3.

Basics of Analog Electronics

Topics to be covered: Characteristics of PN Junction diode, Zener diode, Half wave and Full
wave Rectifiers, Voltage Regulation. Bipolar Junction Transistor – CB, CE, CC Configurations
and characteristics. Amplifiers-definition of voltage gain, current gain, power gain, input and
output impedances, frequency response curve. Basics of Op-amp and its applications.

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction diode

A diode is formed by joining two equivalently doped P-Type and N-Type semiconductor. The P-
type semiconductor has excess holes and is of positive charge. The N-type semiconductor has
excess electrons. At the point of contact, the holes in the P-Type attract electrons in the N-Type
material. Hence the electron diffuses and occupies the holes in the P-Type material. Causing a
small region of the N-type near the junction to lose electrons and behave like intrinsic
semiconductor material, in the P-type a small region gets filled up and behaves like a intrinsic
semiconductor. This thin intrinsic region is called depletion layer, since it is depleted of charge
and hence offers high resistance. The depletion region prevents the further diffusion of majority
carriers. In physical terms the size of the depletion layer is very thin.

Forward Bias
In forward bias the P-region of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and
N-region is connected to the negative region. The positive of the battery pumps more holes into
the P-region of the diode. The negative terminal pumps electrons into the N-region. The excess
of charge in P and N region will apply pressure on the depletion region and will make it shrink.
As the voltage increases the depletion layer will become thinner and thinner and hence diode will
offer lesser and lesser resistance. Since the resistance decreases the current will increase (though
not proportional) to the voltage.
At one particular voltage level Vf called the threshold / knee / cut-off voltage the depletion layer
disappears and hence from this point the diode starts to conduct very easily and increases
exponentially to the voltage applied.
Reverse Bias
In reverse bias the P-type region is connected to negative voltage and N-type is connected to
positive terminal. In this condition the holes in P-type gets filled by electrons from the battery /
cell. The electrons in N-type material is sucked out of the diode by the positive terminal of the
battery. So the diode gets depleted of charge. So initially the depletion layer widens and it
occupies the entire diode. The resistance offered by the diode is very huge. The current that
flows in reverse bias is only due to minority charge which is in nano amperes in silicon and
micro amperes in high power silicon and germanium diodes.
The V-I characteristic of the diode is as shown below:

V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

When general purpose diodes are forward biased, a large forward current flows through them
with a negligible voltage drop across them. If we operate the same diode in reverse biased
condition, it conducts insignificant current until the voltage applied across them exceeds the
reverse breakdown voltage. Once the applied voltage exceeds the reverse breakdown voltage,
large current flows through the junction and the diode may get destroyed, this is called avalanche
breakdown.

The Zener diode is a particular type of diode that solves this problem. Zener diode is operated in
reverse biased condition, and this diode does not get damaged even when the voltage across this
exceeds the reverse breakdown voltage. Zener diodes are heavily doped than ordinary diodes.
They have extra thin depletion region. When we apply a voltage more than the Zener breakdown
voltage (can range from 1.2 volts to 200 volts), the depletion region vanishes, and large current
starts to flow through the junction. There is a crucial difference between an ordinary diode and a
Zener diode. The depletion region regains its original position after removal of the reverse
voltage in Zener diode whereas in regular diodes, they don’t, and hence they get destroyed.

Zener Diode symbol

Characteristic of Zener diode :

A graph of current v/s the voltage across the device is called the V-I characteristic of Zener
diode. The first quadrant is the forward biased region. In the forward biased condition, the Zener
diode acts like an ordinary diode. When a forward voltage is applied, current flows through it.

In the reverse biased condition when the negative voltage is applied across the Zener diode, a
small amount of current starts flowing through the Zener diode until the voltage reaches Zener
breakdown voltage. Once the reverse bias voltage becomes more than the Zener breakdown
voltage, a significant amount of current starts flowing through the diode due to Zener
breakdown. The voltage remains at the Zener breakdown voltage value, but the current through
the diode increases when the input voltage gets increased. Due to this unique property of Zener
diode, the depletion region regains its original position when the reverse voltage gets removed.
The Zener diode doesn’t get damaged despite this huge amount of current flowing through it.

