Wire

Comm
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
eless and Mo
munication
obile

Assistant Professor
Rekha.A
Course Outline

• Introduction to wire
• Cellular Concept
• Mobile Radio prop
• Mobile Radio Prop
multipath
ne

eless communication

pagation- Large scale

pagation- Small scale
n Systems.

e path loss
e fading and
• Mobile Radio Prop
multipath
• Modulation techniq
• Equalization, Dive
• Multiple Access te
• Wireless Networki
pagation- Small scale

ques for mobile radio

ersity and Channel cod
echniques for Wireless
ing
e fading and

o
ding techniques
s communication

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Text Books

Text Books
• Wireless Commun
Theodore. S. Rapp
India, 2008

Reference Text Boo

nication Principles and
paport Second Ed., P

oks
 d Practice” by
Prentice Hall of
Reference Text Boo
• Wireless Commun
Stallings – Pearso
• Mobile Communic
Wesley, Pearson E
• Wireless and Mob
Lin and Imrich Cha
oks
nications and Network
on Education Ltd.
cation” by Jochen H. S
Education Ltd., 2000
bile Network Architectu
altamac, John Wiley a
ks” by William

Schiller, Addison –

ures” by Yi-Bing
and Sons, 2001

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

N T R O D U C T I O N TO
SYSTEMS
O WIRELESS COMM
M U N I C AT I O N
What is Wirele

Transmitting voice an
in open space (atm

✓The information f
over a well-defined
ess Communic

nd data using electrom

mosphere)

from the sender to the

d frequency band.
cation ?

magnetic waves

receiver is carried
✓The information f
over a well-defined

✓Each Channel has

✓Different channel
parallel and indepe
from the sender to the
d frequency band.

s a fixed bandwidth.

ls can be used to transm

endently.
receiver is carried

mit information in

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Wireless Com

Electromagnetic wav
• Travel at spe
• Has a frequ
»c = f x
• Higher frequ
mmunication

ves
eed of light (c = 3x1
uency (f) and wavele
xl
uency means higher
10 8
m/s)
ength (l)

r energy photons
 »c = f x
• Higher frequ
• The higher t
penetrating
xl
uency means higher
the energy photon t
g is the radiation
r energy photons
the more

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Electromagn
netic spectrum
m
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Why Wireless

• Freedom from wire

• Mobility

• Global coverage
Communicatio

es.
on
• Global coverage

• Communication ca
costly(e.g. hazardo

• Stay Connected an
an reach where wiring
ous areas, long distan

ny where any time.

g is infeasible or
nces etc.).

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Challenges of w
system
– High costs fo
– Security vuln
– Efficient use
– Efficient Har
• Low power
wireless commun

or setting the infras

nerabilities.
of Finite Radio Sp
rdware
transmitter, receive
nication

structure

pectrum

ers
– Efficient Har
• Low power
• Low power s
– Fading
– Multipath Pro
– Integrated se
▪ Voice, data,
rdware
transmitter, receive
signal processing tools

opagation
ervices
, multimedia over a
ers
s

single network

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Challenges of
communicatio

• wireless comm
▪ Physical obst
▪ climatic con
▪ Interference
 wireless
on system

munication is influen
tructions
nditions
e from other wireless
nced by

devices
 ▪ climatic con
▪ Interference

• Maintaining quali

• Network support
• Location ident
nditions
e from other wireless

ity of service over u

for user mobility

tification, handover
 devices

unreliable links

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Frequencies
• FM Radio
• TV Broadcast
• GSM phones
• GPS
~ 88 MHz
~ 200 MHz
~ 900 MHz
~ 1.2 GHz
• GPS
• PCS phones
• Bluetooth
• Wi-Fi
~ 1.2 GHz
~ 1.8 GHz
~ 2.4 GHz
~ 2.4 GHz
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Types of Wireles
ss Communicati
ion
Easily generated, Om
distances, easily pe
Used for long d
SNR, point t
Short ra
throu
mni-directionally travel
enetrate buildings
distance communicat
to point- line of sight
ange communication,
ugh solid objects
 long

tion, high

unable to pass
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Types of wirele
ess communic
cation
celullar
wireless computer
network
radio service

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Wireless Systems

1m 10m 100m 1
s: Range

1Km 10Km 100Km 1000

0Km
Bluetooth
WLAN

Mobi
ile telephony
MW Radio
SW Radio
Satelli
ite Links
Evolution of Mobil
Communications
• Major Mobile Radio Sy
– 1934 - Police Radio
system.
– 1935 - Edwin Armstr
– 1946 - First public m
– 1960 - Improved Mo
– 1960 - Bell Lab intro
– 1976 - Bell Mobile P
 e Radio

ystems
uses conventional AM m

rong demonstrate FM
mobile telephone service
obile Telephone Service,
oduce the concept of Ce
Phone service, poor serv
mobile communication

e
, IMTS - full duplex
ellular mobile system
vice due to call
– 1960 - Improved Mo
– 1960 - Bell Lab intro
– 1976 - Bell Mobile P
blocking
– 1983 - Advanced Mo
– 1991 - Global System
– 1991 - U.S. Digital C
– 1993 - CDMA, QPSK
obile Telephone Service,
oduce the concept of Ce
Phone service, poor serv

obile Phone System (AM

m for Mobile (GSM), TDM
Cellular (USDC) IS-54, TD
K, BPSK
, IMTS - full duplex
ellular mobile system
vice due to call

MPS), FDMA, FM
MA
DMA, DQPSK
Example of Mobile

Examples
– Cordless phone
– Remote controller
– Hand-held walkie-talkie
– Pagers
– Cellular telephone
 R a d i o S ys t e m s

es
– Hand-held walkie-talkie
– Pagers
– Cellular telephone
– Wireless LAN
es
Wireless Com
System
mmunication
n
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Wi r e l e s s C o m m u n i

Base Station
Control Channel
Subscriber
Transceiver
Mobile Station
Mobile Switching Center
i c a t i o n S ys t e m D e
efinitions
Mobile Station
Mobile Switching Center
C e l l u l a r S ys t e m
 Cellu
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
ular Concept
t
REKHA.A
Forward and Rever
rse Channel

Forward Channel
Reverse Channel
• Communication
mobiles is defin
Interface (CAI)
–forward voice c
from base stati
–reverse voice c
 between the ba
ned by the standa

channel (FVC): voi

ion to mobile
channel (RVC): vo
ase station and
ard Common Air

ice transmission

oice transmission
 from base stati
–reverse voice c
from mobile to
–forward control
call from base s
–reverse control
call from mobile
ion to mobile
channel (RVC): vo
base station
l channels (FCC):
station to mobile
l channel (RCC): in
e to base station
oice transmission

initiating mobile

nitiating mobile
Classification of
Transmission
• Classification of
–Simplex: comm
–Half-duplex: sa
transmission an
–Full-duplex: sim
reception (FDD
 Mobile Radio

mobile radio trans

munication in only
ame radio channel
nd reception.
multaneous radio t
D, TDD)
smission system
one direction
for both

transmission and
 –Full-duplex: sim
reception (FDD
• Frequency divis
channel
–Forward chann
–Reverse chann
• Time division d
channel in time.
multaneous radio t
D, TDD)
sion duplexing

nel: base station to

nel: mobile user to
duplexing shares
transmission and

uses two radio

o mobile user
base station
s a single radio
 Classification of

Classification of mobile rad

f Mobile Radio Tr

dio transmission system

ransmission
Forms of Full Dupl

•Two forms of Full Dup

• Frequency division d
– Forward channel:
– Reverse channel:
hz)

Base Statio
lexing

plexing
duplexing uses two radio
: base station to mobile us
: mobile user to base stat

on(Tx), Mobile Station(Rx

 channel
ser
tion
– Reverse channel:

Frequency(Mhz)
Base Statio

Mobile sta
: mobile user to base stat

on(Tx), Mobile Station(Rx

ation (tx), Base station(Rx)

Time (ms)
tion
Forms of Full Dupl

• Time division duplexing

• Receives for half the fram
hz)
lexing contd..

shares a single radio chan

me and transmits for half t
nnel in time.
the frame.
Frequency(Mhz)
Base
Station(Tx
Mobile
Station(R
 Mobile
x), station (tx),
Base
Rx) station(Rx)

Time (ms)
Cellular Conce

• Why not a large Rad

- Number of simultane
- Mobile Handsets wo
- Frequency re-use no

• Cellular concept- s
ept

dio tower and Large Se

eous users would be lim
ould have greater powe
ot possible.

small cells with frequen

ervice area?
mited.
er requirements.

ncy reuse
• Cellular concept- s
Advantages:
▪ Low power han
▪ Increases syste
▪ frequency reu
Drawbacks
Cost of the cells
Handoffs betwe
small cells with frequen

ndsets
em capacity
use.

een the cells must be prov

ncy reuse

vided in efficient way.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Cellula

❑ Limited Spectrum
ar System – Wh

G
F
hy?

B
C
A
D
E
❑ The cellular conce
single, high power
power transmitte
coverage to only a
 F

ept solved the proble

r transmitter (large ce
ers (small cells).
a small portion of the
 D
E

em by replacing a
ell) with many low
Each providing
service area.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Cellular System

•Proposed by Bell Labs

•Each base station is a

•High Capacity is achie

ems – Basic Co

s 1971.

allocated a portion.

eved by limiting the cov

oncepts
Adjacent cells

verage area of each

•High Capacity is achie
base station to a small

•Same frequencies are

•A switching technique
uninterrupted when u
eved by limiting the cov
l geographic region call

e Reused.

e called Handoff enabl

user moves from one ce
verage area of each
led a cell.

les a call to proceed

ell to another.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Cellular System

Neighboring base sta

so as to minimize

By systematically pla
can be reused as m
ems – Basic Co

ations are assigned d

the interference.

acing the base station

many number of time
oncepts

different frequency

ns, the frequency

es as necessary.
By systematically pla
can be reused as m

Cell size can be redu

reduced. (Transmi
how big the cell siz
acing the base station
many number of time

uced if the transmitted

itted power is a factor
ze should be)
ns, the frequency
es as necessary.

d power is
r which will decide

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Cell Geomet
• Hexagonal cells a
• For most theoret
cells is adopted b
▪ they are shapes t
directional radiat
try
are conceptual.
tical treatment, hexa
because:
that approximates a cir
tion)
agonal model of

rcle (for omni-

▪ they are shapes t
directional radiat
▪ the hexagonal c
square and the
cover a certain
 that approximates a cir
tion)
cell shape has a large
e triangle, thus less ce
geographical region.
rcle (for omni-

er area than the

ells will be used to
.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Types of cells
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Frequency Re

Cellular radio system

out the coverage a

Each base station is

be used with in the
euse

ms rely on reuse of the

area.

allocated a group of r
e small geographic ar
e channels through

radio channels to
rea of its cell.
 be used with in the

Neighboring base sta

allocation.

The same group of fr

cell separated by a
interference .
e small geographic ar

ations are given differ

requencies is re used
a large distance to mi
rea of its cell.

rent channel

d to cover another
inimize co-channel

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Frequency Re
euse
Illustration o
concept.
of Cellular Frequency R
Reuse

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Cellular Conce

Let T = Total number

N cells = Size of ea
K= T/N = number of
ept (contd…)

r of Duplex channels.
ach cluster
channels per cell.
Cluster of 7 cells

Cells
For a specific geogra
times , then the tot
- System capac
aphic area, if clusters
tal number of channe
city = M x T
 are replicated M
els

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Fre

F7 F2

F6 F1
F1
equency Reuse

F7 F2

2 F6 F1
F1 F3

F3 F5 F4 F7
F2
F6 F1
F1

F5 F4
 F3 F5 F4 F7

4 F7 F2 F6 FF

F6 F1
F1 F3 F5

F5 F4

7 cell reuse cluster

 F2

F1
F1 F3

F4

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Re
R Clu

F7 F2

F6 F1
F1 F3
euse Distance
uster
• For hexag
is given by

D=
where R
reuse pa
gonal cells, the reuse distance

= 3N R
R is cell radius and N is the
attern (the cluster size or the
F6 F1
F1 F3

F5 F4 F7

F6

F5
 where R
reuse pa
7 F2 number
• Reuse fac
F1
F1 F3
D
5 F4 q=
R
R is cell radius and N is the
attern (the cluster size or the
of cells per cluster).
ctor (co-channel resue ratio)

D
= 3N
R

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Reuse D

▪ The cluster size or

N =i 2

where i and j are

Distance (Cont’

r the number of cells pe

+ ij + j 2

integers.
’d)

er cluster is given by
j

60o

i
where i and j are

▪ N = 1, 3, 4, 7, 9
The popular va
integers.

