areas for the purpose of ‘retrofitting’ actions in similar future
situations.
∙ Damage assessment is therefore a prerequisite for effective disaster response
effort. For effective decisions, officials responsible for organising post-disaster
relief operations should be properly informed of the damage/possible damage
should the event repeat itself some-time in the future, so that they can know the
needs, current, as well as prospective, in precise terms.
∙ They must have appropriate and timely information about : what happened, what
needs to be done, and what resources are available ? Their decisions can save
lives; minimise injury, damage and loss; prevent any further escalation; prevent
secondary hazards and inform people who need to know. Well-organised
response will also help in building confidence and enhancing the credibility of
the administration.
∙ Relief operations are essentially about the management of information and
resources, which is based on assessments and reports carried out from time to
time. Information is needed at all levels of administration but the nature of the
information required varies from one level to another. Good assessment and
reporting require forethought; hence, the assessment and reporting system
should be established during the preparedness planning stage.

4.7.1 Essential Features of Damage Assessment

A) Flow of information
There is a clearly defined sequence to managing information:
Converting raw data to useful information;
∙ Information input;

∙ Sorting (grading, collating, discarding what is unreliable);

 ∙ Evaluation;
∙ Decision making;
∙ Information output (dissemination); and
∙ Action
For example, specific objectives for damage assessment in the aftermath of
cyclones and droughts would include :
∙ Identification of the extent of damage or loss
∙ Identification of the types of assistance needed
∙ Identification of crops that can be grown as an interim substitute ∙
Determination of the amount of seeds, fertilizer and tools needed, the resources
available in the area, and the amount of supplies required from outside the
affected area.
∙ Identification of local institutions that could carry out the program and their
capabilities.
∙ Identification of the level of farming skills in the affected
community ∙ Determination of technical assistance requirements
∙ Determination of the receptivity of local institutions and the public to proposed
agricultural rehabilitation activities.
Data would be required regarding :
∙ Identification of the predominant food and cash crops, cropping patterns, and
normal production levels.
∙ Likely losses, such as; if whole or part of a crop is likely to be damaged, if any
portion could be salvaged by timely mitigation, the quantum of insurance that
would suffice, keeping in view, estimated losses.
∙ Identification of land problems to identify the extent of erosion, landslide zones,
flood-prone areas, and areas where desertification could occur.
∙ Also note agricultural land forms such as terraces or contour farming (or lack
thereof).
∙ Identification of water supply problems as certain disasters create special problems
in water supply, for example, salt water flooding in cyclones can pollute local
water wells and leave irrigation water salty; droughts dry up aquifers; wave
action can destroy irrigation channels and desert windstorms can erode or fill
shallow irrigation channels in arid zones.

∙ Determination of supply needs meaning, a determination should be made whether

additional seeds, tools, fertilizers, etc., or alternative seeds could be planted
immediately.
∙ For example, replacing traditional varieties of rice with a fast-growing variety may
be possible in some cases, yet this might require introduction of needed
fertilizers.
∙ Determination of local farming practices since it is important to identify the
social, cultural and traditional aspects of farming, especially in the low-income
 and subsistence farming sectors. The time needed to plant certain crops, the
normal
growing season, and information about seasonal availability or constraints to
certain types of crops is vital.
∙ It is also important to identify traditional responses to the disaster such as crop
diversification, growing alternative varieties or alternative crops, altering
cropping patterns, growing “famine foods,” or building food reserves.
∙ Determine the status of drought animals to check total losses and determine
whether the losses will delay rehabilitation. Check to see if animals need
emergency feeding, and determine whether farmers would have to sell them off.
∙ Institutional preparedness, studying ministries/departments engaged in disaster
management, whether, disaster plan, contingency funding, official maps are in
place, etc.

B) Utility of damage assessment

The information would enable :
∙ Quantified assessment of losses that would accrue to farmers and the likely impact
on food supply in the market.
∙ Planning interim assistance like insurance needs of identified vulnerable segments,
which are mainly, small-scale farmers, repairing irrigation systems, contouring,
farmland repair etc. that would help further mitigation efforts.
∙ Alternate supportive projects; also possibly for how long; leading to articulation of
long-term strategy for generating sustainable livelihoods and therefore achieving
risk reduction in the area.