As the voltage remains at the Zener breakdown voltage, we use Zener diodes for voltage
regulation. We use them in voltage stabilizers and various other protection circuits.
Rectifiers
A rectifier is an electrical circuit composed of one or more diodes that converts alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC). A diode allows an electrical current to flow in only one
direction.
Rectifiers are used in various devices, including:

 DC power supplies
 Radio signals or detectors
 Several household appliances use power rectifiers to create power, like notebooks or
laptops, video game systems and televisions.

Half Wave
In Half Wave Rectifier, when AC supply is applied at the input, positive half cycle appears
across the load, whereas the negative half cycle is suppressed. This can be done by using the
semiconductor PN – junction diode. The diode allows the current to flow only in one direction.
Thus, convert the AC voltage into DC voltage.

Circuit Diagram of Half Wave Rectifier

In half wave rectification, only one diode is used. It is connected in the circuit as shown below.

The AC supply to be rectified is generally given through a transformer. The transformer is used
to step down or step up the main supply voltage as per the requirement. It also isolates the
rectifier from power lines and thus reduces the risk of electric shock.

Operation of Half Wave Rectifier

When AC supply is switched ON the alternating voltage (Vin) shown in the figure below appears
across the terminal AB at the secondary winding.
During the positive half cycle, the terminal A is positive with respect to B and the diode is
forward biased. Therefore, it conducts and current flows through the load resistor R L. This
current varies in magnitude as shown in the wave diagram shown below. Thus, a positive half
cycle of the output voltage (Vout = iRL) appears across the load resistor RL shown in the figure
below.

During the negative half cycle, the terminal A is negative with respect to B and the diode is
reverse biased. Therefore, it does not conducts and current will not flows through the load
resistor RL. Thus the output voltage (Vout = 0) appears across the load resistor R L shown in the
figure below.

Full Wave Rectifier

In Full Wave Rectification, when the AC supply is applied at the input, during both the half
cycles (i.e., positive as well as negative) current flows through the load in the same direction.
This can be achieved by using two diodes. The two diodes conduct the current alternately.

To obtain the same direction of flow of current in the load resistors R L during positive as well as
the negative half cycle of input, the two circuit configurations are used. They are

1. Center tapped full wave rectifier

2. Full wave bridge rectifier

Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
The Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier employs a transformer with the secondary winding AB
tapped at the center point C. It converts the AC input voltage into DC voltage. The two diodes
D1, and D2 are connected in the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram below.

Operation of the Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

Each diode conducts for one-half cycle of the input AC voltage. When AC supply is switched
ON the alternating voltage, Vin appears across the terminals AB of the secondary winding of the
transformer. During the positive half cycle of the secondary voltage, the end A becomes positive,
and end B becomes negative. Thus, the diode D1 becomes forward biased, and
diode D2 becomes reversed biased. The two diodes does not conduct simultaneously. Therefore,
when the diode D1 conducts, the diode D2 does not conduct and vice versa. When the Diode D1 is
conducting, the current (i) flows through the diode D1 load resistor RL (from M to L) and the
upper half of the secondary winding as shown in the circuit diagram.

During the negative half cycle, the end B becomes positive and end A becomes negative. This
makes the diode D2 forward biased, and diode D1 reverse biased. When the diode D2 conducts,
the diode D1 does not conduct. The current (i) flows through the diode D2 load resistor RL (from
M to L) and the lower half of the secondary winding as shown in the figure

The current flowing through the load resistor RL is in the same direction (i.e., from M to L)
during both the positive as well as the negative half cycle of the input. Hence, the DC output
voltage (Vout = i RL) obtained across the load resistor is in same direction for both the cycles.