9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, 28

alue of N being 4 and 7.
 i

8, …, etc.
.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Reuse Distan

j
nce (Cont’d)

j=1
direction
i
60°
i direction j=1
 j=1
i=2
i=2 j=1
i=2
i=2

j=1
 1 2 3… i

(a) Finding the center of a

cluster using integers i an
of i and j can be interchan
 i
60°
i direction j=1

an adjacent (b) Form

nd j (direction N = 7 wi
nged).
 i=2
i=2

j=1
i=2 i=2
j=1

mation of a cluster for

ith i=2 and j=1

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Cellular Conce

N= 2
i +ij+j2
ept(contd…)
i=3 and j=2
Method of co-c
channel cells in a cellula
ar system
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems
A spectrum of 40MHz allo
25Khz simplex channe
channels. Find the req
system uses 4 cell reu
reserved for control ch
control and voice chan
Solution.
Channel bandwidth = 25K
ocated to a wireless cellu
els to provide full duplex v
quired number of channel
use. If 1 Mhz of the alloca
hannels, determine an eq
nnels in each cell.

KHz * 2 simplex channels

ular system uses two
voice and control
ls available per cell if
ated spectrum is
quitable distribution of

s = 50KHz duplex
 control and voice chan
Solution.
Channel bandwidth = 25K
channels.
No. of available channels
For N = 4, total number o
1MHz – control channels
There fore 1000/50 = 20
available.
For N=4, we can have 5 c
nnels in each cell.

KHz * 2 simplex channels

s = 40000/50 = 800
of channels available per c
s.
control channels out of 80

control channels and 195

s = 50KHz duplex

cell = 800/4= 200.

00 channels are

5 voice channels.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Channel Ass
Strategies

• Channel assignment
• Fixed
• Dynamic.
signment

t strategies can be class

sified as
 • Dynamic.

• In fixed channel assi

• Each cell is assigned
• A call attempt can o
is available.
• If all channels are oc
 ignment
d a predetermined set o
only be served if unused

ccupied, the call is block

of channels.
d channel in the cell

ked.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Channel Ass
Strategies
In dynamic channel a
• Voice channels are
• Each time a call re
from MSC.
• MSC allocates a c
signment

assignment
e not allocated to cell
equest is made, BS re

channel by taking into

ls permanently.
equests channel

o account the
 from MSC.
• MSC allocates a c
frequency of use o
distance
• MSC only allocate
use in the cell whic
distance of frequen
• Dynamic channel a
reduces likelihood
channel by taking into
of the candidate chan

es a channel if that is n
ch falls within minimu
ncy reuse
assignment is more c
d of blocking.
o account the
nnel and reuse

not presently in
um restricted

complex, but

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Wire
Comm
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
eless and Mo
munication
obile
REKHA.A
Assistant Professor
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Handoff scenari
d signal level
io: Improper hand

Level at point A

Handoff thresho
Minimum acceptab
maintain the call
doff

old
Pn
ble signal to
Pm
 Received signal l

BS1
A
 maintain the call

Level at point B
(call is terminated)

B Pn – Pm = ∆
∆ toolarge
BS2 ∆ too sma
 Pm

Time

e- too many handoffs

all- call may be lost

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

d signal level
Handoff scena
ario: Proper handof

Level at poin

Level at whic
handoff is m
ff

nt B

ch
made
 Received signal l

BS1
A
 Level at whic
handoff is m

Time
B

BS2
 ch
made

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Types of Hand
Hard Handoff
- Channel in the sour
in the target cell is en
- Connection to the so
target is made—for th
as break-before-make
- Hard handovers are
doff

rce cell is released and

ngaged
ource is broken before
his reason such handov
e.
e intended to be instant
only then the channel

the connection to the

vers are also known

taneous in order to
 as break-before-make
- Hard handovers are
minimize the disruptio

Soft Handoff
- A soft handover is o
retained and used for
target cell. In this cas
before the connection
handover is called ma
 e.
e intended to be instant
on to the call.

one in which the chann

r a while in parallel with
se the connection to the
n to the source is broke
ake-before-break.
taneous in order to

nel in the source cell is

h the channel in the
e target is established
en, hence this

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Forward and R

Forward Voice chann

– Used for voice tr

Reverse Voice Chan

– Used for voice tr
Reverse Chann

nels(FVC)
ransmission from BS

nnels
ransmission from MS
nels

to MS.

to BS.
Reverse Voice Chan
– Used for voice tr

Forward Control Cha

– Used for initiatin

Reverse control Cha

- Used for initiating
nnels
ransmission from MS

annel(FCC)
ng a call from BS to M

annel (RCC)
g a call from MS to B
 to BS.

MS.

BS.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Interference
nterference is anythi
it travels along a ch
nterference on Voice
• Cross talk
• Noise in the backg
e and its Effec
ing which modifies, or
hannel between a sou
e channels causes

ground
cts
r disrupts a signal as
urce and a receiver.
• Cross talk
• Noise in the backg

nterference on Cont
• Error in digital sign
▪ Blocked calls
▪ Dropped calls
ground

trol channels causes

naling which causes:
s
:

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Types of Inte
• Co-channel Interf
• Adjacent Channe

• CCI is caused due

frequency set. Th
erference
ference (CCI)
el Interference (ACI)

e to the cells that reu

hese cells are called
use the same
co-channel cells.
• CCI is caused due
frequency set. Th

• ACI is caused due

the frequency ba
e to the cells that reu
hese cells are called

e to the signals that

and.
use the same
co-channel cells.

are adjacent in

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Co-channel i
• The interference betw
channel interference.

• To reduce co-channel
physically separated b
isolation due to propa
interference
ween signals from co-chan

interference, co-channel
by a minimum distance to
agation.
nnel cells is called co-

cells must be
o provide sufficient
 physically separated b
isolation due to propa

• The parameter Q is ca
the cluster size.
For a hexagonal g
where D = the distance b
cells and R = the radius o
by a minimum distance to
agation.

alled the co-channel reuse

𝐷
geometry 𝑄 = = 3𝑁
𝑅
between the centers of th
of the cell.
o provide sufficient

e ratio is related to

𝑁
he nearest co-channel

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Calculation o
• For a hexagonal clus

𝑆
=
𝐼
of SIR
ster of cells

1 𝑛
1 𝑛
= 𝐷𝑅 = 3𝑁
6 6
𝑛
 𝐼

Example designs:
• Design parameters (
✓ Desired signal to
✓ Path loss expone
✓ What is frequenc
 6 6

(1):
o interference ratio is 15
ent n = 4
cy reuse factor?
5dB

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Example con
• First try N=4,
– D/R = 3.46 => S/I
– Since this is lesse
ntd..

I = 1/6 (3.46)^4 = 24.0 =

er than the minimum re
= 13.8 dB
equired S/I (15dB)
• Next try N=7,
– D/R = 4.58 => S/I
– This is greater th
– Hence, frequenc
 I = 1/6 (4.58)^4 = 73.5 =
han the minimum requir
cy reuse factor = 1/N = 1
= 18.66 dB
red S/I (15dB)
1/7

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Example (2)
• Design parameters (
✓ Desired signal to
✓ Path loss expone
✓ What is frequenc
)
(2):
o interference is 15dB
ent n = 3
cy reuse factor?
✓ What is frequenc
cy reuse factor?
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Adjacent Cha
Interference (
• ACI results from s
frequency to the

• This results from

nearby frequenci
annel
(ACI)
signals that are adja
desired signal.

imperfect receiver f
ies to leak in.
acent in the

filters that allow

• This results from
nearby frequenci
 imperfect receiver f
ies to leak in.
filters that allow

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

ACI contd..
• Near far effect: An i
adjacent channel wh
interferer close to the B
hile the subscriber is fa
 BS radiates in the
ar away from the BS.
 Interferer

• To overcome ACI, th
channel in cell shou
 BS Su

he frequency separation
uld be made as large as p
ubscriber

n between each
possible.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

ACI contd..
• If a subscriber is at a
distance d2, then th
a distance d1 and the in
he signal to interference

−𝑛
𝑆 𝑑1
=
𝐼 𝑑2
nterferer is at a
e ratio is given by
Example:
✓ Suppose the subscri
base station
✓ Another mobile whi
distance of only 100
✓ Path loss exponent n
 𝑆 𝑑1
=
𝐼 𝑑2

iber is at a distance of 1

ich is using an adjacent

0 m from the base statio
n = 3.
1000 m from the

channel is at a
on.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Trunking & Gr
• Cellular radio systems
of users in a limited ra

• What is Trunking?
It is a technique t
relatively small number o
user, on demand from a p
rade of Service
s rely on trunking to accom
adio spectrum.

that allows a large numbe

of channels in a cell by pro
pool of available channels
e.
mmodate a large number

er of users to share a
oviding access to each
s.
 It is a technique t
relatively small number o
user, on demand from a p

• In a trunked radio syst

per call basis, upon te
channel is immediatel

• Grade Of Service(GO
It is a measure o
during the busiest hour.
 that allows a large numbe
of channels in a cell by pro
pool of available channels

tem(TRS) each user is all

ermination of the call, the p
ly returned to the pool of a

OS)
of ability of the user to acc
er of users to share a
oviding access to each
s.

located a channel on a
previously occupied
available channels.

cess a trunked system

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Key Definition

Set up time: Time requ

requesting user.
Blocked call: A call wh
request, due to cong
Holding Time: Averag
Seconds)
ns

uired to allocate a radio

hich cannot be complet

gestion(lost call).
ge duration of a call. De
o channel to a

ted at the time of

enoted by H (in
Holding Time: Averag
Seconds)
Request Rate: The av
time (λ).
Traffic Intensity: Meas
average channel oc
by A.
Load: Traffic intensity
ge duration of a call. De

verage number of calls

sure of channel time u

ccupancy measured in E

across the entire Trunk

enoted by H (in

request per unit

utilization or the
Erlangs. Denoted

ked Radio System.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Trunking and G
Grade Of Servi
vice
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Types of Trunk

• Blocked call cleare

• Blocked call delay

ked Systems

ed System

yed System
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Blocked Call C
• When a user reque
up time and the us
channel if one is a
• If the channels are
are available, call
system.
Cleared System
est service, there is a
ser is given immediate
available.
e already in use and n
is blocked with out ac
m
a minimal call set
e access to a

no new channels
ccess to the
 are available, call
system.
• The user does not
again.
Erlang B Formula de
blocked is given by
 is blocked with out ac

t receive Service, but

etermines the probabil

y
C is the number
A is the total tra
ccess to the

is free to try

lity that a call is

r of trunked Channels .
affic offered.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Blocked Call D

• Queues are used

blocked.
• When a user atte
immediately avail
until a channel be
• If call cannot be a
Delayed System

d to hold call request t

empts a call and a cha

lable, the call request
ecomes available.
assigned a channel, i
m

that are initially

annel is not
t may be delayed

it is placed in a
 until a channel be
• If call cannot be a
queue.
• Each call is then
ecomes available.
assigned a channel, i

serviced in the order

Pr[delay>
it is placed in a

of its arrival.