C) Levels of assessment
Damage assessment is required at two basic levels of intervention. Firstly, it is
required for emergency relief measures in which quick assessment of damage is the
basis for the amount of relief material and food stocks that reach the disaster area.
This type of an assessment is called Rapid Damage Assessment. At the second level
would be, a detailed technical analysis of damage for long-term restoration and
rehabilitation works. From a long-term perspective, damage assessment scrutinises
the mechanisms of failure that took place during the disaster. It is called Detailed
Damage Assessment. These studies are very useful for all prevention and mitigation
efforts for disasters in the future.

4.7.2 Rapid Damage Assessment

The official agency for reporting estimates of disaster damages is usually the
Revenue
and Relief Department of the state government, as they are also the authority for
distributing relief to affected persons. As usual, there is a hierarchy of officials who
report from the lowest level of Villages/Panchayats through Blocks/Revenue
Circles, Tehsils/ Talukas, and Sub-divisions and finally to the districts and then to
the state headquarters.
 However, relief agencies including NGOs also have their own damage
assessment systems and teams to carry out the assessments. The basic items covered
in rapid assessment are :
∙ Name of the place.
∙ The relevant disasters.
∙ Date and time of disaster strike.
∙ Area affected.
∙ Total number of villages or neighbourhoods affected.
∙ Total population.
∙ Population affected in terms of number of people and households.
∙ Details of local bodies (panchayats or wards/municipalities)
affected. ∙ In case of floods, area still under water.
∙ In case of an earthquake or cyclone, buildings damaged.
∙ Infrastructure affected (transportation, power, social
infrastructure). ∙ Estimated number of deaths and injuries.
∙ Estimated loss of property.
∙ Closest sources of emergency aid.
4.7.3 Detailed Damage Assessment

Detailed damage assessment goes further than the rapid assessment, and it
includes the following additional information regarding disaster damage :
Verified number of human lives lost and number of injuries.

Livestock lost
a) Number.
b) Estimated value.
Details of damage to crops in hectares and estimated loss of produce in
quintals a) Hectares completely damaged.
b) Hectares partially damaged.
c) Hectares likely to be replanted or re-sown.
d) Extent affected in percentage.
e) Crops lost in quintals.
f) Estimated value of crops lost in rupees.

Houses damaged or destroyed

a) Number.
b) Estimated value.
Loss to public works and utilities including local bodies property
a) Name of the work and utility.
b) Nature of damage.
c) Estimated value of damage.
d) Estimated cost to restore work or/and utility.

4.7.4 Assessing Loss and Damage to Human Life

∙ Safety of human life is one of the prime objective of any humanitarian action. The
life of any human being is invaluable for the family, friends and for the larger
community and social groups.
∙ Risk to human life during natural disasters varies depending on factors such as
gender, age, social status, etc.
∙ The inequalities, poverty and other social imbalances contribute to this risk. ∙
The disaster may not cause deaths but injury or disability and stress and trauma
to the affected persons.

∙ This has grave ramifications on the lives of the affected, their relatives and friends.
Besides such impact, the loss of human lives may affect other aspects of the
lives of the survivors that may be necessary for dignified living such as ability of
the families to earn and the loss of care and protection providers.
∙ This loss due to the natural disasters is most overwhelming and brings focused
attention to the region.
∙ The loss of human life shapes the humanitarian response, as this is the greatest loss
that any affected region has to bear.
∙ The loss of human life, therefore, is the most critical part of any damage
assessment.
∙ The first information regarding this loss is to determine the baseline data related to
the number of families residing in the affected area, where the damage
assessment is being undertaken.
∙ The loss and damage to human life can be understood by its varying extent such
as
i) Deaths,
ii) Permanent disabilities,
iii) Major injuries,
iv) Minor injuries and
v) Missing.
∙ Details of minor injury, major injury and permanent disability are essential to
formulate immediate care and support system; as well as to plan long-term
support and follow-up mechanisms.
∙ In cases of death or injury, information like death certificate by police or
authorities, injury certificate by hospital or the government doctor is needed for
government support or compensation.
∙ Similarly, in case of missing people, it is important to understand if legalities like
police complaint have been registered or not, which may be essential for the
affected families to access government assistance.
∙ It is also important to know whether they have received government assistance or
compensation to cope with the distress.
∙ Data should be segregated gender wise, age wise or occupation wise to develop
deeper understanding.