The waveforms of the input voltage, the current flowing through the load and the output voltage
developed across the load is shown in the figure below.
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
In Full Wave Bridge Rectifier, an ordinary transformer is used in place of a center tapped
transformer. The circuit forms a bridge connecting the four diodes D1, D2, D3, and D4. The circuit
diagram of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier is shown below.
The AC supply which is to be rectified is applied diagonally to the opposite ends of the bridge.
Whereas, the load resistor RL is connected across the remaining two diagonals of the opposite
ends of the bridge.

Operation of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

When an AC supply is switched ON, the alternating voltage Vin appears across the terminals AB
of the secondary winding of the transformer. During the positive half cycle of the secondary
voltage, the end A becomes positive, and end B becomes negative as shown in the figure below.

The diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and the diodes D2 and D4 is reversed biased. Therefore,
diode D1 and D3 conduct and diode D2 and D4 does not conduct. The current (i) flows through
diode D1, load resistor RL (from M to L), diode D3 and the transformer secondary.

During the negative half cycle, the end A becomes negative and end B positive as shown in the
figure below. Diode D2 and D4 are forward biased and the diodes D1 and D3 are reverse bias.
Therefore, diode D2 and D4 conduct while diodes D1 and D3 does not conduct. Thus, current (i)
flows through the diode D2, load resistor RL (from M to L), diode D4 and the transformer
secondary.
The current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction (M to L) during both the half
cycles. Hence, a DC output voltage Vout is obtained across the load resistor.

Bipolar Junction Transistor

The Bipolar Junction Transistor is a semiconductor device which can be used for switching or
amplification. Joining two individual diodes back-to-back, will give two PN-junctions connected
together in series that share a common P or N terminal. The fusion of these two diodes produces
a three layer, two junctions, and three terminal device forming the basis of a Bipolar Junction
Transistor (BJT).

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that
can act as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The
transistor’s ability to change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions:
“switching” (digital electronics) or “amplification” (analogue electronics). Then bipolar
transistors have the ability to operate within three different regions:
 Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β*Ib
 Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)
 Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and Ic = 0

There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically
describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from
which they are made.
The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three
connecting terminals. These three terminals are labeled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and
the Collector ( C ) respectively.
Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing
through them from the Emitter to the Collector terminals in proportion to the amount of biasing
voltage applied to their base terminal, thus acting like a current-controlled switch. As a small
current flowing into the base terminal controls a much larger collector current forming the basis
of transistor action.
The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the only
difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for each type.
Bipolar Transistor Construction

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given
above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of “conventional current
flow” between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow always
points from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type region for both transistor types,
exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to
connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and
output. Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as
the static characteristics of the transistor varies with each circuit arrangement.
 Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
 Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and Voltage Gain.
 Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
Common Base Configuration:

This transistor configuration provides a low input impedance while offering a high output
impedance. Although the voltage is high, the current gain is low and the overall power gain is
also low when compared to the other transistor configurations available. The other salient feature
of this configuration is that the input and output are in phase.

Common Emitter Configuration:

This transistor configuration is probably the most widely used. The circuit provides a low
input impedance and high output impedance levels. Both current and voltage gain can be are
high, but the output is the inverse of the input, i.e. 180° phase change. This provides a good
overall performance and as such it is often thought of as the most widely used configuration.
As can be seen from the diagram, in this transistor configuration, the emitter electrode is
common to both input and output circuits

Common Collector Configuration

This transistor configuration is also known as the emitter follower because the emitter voltage
follows that of the base. Offering a very high input impedance and a low output impedance it is
widely used as a buffer. The voltage gain is less than unity or unity, although current gain is
high. The input and output signals are in phase. In view of these characteristics, the emitter
follower configuration is used as a buffer circuit providing a high input impedance to prevent
loading of the previous stage, and a low output impedance to drive following stages. As can be
seen from the diagram, in this transistor configuration, the collector electrode is common to both
input and output circuits.