>t] = exp(- (C-A)t/H)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problems

How many users can

probability for the f
in a BCC system?
generates 0.1 erla
Solution.
a) A= 1.132.(From T
n be supported for 0.5
following number of t
? a)5 b)10. Assume ea
angs of traffic.

Table)
5% blocking
trunked channels
ach user
Solution.
a) A= 1.132.(From T
Total number of user
b) A= 3.96
Total number of user
Table)
rs U= A/Au = 1.13/0.1

rs = 3.96/0.1=39 users
1= 11 users.

s.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problems

Assuming that each u

intensity of 0.2 erla
supported for 0.1%
System for a numb
Solution:
Au= 0.2 erlang
user in a system gene
angs, how many user
% probability of blocki
ber of trunked channe
 erates a traffic
rs can be
ing in an Erlang B
els equal to 60.
Solution:
Au= 0.2 erlang
Pr[Blocking]= 0.1%
C=60 Channels.
i)Find A from the Erla
ii) Then Find U= A/Au
ang B Table.
u.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

For a trunked radio s

channels each. Fin
supported at 2% b
per hour at an ave
the total number o
supported by syste
Solution:
 system, there are 394
nd the number of use
blocking . If each user
erage call duration of
of subscribers/users th
em.
4 cells with 19
ers that can be
r averages 2 calls
3 minutes. Find
hat can be
 the total number o
supported by syste
Solution:
From Erlang B chart,
Au= λH = 2*(3/60) =
U= A/Au= 12.33/0.1=
There are 394 cells ,
can be supported
of subscribers/users th
em.

, A= 12.33
0.1 erlang
= 123.3
, the total number of s
is 123.3*394 = 48580
hat can be

subscribers that
0

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problems

An urban area has a

channels are used
has a radius of 1.3
erlangs and the av
is 1 call/hr. Find th
probability of a del
 trunked mobile netwo
d with in each cell. A
387km. If the load per
verage number of call
he following for the sys
layed call.
 ork. A total of 10
seven cell system
r user is 0.031
l request per time
stem that has 5%
 is 1 call/hr. Find th
probability of a del
a) How many users
b) What is the Proba
wait for more than
he following for the sys
layed call.
per sq.Km will this sy
ability that a delayed c
n 10s.
stem that has 5%

ystem support.
call will have to

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Solution:
Area covered per cel
Number of cells per c
Number of channels
a) A= 5.285(From E
 ll is 2.598*R 2 = 5 sq.
cluster =7.
per cell = 10.
Erlang C Chart)
Km.
Number of channels
a) A= 5.285(From E
Number of users = to
U = 5.285/0.031 = 1
Number of users per
b) H= Au/λ = 0.031/1
Pr[delay>t] = exp(- (C
C= 10 channels
 per cell = 10.
Erlang C Chart)
otal traffic intensity/Tra
170
r Sq. km = 170/5 use
1 = 0.031Hr = 112seco
C-A)t/H)
affic per user

ers/SqKm.
onds.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Trunki
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
ing and Grade
e of Service
REKHA. A
 Interference
nterference is anythi
it travels along a ch
nterference on Voice
• Cross talk
• Noise in the backg
e and its Effec
ing which modifies, or
hannel between a sou
e channels causes

ground
cts
r disrupts a signal as
urce and a receiver.
• Cross talk
• Noise in the backg

nterference on Cont
• Error in digital sign
▪ Blocked calls
▪ Dropped calls
ground

trol channels causes

naling which causes:
s
:

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Types of Inte
• Co-channel Interf
• Adjacent Channe

• CCI is caused due

frequency set. Th
erference
ference (CCI)
el Interference (ACI)

e to the cells that reu

hese cells are called
use the same
co-channel cells.
• CCI is caused due
frequency set. Th

• ACI is caused due

the frequency ba
e to the cells that reu
hese cells are called

e to the signals that

and.
use the same
co-channel cells.

are adjacent in

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Trunking & Gr
• Cellular radio systems
of users in a limited ra

• What is Trunking?
It is a technique t
relatively small number o
user, on demand from a p
rade of Service
s rely on trunking to accom
adio spectrum.

that allows a large numbe

of channels in a cell by pro
pool of available channels
e.
mmodate a large number

er of users to share a
oviding access to each
s.
 It is a technique t
relatively small number o
user, on demand from a p

• In a trunked radio syst

per call basis, upon te
channel is immediatel

• Grade Of Service(GO
It is a measure o
during the busiest hour.
 that allows a large numbe
of channels in a cell by pro
pool of available channels

tem(TRS) each user is all

ermination of the call, the p
ly returned to the pool of a

OS)
of ability of the user to acc
er of users to share a
oviding access to each
s.

located a channel on a
previously occupied
available channels.

cess a trunked system

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Key Definition

Set up time: Time requ

requesting user.
Blocked call: A call wh
request, due to cong
Holding Time: Averag
Seconds)
ns

uired to allocate a radio

hich cannot be complet

gestion(lost call).
ge duration of a call. De
o channel to a

ted at the time of

enoted by H (in
Holding Time: Averag
Seconds)
Request Rate: The av
time (λ).
Traffic Intensity: Meas
average channel oc
by A.
Load: Traffic intensity
ge duration of a call. De

verage number of calls

sure of channel time u

ccupancy measured in E

across the entire Trunk

enoted by H (in

request per unit

utilization or the
Erlangs. Denoted

ked Radio System.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Trunking and G
Grade Of Servi
vice
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Types of Trunk

• Blocked call cleare

• Blocked call delay

ked Systems

ed System

yed System
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Blocked Call C
• When a user reque
up time and the us
channel if one is a
• If the channels are
are available, call
system.
Cleared System
est service, there is a
ser is given immediate
available.
e already in use and n
is blocked with out ac
m
a minimal call set
e access to a

no new channels
ccess to the
 are available, call
system.
• The user does not
again.
Erlang B Formula de
blocked is given by
 is blocked with out ac

t receive Service, but

etermines the probabil

y
C is the number
A is the total tra
ccess to the

is free to try

lity that a call is

r of trunked Channels .
affic offered.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Blocked Call D

• Queues are used

blocked.
• When a user atte
immediately avail
until a channel be
• If call cannot be a
Delayed System

d to hold call request t

empts a call and a cha

lable, the call request
ecomes available.
assigned a channel, i
m

that are initially

annel is not
t may be delayed

it is placed in a
 until a channel be
• If call cannot be a
queue.
• Each call is then
ecomes available.
assigned a channel, i

serviced in the order

Pr[delay>
it is placed in a

of its arrival.

>t] = exp(- (C-A)t/H)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problems

How many users can

probability for the f
in a BCC system?
generates 0.1 erla
Solution.
a) A= 1.132.(From T
n be supported for 0.5
following number of t
? a)5 b)10. Assume ea
angs of traffic.

Table)
5% blocking
trunked channels
ach user
Solution.
a) A= 1.132.(From T
Total number of user
b) A= 3.96
Total number of user
Table)
rs U= A/Au = 1.13/0.1

rs = 3.96/0.1=39 users
1= 11 users.

s.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problems

Assuming that each u

intensity of 0.2 erla
supported for 0.1%
System for a numb
Solution:
Au= 0.2 erlang
user in a system gene
angs, how many user
% probability of blocki
ber of trunked channe
 erates a traffic
rs can be
ing in an Erlang B
els equal to 60.
Solution:
Au= 0.2 erlang
Pr[Blocking]= 0.1%
C=60 Channels.
i)Find A from the Erla
ii) Then Find U= A/Au
ang B Table.
u.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

For a trunked radio s

channels each. Fin
supported at 2% b
per hour at an ave
the total number o
supported by syste
Solution:
 system, there are 394
nd the number of use
blocking . If each user
erage call duration of
of subscribers/users th
em.
4 cells with 19
ers that can be
r averages 2 calls
3 minutes. Find
hat can be
 the total number o
supported by syste
Solution:
From Erlang B chart,
Au= λH = 2*(3/60) =
U= A/Au= 12.33/0.1=
There are 394 cells ,
can be supported
of subscribers/users th
em.

, A= 12.33
0.1 erlang
= 123.3
, the total number of s
is 123.3*394 = 48580
hat can be

subscribers that
0

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Mobi
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
ile Radio Pro
opagation
REKHA. A
Problems

An urban area has a

channels are used
has a radius of 1.3
erlangs and the av
is 1 call/hr. Find th
probability of a del
 trunked mobile netwo
d with in each cell. A
387km. If the load per
verage number of call
he following for the sys
layed call.
 ork. A total of 10
seven cell system
r user is 0.031
l request per time
stem that has 5%
 is 1 call/hr. Find th
probability of a del
a) How many users
b) What is the Proba
wait for more than
he following for the sys
layed call.
per sq.Km will this sy
ability that a delayed c
n 10s.
stem that has 5%

ystem support.
call will have to

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Solution:
Area covered per cel
Number of cells per c
Number of channels
a) A= 5.285(From E
 ll is 2.598*R 2 = 5 sq.
cluster =7.
per cell = 10.
Erlang C Chart)
Km.
Number of channels
a) A= 5.285(From E
Number of users = to
U = 5.285/0.031 = 1
Number of users per
b) H= Au/λ = 0.031/1
Pr[delay>t] = exp(- (C
 per cell = 10.
Erlang C Chart)
otal traffic intensity/Tra
170
r Sq. km = 170/5 use
1 = 0.031Hr = 112seco
C-A)t/H)
affic per user

ers/SqKm.
onds.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

IMPROVING COVER
CELLULAR SYSTEM
Cell Splitting
• Cell splitting is the pro
smaller cells.
• Cell splitting increases
increases the number
 RAGE AND CAPACIT
MS

ocess of subdividing a con

s the capacity of a cellula

r of times that channels ar
TY IN

ngested cell into

ar system since it
re reused.
increases the number
r of times that channels ar
re reused.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

• Cell Splitting is als

• The reuse factor(D

decreasing the rad
separation betwee
so called rescaling of

D/R) is constant becau

dius of the cell and sim
en the co-channel also
the system.

use we are
multaneously the
o decreases.
 decreasing the rad
separation betwee

• In cell splitting we
(D/R) ratio.
dius of the cell and sim
en the co-channel also

have high capacity w

multaneously the
o decreases.

without changing

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Cell Sectoring
The co-channel inter
the single omni dir
antennas, each ra
has same coverag

A cell is normally par

g
rference may be decr
rectional antenna by
adiating with in a spec
ge area space.

rtitioned into three 12

reased by replacing
several directional
cified sector. A Cell

20 0 sectors or six 600

A cell is normally par
sectors.
rtitioned into three 12
20 0 sectors or six 600

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Cell Sectoring

Advantages:
• Cells are divided int
each with their own
• Decrease in CCI.

Disadvantages:
g

to a number of wedge s
set of channels.
shaped sectors,
Disadvantages:
• Each sector is limite
channels. Therefore
• Increase in the num
• Antennas are expen
• Increased number o
ed to only using 1/3 or 1
e decrease in trunking e
mber of required antenna
nsive , have to be maint
of Handoffs (sector to se
1/6 of the available
efficiency.
a.
tained.
ector)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Microcell Zone
e Concept
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Radio wave Pr

▪Radio waves are a ty

with wavelengths in th

▪ Radio waves have fre

▪Radio waves are used

ropagation

ype of electromagnetic r
he Radio spectrum.

equencies of 3 kHz to 3

d for mobile Communi

radiation

300GHz.

ication, Broadcasting,
▪ Radio waves have fre

▪Radio waves are used

Radars, Navigation sys

▪To prevent interferen

the Radio Spectrum in
frequency, allocated to
equencies of 3 kHz to 3

d for mobile Communi

stems.

nce between different u

n to number of radio ba
o different uses.
300GHz.

ication, Broadcasting,

users, ITU has divided

ands on the basis of

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Radio Wave P
Radio waves are a type of
the Radio spectrum.
Propagation
electromagnetic radiation wi
ith wavelengths in
Broadcast
 Radars

Navigation

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

ITU Radio Band
ds
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Introduction- M
❑ The Wireless Tran

▪ Line Of Sight(LOS
Mobile Radio P
nsmission Path may b

S)
Propagation
be
▪ Non Line Of Sight(
▪ Obstructed b

❑ Radio Channels ar
(NLOS)
by buildings, foliage,

re random and time v

hills etc..

varying.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Propagation B

• When electrons m
waves that can pro

• By attaching an an
electrical circuit, th
broadcast efficient
Basics

moves they create elec

opagate through spac

ntenna of appropriate
he electromagnetic wa
tly and received by re
ctromagnetic
ce.

e size to an
aves can be
eceiver some
• By attaching an an
electrical circuit, th
broadcast efficient
distance away.