∙ Details of occupation also provide a hint of economic status of families. Similarly,

details of family members of the affected person are essential; as it enables us to
determine the number of earning members and dependents within the family.
∙ It might be possible that a person, who has died or has become permanently
disabled, was the only earning member of the family.

4.8 Mitigation Measures for Home

One of the most effective means of protection is to take steps to make your home
and your household safe from the potential effects of disaster like floods, tornadoes,
hurricanes and earthquakes. This is called mitigation. Ideally, mitigation measures
are implemented before disaster strikes since they can help protect your household
as well as your property. However, even after a disaster strikes, actions can be taken
to avoid or reduce the impact of the next disaster.
1. If your home was damaged during the disaster, consider implementing
mitigation measures while you repair your home.
2. Be sure that all upgrade construction projects comply with local building codes
that pertain to seismic, flood, fire and wind hazards. Make sure your
contractors follow the codes, including periodic building inspections of the
construction.
3. If you live in a flood-prone area, consider purchasing flood insurance to reduce
your risk to floods. Buying flood insurance to cover the value of a building and
its contents will not only provide greater peace of mind, but will also speed
recovery if a flood occurs.
4. If you live in an area prone to high winds, make sure your roof is firmly secured
to the main frame of the residence. Consider building a wind “Safe Room or
Shelter” in your home to protect your household.
There are several additional steps you can take to reduce wind damages and
losses, including the following :
∙ Secure light fixtures and other items that could fall or shake loose in such
events. ∙ Move heavy or breakable objects to low shelves.
∙ Anchor water heaters and bolt them to wall studs.
∙ Purchase storm shutters for exterior windows and doors to protect your home
against high winds.
5. If you live in an area likely to have an earthquake, consider using straps or
other restraints to secure cabinets, bookshelves, large appliances, (especially
water heater and furnace), and light fixtures to prevent damage and injury.
 6. Determine ways to prevent other types of hazards in your home, such as
installing a fire sprinkler system.
7. Obtain information specific to your area and home. Ask local emergency
management, fire and police departments, zoning and building offices, the
American Red Cross, hardware dealers, home inspectors, structural engineers
and architects.
8. Ask your local government, a hardware dealer or a private home inspector for
technical advice on these and other mitigation measures.

Two Marks Questions with Answers

Part - A
Q.1 Write down the key vulnerabilities of India. (Refer section 4.1) Q.2
Explain in short industrial, chemical and natural disasters.(Refer section
4.1.3) Q.3 Define the term “Disaster relief”. (Refer section 4.2)
Q.4 Enlist personal hygiene and handwashing after a disaster or emergency.
(Refer section 4.2.3)
Q.5 How dead bodies are disposed. (Refer section 4.2.5)

Long Answered Questions

Part - B
Q.1 Explain hazard and vulnerability profile of India. (Refer section 4.1)
Q.2 Explain in detail, hydrological and climate related hazards. (Refer section 4.1.1)
Q.3 Explain in detail, Geological disaster with its types. (Refer section 4.1.2)
Q.4 Explain in detail the components of disaster relief. (Refer section 4.2)
Q.5 Explain in detail, sanitization and hygiene. (Refer section 4.2.3)
Q.6 Explain in detail, waste management. (Refer section 4.2.6)
Q.7 Explain in detail, industrial arrangements. (Refer section 4.2.7)
Q.8 Explain in detail, mitigation, response and preparedness. (Refer section 4.3) Q.9 Explain in
detail, disaster management Act and Policy. (Refer section 4.4) Q.10 Explain in detail, disaster
damage assesment. (Refer section 4.7)
Q.11 Explain in assesment of loss and damage to human life. (Refer section 4.7.4)
Q.12 Explain in detail, mitigation measures for home. (Refer section 4.8)