Summary of transistor configurations

Transistor Characteristics: These are the plots which represent the relationships between the
current and the voltages of a transistor in a particular configuration. The characteristic-curves can
be of the following types
1. Input Characteristics: These describe the changes in input current with the variation in the
values of input voltage keeping the output voltage constant.
2. Output Characteristics: This is a plot of output current versus output voltage with constant
input current.

Input Characteristics for CE Configuration of Transistor

Figure shows the input characteristics for the CE configuration of transistor which illustrates the
variation in IB in accordance with VBE when VCE is kept constant.
Output Characteristics for CE Configuration of Transistor
The output characteristics of CE configuration are also referred to as collector characteristics.
This plot shows the variation in IC with the changes in VCE when IB is held constant.

Transistor Amplifier
A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. The DC bias voltage
applied to the emitter base junction, makes it remain in forward biased condition. This forward
bias is maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The below figure shows how a
transistor looks like when connected as an amplifier.

The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in input signal to result in an
appreciable change in the output. The emitter current caused by the input signal contributes the
collector current, which when flows through the load resistor RL, results in a large voltage drop
across it. Thus a small input voltage results in a large output voltage, which shows that the
transistor works as an amplifier.

Performance of Amplifier
As the common emitter mode of connection is mostly adopted, let us first understand a few
important terms with reference to this mode of connection.

Input Resistance
As the input circuit is forward biased, the input resistance will be low. The input resistance is the
opposition offered by the base-emitter junction to the signal flow.
By definition, it is the ratio of small change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the resulting
change in base current (ΔIB) at constant collector-emitter voltage.
Input resistance, Ri=ΔVBE / ΔIB

Output Resistance
The output resistance of a transistor amplifier is very high. The collector current changes very
slightly with the change in collector-emitter voltage.
By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the resulting change
in collector current (ΔIC) at constant base current.
Output resistance = Ro=ΔVCE/ΔIC

Current Gain
The gain in terms of current when the changes in input and output currents are observed, is called
as Current gain. By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector current (ΔIC) to the change in
base current (ΔIB).
Current gain, β=ΔIC/ΔIB β=ΔIC/ΔIB
The value of β ranges from 20 to 500. The current gain indicates that input current becomes β
times in the collector current.

Voltage Gain
The gain in terms of voltage when the changes in input and output currents are observed, is
called as Voltage gain. By definition, it is the ratio of change in output voltage (ΔVCE) to the
change in input voltage (ΔVBE).
Voltage gain, AV=ΔVCEΔVBE

Power Gain
The gain in terms of power when the changes in input and output currents are observed, is called
as Power gain.
By definition, it is the ratio of output signal power to the input signal power.

Power gain, AP= voltage gain x current gain

Frequency Response of an Amplifier
Frequency Response of an electric or electronics circuit allows us to see exactly how the output
gain (known as the magnitude response) and the phase (known as the phase response) changes at
a particular single frequency, or over a whole range of different frequencies from 0Hz, (d.c.) to
many thousands of mega-hertz, (MHz) depending upon the design characteristics of the circuit.
Generally, the frequency response analysis of a circuit or system is shown by plotting its gain,
that is the size of its output signal to its input signal, Output/Input against a frequency scale over
which the circuit or system is expected to operate. Then by knowing the circuits gain, (or loss) at
each frequency point helps us to understand how well (or badly) the circuit can distinguish
between signals of different frequencies.
The frequency response of a given frequency dependent circuit can be displayed as a graphical
sketch of magnitude (gain) against frequency (ƒ). The horizontal frequency axis is usually
plotted on a logarithmic scale while the vertical axis representing the voltage output or gain, is
usually drawn as a linear scale in decimal divisions. Since a systems gain can be both positive or
negative, the y-axis can therefore have both positive and negative values.