• Information can be
Frequency or phas
ntenna of appropriate
he electromagnetic wa
tly and received by re

e sent by modulating
se of the waves.
e size to an
aves can be
eceiver some

the Amplitude,

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Properties of R

• Easy to generate.

• Can travel Long dist

• Can penetrate build

Radio waves(1

tances.

dings.
1)
• Can penetrate build

• May be used for bot

• They are omni direc

• Can be narrowly foc

dings.

th indoor and Outdoor C

ctional

cused using parabolic a

Communications.

antennas.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Properties of r

• Frequency depen
• Behave more
• Difficult in P
• Absorbed by
• At lower freque
radio waves(2)

ndence
e like light at higher
Passing obstacles.
y Rain.
encies
)

frequencies.
 • Absorbed by
• At lower freque
• Can Pass obs
• Power falls sh

• Subject to interfere
y Rain.
encies
stacles
harply with distance f

ence from other Radio

from Source.

o wave sources.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Mobi
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
ile Radio Pro
opagation
REKHA. A
Propagation M
Mechanism
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Propagation M

Reflection
Reflection occurs wh
which are much gr
traveling wave.
Mechanism

hen the EM waves imp

reater than the wavele
pinge on objects
ength of the
 traveling wave.

Brewster angle: Br
the polarization a
which wave is per
no reflection.

sin (θB)= (εr-1

rewster's angle (also
angle) is an angle of i
rfectly transmitted thro

1/2 2
1) /(εr -1) 1/2
o known as
incidence at
ough surface, with

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Propagation M

• Scattering
▪ This occurs w
the wavelength
▪ Occurs when a
surface, the re
Mechanism

when the size of the o

h of the travelling w
a radio wave imping
eflected energy is sp
 objects is less than
wave.
ges on a rough
pread out in all
▪ Occurs when a
surface, the re
directions.
a radio wave imping
eflected energy is sp
ges on a rough
pread out in all

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Propagation M

• Surface roughness
surface perturbanc
hc= (λ/8

• A surface is consid
Mechanism

s is tested using Critic

ce for a given angle o
8 )sin θi.

dered smooth if h <hc

cal height hc of
of incidence θi.

c and rough if
• A surface is consid
h>hc.
dered smooth if h <hc
c and rough if

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Layers of Atm
mosphere
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Mobile Radio P
Propagation
At VL
wave
LF, LF, MF bands, radio
es follow the ground.
H
HF Bands

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Skip distance
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
 Space Wave P

Transmitter
Propagation

Direct Wave
Receiver
Frequency Bands V
propagation.
 Reflected Wav
VHF, UHF, SHF, EHF
ve
F use space wave

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Free Space Pr
Equation for the Free s
given by Friis Free Spa
ropagation
space received power by a
ace Equation
receiver antenna is
Let Pt be the power at t

Power density, in Watts

sphere of radius R cente
the Transmitter.

s per meter square, flowing

ered at the transmitter is (I
 through the surface of a
Isotropic antenna)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

If the transmit antenn
of the receive ante
equation above be
na has an antenna ga
enna given by , then t
ecomes
ain in the direction
the power density
The Power rece
antenna is
eived the by the receiv
ving

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

The effective apertur
expressed as

Antenna aperture or effect

re for any antenna can

tive area is a measure of ho

n also be

ow effective an antenna is
Antenna aperture or effect
at receiving the power of rad
The resulting re
tive area is a measure of ho
dio waves.
eceived power can be

ΙEΙ = ( Pr(d
Magnitude
field.
ow effective an antenna is

e written as:

d)120π/Ae ) 1/2

e of the received E

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Free Space pr
• Path loss represents
PL(dB) = -10log

• The fields of an ante

far field and the near

• It is in the far field th

ropagation
s the signal attenuation an
2 2 2
g [(λ /(4π) d )]

enna can broadly be class

r field.

hat the propagating waves

nd is measured in dB.

sified in two regions, the

s act as plane waves

 far field and the near

• It is in the far field th

and the power decay

• The far field region i

Friis equation holds i

• The Friis equation is

df = 2D
 r field.

hat the propagating waves

ys inversely with distance

is also termed as Fraunho

in this region.

s used only beyond the far

2
D /λ.
 s act as plane waves
e.

ofer region and the

r field distance, df.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

Calculate the brews

the ground havin
frequency of 200M

Solution: sin (θB)= (ε

ster angle for a wave
ng a permittivity of 7
MHz.

εr-1) /(εr -1)

1/2 2 1/2
e impinging on
7 at the
Solution: sin (θB)= (ε
εr-1) /(εr -1)
1/2 2 1/2
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

For a Base station , l

The mobile station
received power in
from Base station

Solution:
let Pt=10W, fc=900Mh
n is at a distance of 5k
dB?(Note: Down link
to the mobile station)
 hz, Gt=2, Gr=1.
km. What is the
k transmission i.e
).
Solution:
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
 Mobi
Two ray G
Diffraction
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
 ile Radio Pro
Ground reflection mode
n Model
opagation-
el and Knife edge

REKHA. A
BITS, PILANI
 Problems
Find the Fraunhofer d
dimension of 1m a
the antennas have

Solution:
 distance for an anten
and operating frequen
e unity gain, calculate
nna with maximum
ncy of 900MHz. If
e the path loss.
Solution:

Fraunhofer distance

Path lossPl(dB)= -10

= -10
= 47d
 df= 2
2D /λ = 6m

0log 2 2 2
[(λ /(4π) d )]
2 2
0log[(0.33) /(4*3.14) *
dB.
*36)]

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problems
If a transmitter produ
power in units of (
unity gain antenna
the received powe
from the antenna.

Solution:
uces 40W of power, ex
(i) dBm (ii) dbW. If 40
a with 900Mhz carrier
er in dBm at a free spa
What is the Pr(10Km
 xpress the transmit
0W is applied to a
r frequency . Find
ace distance of 90m
m).
 from the antenna.

Solution:
i) Transmitter Powe
Pt(dBm)= 10 log
ii) Transmitter Power
iii) The received pow
Pr=PtGtGrλ /(4*3.14)
2
 What is the Pr(10Km

er:
g (Pt/1mW) = 10 log(4
r in dBW= 10 log(Pt/1
wer :
)d 2
m).

40/0.001W)
1W)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Skip Distance
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Two Ray Grou
Model
und Reflection
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Two Ray Grou
Model
Let ht and hr be the h
Receiving Antenna

Let Δ be the path diff

reflected wave.
und Reflection

height of the transmitt

a.

fference between the

ting and

direct and the

Let Δ be the path diff
reflected wave.

If the T-R separation

(when d> 10(ht+hr), t
fference between the

‘d’ is very large comp

then we can say that
direct and the

pared to ht+hr,
d>>(ht+hr)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Two Ray Grou
Model
The phase difference

𝜃∆ =
und Reflection

e θΔ is given by

2𝜋∆
=
𝞴
Time delay 𝜏𝑑
 𝞴

∆ 𝜃∆
𝑑 = =
𝑐 2𝜋𝑓𝑐
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Log-Distance

Path loss model is u

as a function of dist
Gives the path loss
as a function of dist
 Path Loss Mod

used to estimate the r

tance.
s for an arbitrary T-R s
tance by using the pa
del

received signal level

separation expressed
ath loss exponent n.

𝑑
 as a function of dist

𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝐵

do is the close in refer

tance by using the pa

𝐵 = 𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝑜 + 10 𝑛 lo

rence distance
ath loss exponent n.

𝑑
og( )
𝑑𝑜

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Fresnel Zone
Fresnel zones are con
transmission path.
ncentric ellipses center
red on the direct
The zone surrounding
the RF LoS is said to b
be the Fresnel zone

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Fresnel Zone

The general equation

radius at any point
n for calculating the F
t P in between the en
Fresnel zone
ndpoints of the link
Fn = The nth Fresnel
d1 = The distance of
d2 = The distance of
λ= The wavelength o
l Zone radius in metre
P from one end in me
P from the other end
of the transmitted sign
es
etres
in metres
nal in metres.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Knife Edge Dif
ffraction Mode
el
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Knife Edge Dif

consider that there’s

d1 from the transm
difference between d
ffraction Mode

an obstruction of heig
mitter and d2 from the
direct path and the dif
el

ght h at a distance of
e receiver. The path
ffracted path is
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
 Knife Edge Dif

ow, α = β + γ
an α = tan β + tan γ
ffraction Mode
el
 ow, α = β + γ
an α = tan β + tan γ
an α ≈ α
= h/d1 + h/d2 = h(d1 + d

V is the fresnel d
d2)/d1d2.

diffraction parameter
φ= πv /2
2

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Knife Edge Dif
ffraction Mode
el
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Multiple knife
diffraction
• Multiple Knife-edge
edges, replace it by
e-edge

e diffraction : For the pre

an equivalent knife edg
esence of two knife
ge.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

Find the radius at po

distance of P from
of P from the other
transmitted signal

Solution:
oint P of the3 rd
Fresn
m the one end is 1km a
r end is 2km. The freq
is 900Mhz.
nel zone given the
and the distance
quency of the
Solution:
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

Compute the diffracti

wavelength as 1/3
fresnel zone within

Solution:
 ion parameter for h=2
3m, d1= 2 km, d2=2km
n which the tip of the o
25m. Assume
m. Identify the
obstruction lies.
Solution:

Δ=

Δ= nλ/2. T
Therefore n= 2 Δ/ λ.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Propagation M

Different Models hav

of realizing the pro
conditions.

Types of models for r

Models

ve been developed to
opagation behavior in

radio propagation inc

 meet the needs
n different

clude
Types of models for r

• Outdoor Propagati
• Indoor Propagation
radio propagation inc

ion Model
n Model.
clude

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Outdoor Propa

•Terrain Models
▪ Longley-Rice M
- Also ca
-Applica
systems
100GHz
 agation Models

Model
alled as Irregular Terrain
able to point to point co
s in the frequency range
z.
ls

n model.
ommunication
e from 40MHz to
 systems
100GHz
- Applic
- It does

•Parametric Mode
▪Hata Model
s in the frequency range
z.
cable only for Irregular T
sn’t take into account b

el
e from 40MHz to

Terrain.
buildings or trees.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Outdoor Propa
Okumura Model

• Widely used for signal

• The Okumura model f
was built using the data
• Developed during the m

Applicable for:
– frequency f: 150 MH
agation Model

prediction in urban areas.

for urban areas is a Radio
a collected in the city of Tok
mid 1960's

Hz - 1920 MHz
l

o propagation model that

kyo, Japan.
• Developed during the m

Applicable for:
– frequency f: 150 MH
– distance d: 1 km -

– [L]

Lf is the free space propag

Amu is the median attenuat

This model is based

mid 1960's

Hz - 1920 MHz
100 km

gation loss,
tion relative to free space,

only on the measured da

ata.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

INDOOR PROP
LOSSES
Partition Losses
- Partitions that are
structure are called
- Partitions that may
OPAGATION

formed as a part of th
d hard partitions.
y be moved are called
he building

d soft partitions.
- Partitions that may

Losses between the

The losses between
- Materials of th
y be moved are called

e floors:
the floors of a buildin
he building
d soft partitions.

ng are determined

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Mobi
Two ray G
Diffraction
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
 ile Radio Pro
Ground reflection mode
n Model
opagation-
el and Knife edge

REKHA. A
BITS, PILANI
Fresnel Zone
Fresnel zones are con
transmission path.
ncentric ellipses center
red on the direct
The zone surrounding
the RF LoS is said to b
be the Fresnel zone

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Fresnel Zone
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Fresnel Zone
Obstruction in the First F
Fresnel zone

• The fi
where
most
• The o
shoul
• When
 irst Fresnel zone is the region
e the transmission energy is th
intense.
obstruction in the Fresnel zone
ld be as little as possible.
n planning a new link try to
• The o
shoul
• When
maint
statio
Fresn
• At lea
shoul
not m
obstruction in the Fresnel zone
ld be as little as possible.
n planning a new link try to
tain good clearance between tw
ons, avoiding to obstruct the fir
nel zone.
ast 55% of the first Fresnel zon
ld be kept clear so that the loss
much.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Fresnel Zone

The general equation

radius at any point
n for calculating the F
t P in between the en
Fresnel zone
ndpoints of the link
Fn = The nth Fresnel
d1 = The distance of
d2 = The distance of
λ= The wavelength o
l Zone radius in metre
P from one end in me
P from the other end
of the transmitted sign
es
etres
in metres
nal in metres.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problems

Find the radius at po

distance of P from
of P from the other
transmitted signal

Solution:
oint P of the3 rd
Fresn
m the one end is 1km a
r end is 2km. The freq
is 900Mhz.
nel zone given the
and the distance
quency of the
Solution:
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

Compute the diffracti

wavelength as 1/3
fresnel zone within

Solution:
 ion parameter for h=2
3m, d1= 2 km, d2=2km
n which the tip of the o
25m. Assume
m. Identify the
obstruction lies.
Solution:

Δ=

Δ= nλ/2. T
Therefore n= 2 Δ/ λ.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

Given the following fi

diffraction parame
the knife edge is 1
 igure determine the lo
eter. Assume f=1000M
125m.
 oss due to
Mhz. The height of
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Solution:
i) Find wavelength
ii) Redraw the geom
 from frequency given
metry.
n.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
iii) Find β and γ value
iv) Use equation of V

V) With the value of V

es . α =β + γ in radian
V to find the diffraction

V, find the diffraction l

ns.
n parameter.

loss.
V) With the value of V
V, find the diffraction l
loss.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Propagation M

Different Models hav

of realizing the pro
conditions.

Types of models for r

Models

ve been developed to
opagation behavior in

radio propagation inc

 meet the needs
n different

clude
Types of models for r

• Outdoor Propagati
• Indoor Propagation
radio propagation inc

ion Model
n Model.
clude

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Outdoor Propa

•Terrain Models
▪ Longley-Rice M
- Also ca
-Applica
systems
100GHz
 agation Models

Model
alled as Irregular Terrain
able to point to point co
s in the frequency range
z.
ls

n model.
ommunication
e from 40MHz to
 systems
100GHz
- Applic
- It does

•Parametric Mode
▪Hata Model
▪Okumura Model
s in the frequency range
z.
cable only for Irregular T
sn’t take into account b

el
e from 40MHz to

Terrain.
buildings or trees.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Outdoor Propa
Okumura Model

• Widely used for signal

• The Okumura model f
was built using the data
• Developed during the m

Applicable for:
– frequency f: 150 MH
agation Model

prediction in urban areas.

for urban areas is a Radio
a collected in the city of Tok
mid 1960's

Hz - 1920 MHz
l

o propagation model that

kyo, Japan.
• Developed during the m

Applicable for:
– frequency f: 150 MH
– distance d: 1 km -

– [L]

Lf is the free space propag

Amu is the median attenuat

This model is based

mid 1960's

Hz - 1920 MHz
100 km

gation loss,
tion relative to free space,

only on the measured da

ata.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Hata Model

The Hata model is an

path loss data prov
150 MHz to 1500 M
n empirical formulatio
vided by Okumura, an
MHz.
on of the graphical
nd is valid from
fc - frequency (in MH
hte –effective transmi
hre - effective receive
d - T-R separation dis
αhre- correction factor
Hz) from 150 MHz to 1
itter (base station) an
er (mobile) antenna he
stance.
r for effective mobile a
1500 MHz.
ntenna height
eight

antenna height

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

INDOOR PROP
LOSSES
Partition Losses
- Partitions that are
structure are called
- Partitions that may
OPAGATION

formed as a part of th
d hard partitions.
y be moved are called
he building

d soft partitions.
- Partitions that may

Losses between the

The losses between
- Materials of th
y be moved are called

e floors:
the floors of a buildin
he building
d soft partitions.

ng are determined

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Multipath and
Fading
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Multipath Fadi

At a receiver, radio w
transmitted signal
• Different direc
• Different propa
• Different ampl
ing

waves generated from

may come from
ctions
agation delay
litudes
m the same
• Different propa
• Different ampl
• Different phas

These multipath com

antenna and cause
 agation delay
litudes
ses

mponents combine at
e signal to fade and d
 the receiver
distort.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Multipath Fadi

Three most importa

▪ Rapid changes

▪ Changes in the
ing

ant effects of Multipa

s in signal strengths.

e frequency of signals
ath :

s.
▪ Changes in the

▪ Multiple signals
added together
in time.
e frequency of signals

s arriving a different ti
r at the receiver, signa
s.

imes. When
als are spread out

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Multipath prop

Factors Influencing fa

• Multipath Propagatio
- Presence of reflect

• Speed of the mobile

pagation

ading

on
ting, refracting objects

e
and scatterers.
 - Presence of reflect

• Speed of the mobile

The relative motion
results in random fre
Doppler shift will be
whether the mobile
the base station.
ting, refracting objects

e
between the base stati
equency modulation du
positive or negative de
receiver is moving towa
 and scatterers.

ion and the mobile

ue to doppler shifts.
epending on
ards or away from

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Factors Influen

• Movement of the
- Objects in the rad
a time varying Dop

• Transmission Band
ncing fading

Surrounding objects
dio channel are in mo
ppler shift on multipat

dwidth of the signal

otion, they induce
th components.
• Transmission Band
If the transmitted r
the bandwidth of th
distorted.
 dwidth of the signal
radio signal bandwidth
he channel, the receiv
 h is greater than
ived signal will be

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Terminology

Level crossing rate

- Average number
crosses the thresh

Depth of fading
 of times per second
hold level .
that the signal
Depth of fading
- ratio of mean squ
the faded signal.

Fading Duration
- Time for which th
uare value and the mi

he signal is below the

 inimum value of

e Threshold.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Wire
Comm
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
eless and Mo
munication
obile
Rekha.A
BITS, Pilani
Doppler Effect

• When the receiver

received signal wil
transmitted signal.
• When the receiver
frequency of the re
• When they are opp
t

r is moving , the frequ

ll not be the same as
.
r is moving towards th
eceived signal is high
posing each other, th
uency of the
that of the

he source, the
her than the source.
he frequency
• When the receiver
frequency of the re
• When they are opp
decreases.
Thus the frequenc
fr=fc ± fd.
fc- frequency o
fd= Doppler sh
r is moving towards th
eceived signal is high
posing each other, th

cy of the received sign

of the source carrier.

hift in frequency.
 he source, the
her than the source.
he frequency

nal is

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Doppler Effect
t
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Doppler Shift
The difference
by the wave fro
points X and Y i

The Phase chan

due to the diffe
 in the path length travelled
om source S to the mobile
is Δl = dcosθ = Δt.v.cosθ

nge in the received signal

erence in path length is
v : velocity (m/s)
λ : wavelength (m)
θ : angle between mobile d
arrival direction of RF ener
+ shift → mobile moving tow
− shift → mobile moving awa
 due to the diffe

direction and
rgy
ward S
ay from S
erence in path length is

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Delay Spread

• Each multipath sig

the time of arrival f

• A single transmitte
reaches the receiv
signal is called De
gnal travels different p
for each path is differ

ed pulse will be sprea

ver. This effect which
elay Spread.
path lengths , so
rent.

ad in time when it
spreads out the
• A single transmitte
reaches the receiv
signal is called De

• Delay spread lead

ed pulse will be sprea
ver. This effect which
elay Spread.

ds to increase in the s
ad in time when it
spreads out the

signal Bandwidth.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Delay Spread
Signals from close by
reflectors

Signals from in
reflectors
ntermediate
Signals from in
reflectors
ntermediate

Signals from far away

reflectors

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Intersymbol In

Intersymbol Interfer
signal in which one
symbols.

For low bit error rate,

nterference

rence (ISI) is a form o

e symbol interferes w

,
 of distortion of a
with subsequent
For low bit error rate,
R < 1/ 2ԏd

R – transmission Rat
ԏd - Delay Spread
,

te
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Inter symbol In
nterference
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

Consider a transmitte
frequency of 1850
hour, compute the
is moving directly t
Solution:
Carrier frequency = 1
 er which radiates a si
0 MHz. For a vehicle m
e received carrier freq
towards the transmitt

1850MHz
 inusoidal carrier
moving 60 miles per
quency if the mobile
ter.
Solution:
Carrier frequency = 1
Therefore, waveleng
Vehicle speed v = 60
Fd=26.82/0.162
F= fc+fd = 1850.0001
 1850MHz
gth = c/f = 0.162m
0 mph = 26.82m/s ;(60

16MHz
0* 1609.344/3600)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problems

An urban RF radio ch
150μs. The multipl
maximum bandwid

Solution:
hannel have excess d
le path bin is 70. calc
dth for the channel m
 delay as large as
culate Δԏ and the
model.
Solution:
Given ԏN = 150μs
N= 70
Δԏ= ԏN/N = 2.14 μs.

The Maximum bandw

width = 2/ Δԏ = 0.933
3MHz.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Parameters of M
Chan
Time Dispersion Para
– Determined from Powe
– Parameters include
– Mean Acces
– RMS Delay S
– Excess Dela
Mobile Multipath
nnels
ameters
er Delay Profile

ss Delay
Spread
ay Spread (X dB)
h
 – RMS Delay S
– Excess Dela

Coherence Bandwidt

Doppler Spread and

 Spread
ay Spread (X dB)

th

Coherence Time
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
 Doppler sprea
Coherence tim
BD (Doppler spread) is
of Tx signal caused
BD = max Doppler shif
Coherence time is the
impulse response is
the measure of the
ad and
me
s the measure of the
d due to doppler shift.
ft = fmax = v/λ
e time duration over w
s considered not to be
minimum time require
 spectral broadening

which the channel

e varying. It is also
ed for the magnitude
Coherence time is the
impulse response is
the measure of the
change or phase ch
channel to become

Tc = 9/(16πfm)
e time duration over w
s considered not to be
minimum time require
hange of the signal im
e uncorrelated from its
which the channel
e varying. It is also
ed for the magnitude
mposed by the
s previous value.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Delay Spread : Beca
channel impulse re
likes a series of pu
ause of multipath refle
esponse of a wireless
ulses
ections, the
s channel looks
 Doppler Spread

Time varying fading d

receiver or both resul
due to the motion of a t
lts in Doppler spread
transmitter or

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Timer D
Determine

Mean excess delay( ):

Dispersion Param
ed from a power delay profile.

 k k
P ( )( )
= k

 k
k
P ( )
meters
Rms delay spread ():
k

 =  −  2
(
 P(
 = 2 k


k
P
( )
2

k )( )2
k

( k )
 Timer Dis

Maximum Excess D

Relative del
compared to the fir
It is also call
spersion Parame

Delay (X dB):

lay of the ith multipath

rst arriving component.
led excess delay spread
eters

component as
.
d.
compared to the fir
It is also call
rst arriving component.
led excess delay spread
.
d.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Types of Fadin
ng
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Flat fading:
•This form of fading oc
bandwidth is greater t
signal.