Frequency Response Curve

Then we can see that the frequency response of any given circuit is the variation in its behaviour
with changes in the input signal frequency as it shows the band of frequencies over which the
output (and the gain) remains fairly constant. The range of frequencies either big or small
between ƒL and ƒH is called the circuits bandwidth. So from this we are able to determine at a
glance the voltage gain (in dB) for any sinusoidal input within a given frequency range.
Operational amplifier (op-amp)
An op-amp is a multi-stage, direct coupled, high gain negative feedback amplifier that has one or
more differential amplifiers and it is concluded with a level translator and an output stage. Op-
amps are available as Integrated Circuits (IC’s).

The main use of an op-amp is to amplify ac and dc input signals and for basic mathematical
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, differentiation and integration. The
application of op-amp’s varies from ac and dc signal amplification to use in active filters,
oscillators, comparators, voltage regulators, instrumentation and control systems, pulse
generators, square wave generators and many more electronic circuits. For the design of all these
circuits the op-amps are manufactured with integrated transistors, diodes, capacitors and
resistors, thus making it an extremely compact, multi-tasking, low cost, highly reliable and
temperature stable integrated circuit. It is also designed in such a way that the external
characteristics can be changed with the addition of external components like capacitors and
resistors. Thus it can act as a complete amplifier with various characteristics.

Block Diagram of Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)

The block diagram of a multi-stage operational amplifier is as shown below.

Block Diagram of Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

The op-amp begins with a differential amplifier stage, which operates in the differential mode.
Thus the inputs are noted with ‘+’ & ‘-’. The positive sign is for the non-inverting input and
negative is for the inverting input. The non-inverting input is the ac signal (or dc) applied to the
differential amplifier which produces the same polarity of the signal at the output of op-amp. The
inverting signal input is the ac signal (or dc) applied to the differential amplifier. This produces a
1800 out of phase signal at the output.

Input Stage: The inverting and non-inverting inputs are provided to the input stage which is a
dual input, balanced output differential amplifier. The voltage gain required for the amplifier is
provided in this stage along with the input resistance for the op-amp.

Intermediate Stage: The output of the input stage is given to the intermediate stage, which is
driven by the output of the input stage. In this stage direct coupling is used, which makes the dc
voltage at the output of the intermediate stage above ground potential.

Level Shifting stage: The dc level at the output of intermediate stage must be shifted down to
‘0’ Volts with respect to the ground. For this, the level shifting stage is used where usually an
emitter follower with the constant current source is applied.

Output Stage: The level shifted signal is given to the output stage which has a push-pull
amplifier, which increases the output voltage swing of the signal and also increases the current
supplying capability of the op-amp.

Symbol of Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)

The Pin Diagram of IC-741 op-amp is as shown

The symbol below is the most widely used op-amp symbol for all electronic circuits.
V1 (Volts) – Non-inverting input voltage.
V2 (Volts) – Inverting input voltage.
V0 (Volts) – Output voltage
A - Voltage gain

Characteristics of Operational Amplifiers (Op-amp)

1. High input impedance- More than 100kilo ohms.

2. Low output – Less than 100 ohms.
3. Amplifier signals with frequency range from 0Hz to 1MHz.
4. Low offset voltage and low offset current.
5. Very high voltage gain

Op-amp Circuits

The Voltage Adder

The Adder, also called a summing amplifier, produces an inverted output voltage which is
proportional to the sum of the input voltages V1 and V2. More inputs can be summed. If the
input resistors are equal in value (R1 = R2 = R) then the summed output voltage is as given and
the gain is +1. If the input resistors are unequal then the output voltage is a weighted sum and
becomes:

If R1=R2=R then
The Voltage Subtractor
The Subtractor also called a differential amplifier, uses both the inverting and non-inverting
inputs to produce an output signal which is the difference between the two input
voltages V1 and V2 allowing one signal to be subtracted from another. More inputs can be added
to be subtracted if required.

If resistances are equal then the output voltage is as given and the voltage gain is +1.

If the input resistance are unequal the circuit becomes a differential amplifier producing a
negative output when V1 is higher than V2 and a positive output when V1 is lower than V2.