•The Bandwidth of the

ccurs when the coheren
than the bandwidth of t

e applied signal is very n

nce channel
the transmitted

narrow.
•The Bandwidth of the

•The strength of the re

multipath.

• Almost all frequency

the same magnitude o
e applied signal is very n

eceived signal changes

y components of the sig

of fading
narrow.

with time due to

gnal will experience

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Fast and Slow
The terms slow and fast f
and phase change imp

Coherence Time: It is the

the magnitude change
channel to become un
w Fading
fading refer to the rate at
posed by the channel on

e measure of the minimum

e or phase change of the
ncorrelated from its previo
which the magnitude
the signal changes.

m time required for

signal imposed by the
ous value.
 the magnitude change
channel to become un

Fast Fading: If the cohere

symbol period of the tr

Slow Fading: If the coher

symbol period of the tr
e or phase change of the
ncorrelated from its previo

ence time of the channel

ransmitted signal.

rence time of the channel

ransmitted signal.
signal imposed by the
ous value.

is smaller than the

is larger than the

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problem

Calculate the mean e

the maximum exce
in the figure below
the channel.
 excess delay, rms del
ess delay for the mult
w. Estimate the cohere
lay spread, and
tipath profile given
ence bandwidth of
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
  P( )(
k k )
 = k

 P( )
k
k

= ((0*0.01) + (1*0.
.1) +(2*0.1) + ( 5*1))/(0.01+
+0.1+0.1+1)
 k

= ((0*0.01) + (1*0.
= 4.38 μs
.1) +(2*0.1) + ( 5*1))/(0.01+
+0.1+0.1+1)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

  k
P ( )(
 =
2 k

 k
k
P (
( )
2
k

k )
  k
k
P(

= ((0*0.01) + (
= 21.07 μs 2

 =  − 
2
() 2

= (21.07 – (4.38
= 1.37 μs
k )

2
(1 *0.1) 2
+(2 *0.1) +( 52

2
8) ) 1/2
2*1))/(0.01+0.1+0.1+1)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Coherence BW Bc =
= 146KHz
1/5στ
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
 Modu
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
ulation Tech
hniques
Rekha.A
Assistant Professor
What is modulat

Modulation is the proc

source in a manner suit
tion

cess of encoding informati

table for transmission.
ion from a message
It involves translating a
at frequencies that are

Baseband signal is call

Bandpass signal is calle

Wir
baseband message sign
very high compared to the

led modulating signal.

ed modulated signal
reless and Mobile Communication
nal to a bandpass signal
e baseband frequency.

2 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Need for Modu

• Reducing noise wh
• Multiplexing the sig
• Reduction of Anten
• Narrow banding of
ulation

hile transmission
gnals
nna height
f the signal
• Reduction of Anten
• Narrow banding of

Wireless
nna height
f the signal

s and Mobile Communication

3 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Modulation Te

Modulation can be
– Amplitude
– Phase, or
– Frequency
of a high freq
echniques

e done by varying

quency carrier in ac
the

ccordance with
 – Frequency
of a high freq
the amplitude

Demodulation is
the baseband m
may be process

Wireless
quency carrier in ac
e of the message s

the inverse operat

message from the c
sed at the receiver

s and Mobile Communication

ccordance with
signal.

tion: Extracting
carrier so that it
r.

4 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Modulation Te
echniques
Wireless
s and Mobile Communication
5 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Amplitude Mo

The amplitude of the

the instantaneous

Application of AM - R
transmission.
odulation

e carrier is changed in
value of the modulati

Radio Broadcasting, fa
n accordance with
ing signal.

acsimile
Application of AM - R
transmission.

Frequency range for

Bandwidth – 10Khz.

Wireless
Radio Broadcasting, fa

AM – 535Khz to 1700

s and Mobile Communication

acsimile

0Khz.

7 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Amplitude mo
odulation
Wireless
s and Mobile Communication
8 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
AM Band Alloc
cation
Wireless
s and Mobile Communication
9 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Amplitude mo

The modulating signa

m(t) = Vm cos Wmt

The carrier Signal:

c(t) = Vc cos Wct
odulation

al :
The carrier Signal:
c(t) = Vc cos Wct

The AM Signal:
s(t)= [Vc + Vm cos Wm
= Vc cos Wct [1+
= Vc cos Wct [1+

Wireless
m t] cos 2πf c t
Vm / Vc cos Wmt]
ma cos Wmt]

s and Mobile Communication

10 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Modulation Fa
modulation
actor/Degree of
f
Wireless
s and Mobile Communication
11 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
V maX
Vm
V maX

Wireless
 V min
Vc

s and Mobile Communication

Vm

12 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Amplitude Mo

S(t) = Vc cos Wct [1+

= Vc cos Wct + Vc
= Vc cos Wct + (V
2π(fc- fm)
odulation

+ ma cos Wmt]
c m a cos W c t cos W m t
Vc ma /2)cos 2π(fc+fm
m) + (Vc ma /2)cos
 2π(fc- fm)

BW=fmax−fmin

= fc+fm – (fc- fm)

Wireless
) = 2fm

s and Mobile Communication

13 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Amplitude Mo

S(t) = Vc cos Wct + (

2π(fc- fm)

Power of AM wave is
upper sideband, a
components.
odulation

(Vc ma /2)cos 2π(fc+

s equal to the sum of

and lower sideband fre
+fm) + (Vc ma /2)cos

powers of carrier,
equency
Power of AM wave is
upper sideband, a
components.
Pt=Pc+PUSB+PLSB

We know that the sta

2 2
P=vrms /R = (Vp/√2) /

Wireless
s equal to the sum of
and lower sideband fre

andard formula for po

/R; Vp is the peak val

s and Mobile Communication

powers of carrier,
equency

ower of cos signal is

lue of the signal

14 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Amplitude Mo

S(t) = Vc cos Wct + (Vc

2π(fc- fm)

Pc= 2
(Vc/√2) / R= Vc 2 /

P USB = PLSB= (Vcma/2

odulation

c ma /2)cos 2π(fc+fm)

2R

2√2) /
2 R= 2 2
Vc ma / 8R
) + (Vc ma /2)cos
Pc= (Vc/√2) / R= Vc /

P USB = PLSB= (Vcma/2

Pt= Vc 2 / 2R + 2 2
Vc ma /

Pt = Pc (1+ ma 2 /2)

Wireless
 2R

2√2) /
2 R= 2 2
Vc ma / 8R

/ 8R 2 2
+Vc ma / 8R

s and Mobile Communication

15 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Double side ba

Lower side ba
and spectrum

Upper Sid
and
band
de
Lower side ba

fc-fm

Wireless
 Upper Sid
and
band

fc fc+fm

s and Mobile Communication

de

16 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Single Side Ba
Both side bands of AM carr
only one side band about th
bandwidth.
and AM
ry the same information. AM
he carrier and hence occupy
M systems transmit
y half the
Generation of SS

Wireless
SB signal using a Bandpa

s and Mobile Communication

ass filter

17 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

SSB Applicatio

• SSB is used in the

bandwidth such as

• Point to point com

MHz - military, nav
is needed.
 ons

e systems which requ

s telephone multiplex

mmunications at freque
vigation radio etc whe
uire minimum
x system.

ency below 30
ere power saving
• Point to point com
MHz - military, nav
is needed.

Wireless
mmunications at freque
vigation radio etc whe

s and Mobile Communication

ency below 30
ere power saving

18 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Demodulation
Envelope Detector
n of AM

The c
up ch
releas
the re
capacitor in the circuit stores
harge on the rising edge, and
ses it slowly through
esistor when the signal falls
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Power Efficiency

The power efficiency

the power in the m
the total power of t
 in Amplitude Mod

y of a modulated signa
message part of the si
the modulated signal.
dulation

al is the ratio of
ignal relative to
.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

A sinusoidally modula
below.
ated ordinary AM wav
veform is shown
a) Determine the mo
b) Determine the am
added to attain a
odulation Index
mplitude of the carrier
modulation index of 0
r which must be
0.3.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problems

Solution:
a)
b) Vmax = Vc( 1+ma)

Therfore Vm = m*Vc
ma = Vm/Vc
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

A certain base band

superimposed on t
generate the AM w
carrier power and
 signal has amplitude
to a carrier having am
wave. Calculate the m
the Total AM power.
 of 3V and it is
mplitude of 7V to
modulation index,
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

A certain base band

superimposed on t
generate the AM w
carrier power and

Solution:
 signal has amplitude
to a carrier having am
wave. Calculate the m
the Total AM power.
 of 3V and it is
mplitude of 7V to
modulation index,
Solution:
ma= Vm/Vc = 3/7 = 0
The carrier Power= P
Total power in the AM
= 24.5(1.09
0.4285
2
Pc= Vc /2 = 49/2= 24.5
M signal is
92) = 26.75 w
5w

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 Modu
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
ulation Tech
hniques
Rekha.A
BITS, Pilani
Amplitude Mo

S(t) = Vc cos Wct + (

2π(fc- fm)

Power of AM wave is
upper sideband, a
components.
odulation

(Vc ma /2)cos 2π(fc+

s equal to the sum of

and lower sideband fre
+fm) + (Vc ma /2)cos

powers of carrier,
equency
Power of AM wave is
upper sideband, a
components.
Pt=Pc+PUSB+PLSB

We know that the sta

2 2
P=vrms /R = (Vp/√2) /

Wireless
s equal to the sum of
and lower sideband fre

andard formula for po

/R; Vp is the peak val

s and Mobile Communication

powers of carrier,
equency

ower of cos signal is

lue of the signal

2 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Amplitude Mo

S(t) = Vc cos Wct + (Vc

2π(fc- fm)

Pc= 2
(Vc/√2) / R= Vc 2 /

P USB = PLSB= (Vcma/2

odulation

c ma /2)cos 2π(fc+fm)

2R

2√2) /
2 R= 2 2
Vc ma / 8R
) + (Vc ma /2)cos
Pc= (Vc/√2) / R= Vc /

P USB = PLSB= (Vcma/2

Pt= Vc 2 / 2R + 2 2
Vc ma /

Pt = Pc (1+ ma 2 /2)

Wireless
 2R

2√2) /
2 R= 2 2
Vc ma / 8R

/ 8R 2 2
+Vc ma / 8R

s and Mobile Communication

3 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Power Efficiency

The power efficiency

the power in the m
the total power of t
 in Amplitude Mod

y of a modulated signa
message part of the si
the modulated signal.
dulation

al is the ratio of
ignal relative to
.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

If the amplitude of a s
modulated by a fre
frequency of the si
signal of frequency 2
equency of 5MHz, wh
idebands be?
 kHz is
hat will the
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

If the amplitude of a s
modulated by a fre
frequency of the si

Solution:
signal of frequency 2
equency of 5MHz, wh
idebands be?
 kHz is
hat will the
Solution:
Upper side band: fc+
Lower side band: fc-
+fm
fm
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problem

Consider a message
carrier signal c(t) =
for the AM wave. F
load of 100Ω.
Solution:
e signal m(t)= 20cos(2
= 50cos(100πt). Write
Find the power dissipa
2 πt) volts and a
e the expression
ated across a
Solution:

Wireless
s and Mobile Communication
7 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problem

Consider a message
carrier signal c(t) =
for the AM wave. F
load of 100Ω.
Solution:
(a) s(t) = Vc cos Wct [
e signal m(t)= 20cos(
= 50cos(100πt). Write
Find the power dissipa

[1+ ma cos Wmt]

(2 πt) volts and a
e the expression
ated across a
Solution:
(a) s(t) = Vc cos Wct [
2
(b) Pc= v /2R = 12.5W

PAM=

Wireless
[1+ ma cos Wmt]
W

s and Mobile Communication

8 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

A broadcast radio tra

modulation percen
power?

Solution:
ansmitter radiates 10k
ntage is 60. How muc
kW when the
ch of this is carrier
Solution:

Pc = 8.47kW
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Angle Modulat

Two classes of angle

– Frequency Mod
– Instantane
varied line
– Phase Modulat
ation

e modulation techniqu
dulation
eous frequency of the c
early with message sign
tion
ues:

carrier signal is
nal m(t)
 varied line
– Phase Modulat
– The phase
with the m

Wireless
 early with message sign
tion
e q(t) of the carrier sign
message signal m(t).

s and Mobile Communication

nal m(t)

nal is varied linearly

11 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Frequency Mo

• When the frequenc

accordance with th
called frequency m
• In FM the carrier a
frequency varies.
odulation

cy of carrier wave is c
he message signal, th
modulation.
amplitude remain con
changed in
he process is

nstant the carrier

• In FM the carrier a
frequency varies.
amplitude remain con
nstant the carrier

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Frequency Mo

The Frequency modula

The ratio βf = Δfc/fm is

odulation

ated signal is given by

called the modulation

n index.
The ratio βf = Δfc/fm is
Δfc - is the maximum
fm = maximum modul
Δfc = KfAm
 called the modulation
m frequency deviation.
lating frequency used.

FM band allocation
n index.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Bandwidth of

Carson

BT = 2

Example:
Analog FM sys
 FM

n’s Rule

2( f + 1) f m

stem uses modulation in

ndex of Bf = 3 and fm =
Example:
Analog FM sys
4kHz. Find the band

Wireless
stem uses modulation in
dwidth .

s and Mobile Communication

ndex of Bf = 3 and fm =

15 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problems

Determine the modul

modulating freque
FM signal is 20kH

Solution:
 lation index for FM sig
ency of 10KHz . The p
Hz.
 gnal with
peak deviation of
Solution:
Δfc/fm = (20KHz/10KH
Hz) = 2 .0
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

A 1MHz carrier frequen

having amplitude of
modulator has a freq
20Khz/V. Determine
a) Peak frequency de
b) Modulation index
c) Express the FM sig
 ncy is modulated with a
8V and the frequency
quency deviation const
e
eviation

gnal mathematically for

a modulating signal
of 4Khz . The
tant gain of

a carrier amplitude
a) Peak frequency de
b) Modulation index
c) Express the FM sig
of 10V.

Solution:
a) Peak deviation = Δ
b) Modulation Index =
eviation

gnal mathematically for

Δfc = KfAm =8* 20Khz = 1

= 160\4 = 40
a carrier amplitude

160KHz

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Problem

A music signal with fr

21000 Hz is Frequ
allowed frequency
bandwidth using C
Solution:
B = 2( + 1
 requency component
uency modulated. If th
y deviation is 50 kHz.
Carson's rule

1) f
ts from 50 Hz to
he maximum
What is the signal
Solution:
BT = 2( f + 1
Bandwidth is 2 (modu
deviation) = 2 (21

Wireless
1) f m
ulating frequency + fr
kHz + 50 kHz) = 142

s and Mobile Communication

requency
kHz

18 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

A sinusoidal modulat
frequency of 2 KH
has a frequency se
frequency deviatio
 ting waveform of amp
Hz is applied to FM ge
ensitivity of 40 Hz/vol
on, modulation index,
plitude 5 V and a
enerator, which
lt. Calculate the
and bandwidth.
Wireless
s and Mobile Communication
19 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Solution:

Δf= kf * Am = 40×5=20

βf= Δf/fm = 200/2000 =

The formula for Bandw

that of AM wave.
00Hz

=0.1

width of Narrow Band FM

M is the same as
The formula for Bandw
that of AM wave.
BW = 2fm = 2* 2000

Wireless
width of Narrow Band FM

0 = 4000Hz= 4KHz

s and Mobile Communication

M is the same as

20 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Phase Modula
ation
Wireless
s and Mobile Communication
21 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Wireless
s and Mobile Communication
22 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
 Modu
Mobi
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
ulation Tech
ile Radio
hniques for
Rekha.A
BITS, Pilani
Digital Modula

In digital modulation,
by a discrete signa

• PSK (phase-shift k
ation

, an analog carrier sig

al.

keying)
gnal is modulated
• PSK (phase-shift k

• FSK (frequency-sh

• ASK (amplitude-sh
keying)

hift keying)

hift keying)
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Choice of Digi
scheme
Performance fact
1) low Bit Error
2) resistance to
3) occupying a m
4) easy and che
ital Modulation

tors to consider
r Rate (BER) at low SNR
o interference
minimum amount of BW
eap to implement
n

W
3) occupying a m
4) easy and che
5) efficient use
 minimum amount of BW
eap to implement
of Power
W

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Power Efficie
Power Efficiency
preserve the qua
levels.
– BER related to E
where Eb : ener
ency of Modu
: ability of a modula
ality of digital messa

Eb / No
rgy/bit and No : noise po
ulation
ation technique to
ages at low power

ower/bit
– BER related to E
where Eb : ener
– Tradeoff between
BER ↑ as Eb / No

Power Efficiency : 
Eb / No
rgy/bit and No : noise po
n fidelity and signal pow
o ↓

 Eb
p =  required at the rece
 0
N
ower/bit
wer →


eiver input for certain PER 


BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Bandwidth Efficie
technique to acco

– R : data rate(bps
Bandwidth Efficie
ency: ability of a mod
ommodate data in a

s) B: RF Bandwidth
ency ρ = R/B
dulation
a limited BW
– R : data rate(bps
Bandwidth Efficie
– Tradeoff between
→ as R ↑, then B
– For a digital sign
 s) B: RF Bandwidth
ency ρ = R/B
n data rate and occupie
BW ↑
nal :
ed BW

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Shannon’s Bo

There is a fundamenta
Shannon’s theorem g
bandwidth and the ma
channel considering a
ound

al upper bound on achievab

gives the relationship betwee
aximum data rate that can be
also the noise present in the

Shannon’s Theorem
ble bandwidth efficiency.
en the channel
e transmitted over this
channel.
  B max
C: channel c
B: RF bandw
S/N: signal-t

Wireless
 Shannon’s Theorem

C S
= = log 2 (1 +
B N
capacity (maximum data-rate
width
to-noise ratio (no unit)

s and Mobile Communication

S
)
N
e) (bps)

6 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Example

SNR for a wireless

is 200kHz. Com
rate that can be
 s channel is 30dB a
mpute the theoretical
e transmitted over th
and RF bandwidth
l maximum data
his channel?
Wireless
s and Mobile Communication
7 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Example:

SNR for a wireless

is 200kHz. Com
rate that can be
Answer:
 s channel is 30dB a
mpute the theoretical
e transmitted over th
and RF bandwidth
l maximum data
his channel?
Answer:

 30 dB 
S  10 
= 10  
N

C = B log 2 (1 +

Wireless
 S
+ ) = 2 x10 log 2 (1 + 10
5

s and Mobile Communication

000) = 1.99 Mbps

8 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Amplitude Shi

ASK On-off keying (A

kept constant, amp
0)
ift Keying

Amplitude Shift Keyin

plitude has 2 levels (f
ng) – frequency is
for bit 1 and for bit
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Frequency Sh
hift Keying (FSK
K)
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Binary Phase
Keying(BPSK)
In binary phase shift
amplitude carrier s
according to the tw
corresponding to 1

The transmitted BPS

Shift
)
keying, the phase of
signal is switched bet
wo possible signals m
1 and 0 respectively.

SK signal is given by
 a constant
tween 2 values
m1 and m2
The transmitted BPS
SK signal is given by

The energy per

2
Eb = ½ (Ac Tb)
Amplitude
bit
Ac = Carrier

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

PSK (Phase sh
hift keying)
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Binary Phase

The energy per bit

2
Eb = ½ (Ac Tb

Bandwidth = 2Rb = 2
 Shift Keying(B

b ) Ac = Carrier Ampli

2/Tb
BPSK)

itude
Bandwidth = 2Rb = 2
2/Tb
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Differential Ph
(DPSK)
• The input binary se
and then Modulate
• Bit information det
phase states.

• incoming bit =
hase Shift Keyin

equence is first differe

ed.
termined by transitio

= 1 → signal phase stay

ng

entially encoded

on between two

ys the same as
phase states.

• incoming bit =
previous bit
• incoming bit =
= 1 → signal phase stay

= 0 → phase switches s
ys the same as

state

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

DPSK
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
DPSK Modula
ation
Transmitter
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Quadrature P
Keying(QPSK)

In QPSK the phase o

equally spaced va
each value of phas
message bits.
Phase Shift
K)

of the carrier takes on

alues such as 0, π/2, π
se corresponds to a u
n one of the four
π, 3π/2, where
unique pair of
 message bits.

QPSK has twice the

two bits are transm
 bandwidth efficiency
mitted in a single mod
 of BPSK since
dulation symbol.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

SPRE
EAD SPECTR
RUM
SPRE

Wireless
EAD SPECTR

s and Mobile Communication

RUM

19 BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Spread Spectr
• A transmission Tech
information data, is
bandwidth greater th

• Spread spectrum is
sequence occupies
bandwidth necessar
rum
hnique in which a PN co
used to spread the sign
han signal information b

a means of transmissio
a bandwidth in excess
ry to send the informatio
ode independent of
nal energy over a
bandwidth.

on in which the data

of the minimum
on.
 sequence occupies
bandwidth necessar

• Signal Spreading is
sequence. The sam
the signal.

• The bandwidth expa

signal is much great

• Spread spectrum is
 a bandwidth in excess
ry to send the informatio

done before transmiss

me sequence is used at

ansion factor Be=W/R f

ter than unity.

most effective against

 of the minimum
on.

sion by using a spreadin

the receiver to retrieve

for a spread spectrum

interference.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Model Of the Sp
digital Commun
pread Spectrum
nication
m
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Benefits of Sp

• Resistance to Inte

• Resistance to Inte

• Longer operating d
pread Spectrum

erference and jamming

erception

distances.
m

g Effects
• Longer operating d

• Better voice quality

• Reduced cross tal

distances.

y.

lk interference.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Spreading Codes

• A noise like and ran

transmitter.

• The same signal mu

ndom signal has to be g

ust be generated at the

generated at the

receiver in
• The same signal mu
synchronization.

• The spreading code

• PN generator produ
ust be generated at the

es are called as “Pseudo

uces periodic sequence.

 receiver in

o Noise” codes.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Spread Spectr
Techniques

• Frequency Hopped

• Direct Sequence S
rum Modulatio

d Spread spectrum

Spread Spectrum
on
• Direct Sequence S
Spread Spectrum
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
 Error
BITS Pilani
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad
ror detection and Co
d Correction

Rekha.A
Spread Spectrum M
Techniques
Frequency hopped

• It involves a periodic

• The set of possible c

m Modulation

ped Spread Spectrum (FH- SS)

riodic change of transmission frequency.

ible carrier frequencies is called the hop s

S)

ency.

hop set.
• Each channel is defin
hop set.

• The bandwidth of a c
(Bs)

• The bandwidth of the

Hopping Bandwidth

• The frequency seque

• Receiver also should
recover the message
s defined as a spectral region with a cente

of a channel used in the hop set is called

of the spectrum over which hopping occu

width (Bss)

sequence is dictated by the spreading cod

hould hop synchronously with the transm
ssage.
 center frequency in the

called instantaneous BW

occurs is called total

ng code.
ransmitter to be able to
Frequency Hopped
ed Spread Spectrum
m
FH- SS

• The time duration between

period denoted by Th.

• Typically 2k carrier frequenc

ween the hops is called hop durati

quencies forming 2k channels.

uration or the hopping

.
• Each channel used for fixed
– 300 ms in IEEE 802.11

Hopping bandwidth is given b

(2 -1) Δf = Ws ; L is maximal le
L

Δf : Minimum step size betwe

 fixed interval
2.11

en by
mal length sequence
etween the center frequency
FH- SS
Frequency Hopping
(Transmitter)
ing Spread Spectrum
m
Illustrate the variatio
frequency shift ke
Assume the hopp
i. Input binary seque
riation of frequency for frequency
ft keying signal for the following p
hopping duration is twice that of s
equence = 110010101101.
 ency hopping/M-ary
wing parameters.
t of symbol duration.
ii. PN Sequence = 0
iii. Number of bits pe
iv. Length of PN seg
e = 001 110 011 001 001.
ts per M-FSK Symbol = 2.
segment per hop = 3.
Frequency Hopping
(Receiver)
ing Spread Spectrum

Band Pass Filter D

m

Demodulator Data
Direct Sequence Sp
SS)
A direct sequence s
data by directly mu
noise sequence tha
generator.
Spread Spectrum(DS-

nce spread spectrum system spread

y multiplying the baseband data with
e that is produced by the Psuedo no
DS-

reads the baseband

a with the Psuedo
o noise code
ERROR DETECTION A

❑ Error detection
• Check if any error has occu
• Don’t care the number of e
• Don’t care the position of e
ON AND CORRECTION

occurred
of errors
of errors
ON CODES
❑ Error Correction
• Need to know the number o
• Need to know the position o
ber of errors
tion of errors
Types of Error

Single bit error:

- Only one bit in the data uni
a unit has changed.
Burst error:
- It has two or more bits in the
n the data unit has changed.
Redundancy

To detect or correct errors, red

s, redundant bits of data must be
st be added.
Detection/ Correctio

• Parity checks
• Check summing methods
• Cyclic redundancy checks
ction Techniques

ods
cks
Parity bit

In even parity the added parit

amount.
In odd parity the added parity
amount.
parity bit will make the total numb

arity bit will make the total numbe

number of 1s an even

umber of 1s an odd
Error detection

EDC= Error Detection and Correctio

D = Data protected by error check

• Error detection not 100% reliabl

• protocol may miss some erro
• larger EDC field yields bette
rrection bits
checking, may include header fields

eliable!
e errors, but rarely
better detection and correction
s
Parity checking

single bit parity:

❖ detect single bit
errors
Single Parity contd…

Limitation of single parity :

• This technique does not de
• If even number of bits flip d
• It can only detect errors bu
td…

:
ot detect even number of bit error
flip during transmission, receiver
s but it cannot correct errors.
errors ( two, four, six etc)
iver cannot catch the error
Parity checking( Block Par

two-dimensional bit p
❖ detect and correct singl
Parity)

bit parity:
single bit errors
0 0
0
Two-dimensional parity-
arity-check code
Two-dimensional parity
parity-check code
Two-dimensional parity-
arity-check code
Two-dimens
detect up to
mensional parity-check c
p to 3-bit errors
ck can
 Error
BITS Pilani
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad
ror detection and Co
d Correction

Rekha.A
Checksum
goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flip
(note: used at transport lay

sender:
treat segment contents
as sequence of 16-bit
g., flipped bits) in transmitted packet
rt layer only)

receiver:
❖compute checksum of
it
acket
 integers
checksum: addition (1’s
complement sum) of
segment contents
sender puts checksum
value into UDP
checksum field
 received segment
s ❖check if computed checksu
equals checksum field value
▪ NO - error detected
▪ YES - no error detected
But maybe errors
nonetheless?
ecksum
value:
d
cted.
Checksum: Example

example: add two 16-bit integ

1 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 1
le

integers

0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0
1
wraparound 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

sum 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
checksum 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

Note: when adding numbe

significant bit needs t
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

umbers, a carryout from the most

eds to be added to the result
 1

0
1

ost
Checksum: Example

1 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 1
mple

0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0
1
wraparound 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

sum 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
checksum 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1

0
1

1
Performance

The checksum detects all e

It detects most errors involv
If one or more bits of a seg
bits of opposite value in a s
 all errors involving an odd numb
nvolving an even number of bits.
segment are damaged and the c
n a second segment are also dam
 umber of bits.
bits.
the corresponding bit or
o damaged, the sums of
those columns will not chan
change and the receiver will not
not detect a problem.
Cyclic redundancy c
❖ more powerful error-detec
❖ D is the data bits
❖ choose r+1 bit pattern (ge
❖ goal: choose r CRC bits, R
▪ receiver knows G, divides <
cy check
etection coding

n (generator), G
its, R, such that
des <D,R> by G. If non-zero
 remainder: error detected!
▪ can detect all burst errors le
❖ widely used in practice (Et
ted!
ors less than r+1 bits
e (Ethernet, 802.11 WiFi, ATM)
M)
CRC example
CRC - Example
HAM
AMMING CODE
DE
 Hamming Codes

Calculating Hamming code

1. Mark all bit positions that are powe
2. All other bit positions are for the da
15, 17, etc.)
3. Each parity bit calculates the parit
 powers of two as parity bits. (positions
the data to be encoded. (positions 3, 5,

parity for some of the bits in the code w

tions 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, etc.)
3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,

ode word. The position of the

 parity bit determines the sequenc
Position 1: check 1 bit, skip 1 bit,
Position 2: check 2 bits, skip 2 bit
Position 4: check 4 bits, skip 4 bit
(4,5,6,7,12,13,14,15,20,21,22,23,
Set a parity bit to 1 if the total numbe
the total number of ones in the po
uence of bits that it alternately checks a
1 bit, check 1 bit, skip 1 bit, etc. (1,3,5,7
2 bits, check 2 bits, skip 2 bits, etc. (2,3
4 bits, check 4 bits, skip 4 bits, etc.
2,23,...)
umber of ones in the positions it checks
he positions it checks is even.
ecks and skips.
3,5,7,9,11,13,15,...)
c. (2,3,6,7,10,11,14,15,...)
c.

hecks is odd. Set a parity bit to 0 if

Example: 8-bit data

Bit position: 12 11 10 9 8 7 6
1 1 0 0 P8 0 1
Calculate the parity bits: even parit
P1 = XOR of bits (3, 5, 7, 9, 11) =
P2 = XOR of bits (3, 6, 7, 10, 11)
ata word 11000100

7 6 5 4 3 2 1
8 0 1 0 P4 0 P2 P1
parity ⎯ assumption
11) = 0  0  0  0  1 = 1
0, 11) = 0  1  0  0  1 = 0
 P4 = XOR of bits (5, 6, 7, 12) = 0
P8 = XOR of bits (9, 10, 11, 12) =
Store the 12-bit composite word in m
Bit position: 12 11 10 9 8 7 6
1 1 0 0 0 0
2) = 0  1  0  1 = 0
12) = 0  0  1  1 = 0
rd in memory.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
0 0 1 00 0 01
When the 12 bits are read fro
Bit position: 12 11 10 9 8 7
1 1 0 0 0
– Check bits are calculated
C1 = XOR of bits (1, 3, 5, 7, 9
d from the memory
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 01
ed
5, 7, 9, 11) = 1  0  0  0  1 = 0
0
 C2 = XOR of bits (2, 3, 6, 7, 1
C4 = XOR of bits (4, 5, 6, 7, 1
C8 = XOR of bits (8, 9, 10, 11

If no error has occurred

Bit position: 12 11 10 9 8 7 6
1 1 0 0 0 0
 C = C8C4C2C1 = 000
6, 7, 10, 11) = 0  0  0  0  1  1=
6, 7, 12) = 0  0  1  0  1=0
10, 11, 12) = 0  0  0  1  1 =0

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
0 0 1 00 0 01
= 0000
 1= 0
Code: Bit position: 12 11
1 1
Code received: 1 1
One-bit error
– error in bit 1
2 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
3 2 1
0 01
0 00
– Check bits are calculated
C1 = XOR of bits (1, 3, 5, 7, 9
C2 = XOR of bits (2, 3, 6, 7, 1
C4 = XOR of bits (4, 5, 6, 7, 1
C8 = XOR of bits (8, 9, 10, 11
C8C4C2C1 = 0001

– error in bit 5
• C8C4C2C1 = 0101
ed
5, 7, 9, 11) = 0  0  0  0  1 = 1
6, 7, 10, 11) = 0  0  0  0  1  1=
6, 7, 12) = 0  0  1  0  1=0
10, 11, 12) = 0  0  0  1  1 =0
 1
 1= 0
Two-bit error
– errors in bits 1 and 5
• C8C4C2C1 = 0100 →
nd 5
0 → can not detect !!
Modified Hamming C

• An Extended Hamming code

Double Error Detection)
• With the light modification, it i
correction and double error de
• A one more parity bit is added
even number of ones.
ng Code

code is also called as SECDED (Sin

)
n, it is possible to construct hammin
ror detection.
dded in the hamming code to ensur
 (Single Error Correction

mming code for single error

ensure hamming code contains an

• The resulting hamming code
If we consider the codeword, 110
The new codeword to be sent w
P13 is evaluated from the exclus
C= 0 and P = 0 No error occurre
C ≠ 0 and P = 1 A single error oc
C ≠ 0 and P = 0 A double error o
C = 0 and P = 1 An error occurr
 ode enables single error correction
d, 11000101100, P = XOR(1,1,0,0,0,
ent will be 011000101100.
xclusive-OR of the other 12 bits. So
curred.
or occurred that can be corrected.
rror occurred that is detected but ca
ccurred in the P13 bit.
ction and double error detection.
0,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0) = 0,

s. So P13 =0

ed.
ut cannot be corrected.
Example

Code: Bit position: 12 11 10

1 1 0
Code received: 1 1 0
1 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 01
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 00
– Check bits are calculated
C1 = XOR of bits (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11) = 0
C2 = XOR of bits (2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11) = 0
C4 = XOR of bits (4, 5, 6, 7, 12) = 0 
C8 = XOR of bits (8, 9, 10, 11, 12) = 0

C= 0100
P=0
1) = 0  0  1  0  0  1 = 0
11) = 0  0  0  0  1  1= 0
= 0  1  1  0  1=1
2) = 0  0  0  1  1 =0
Convolutional Code
For the circuit find
odes
find the encoded sequence of bit

+
of bits.
V1
U[10011]
++
V2
Convolutional Code

(n, k, m) = (2,1,2)
odes

2)

+
 V1

(1)
g = [1 1 1]
U[10011]

Matrix = U X n(U+m)
= 5 X 2(5+2)
= 5 X 14
 ++
U+m)
+2)
 (2)
g = [ 1 0 1]

V2
Convolutional Code
(1)
g = [1 1 1]
(2)
g = [ 1 0 1]
odes - Examples

Matrix = U X n(U+m)
U
= 5 X 2(5+2)
= 5 X 14
U[10011]
G = 11 10 11 00 00
00 11 10 11 00
00 00 11 10 11
00 00 00 11 10
00 00 00 00 11

[C] = [ 1 1 1 0 1 1
00 00 00 00 C= [ 10011] 11 1
11 00 00 00 00 11
10 11 00 00 00 00
11 10 11 00 00 00
00 11 10 11 00 00

1011 11010111]
 11 10 11 00 00 00 00
00 11 10 11 00 00 00
00 00 11 10 11 00 00
00 00 00 11 10 11 00
00 00 00 00 11 10 11
 Wireles
BITS Pilani
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad
less and Mobile Com
Communication

Rekha.A
Convolutional Code
For the circuit find
odes
find the encoded sequence of bit

+
of bits.
V1
U[10011]
++
V2
Convolutional Code

(n, k, m) = (2,1,2)
odes

2)

+
 V1

(1)
g = [1 1 1]
U[10011]

Matrix = U X n(U+m)
= 5 X 2(5+2)
= 5 X 14
 ++
U+m)
+2)
 (2)
g = [ 1 0 1]

V2
Convolutional Code
(1)
g = [1 1 1]
(2)
g = [ 1 0 1]
odes - Examples

Matrix = U X n(U+m)
U
= 5 X 2(5+2)
= 5 X 14
U[10011]
G = 11 10 11 00 00
00 11 10 11 00
00 00 11 10 11
00 00 00 11 10
00 00 00 00 11

[C] = [ 1 1 1 0 1 1
00 00 00 00 C= [ 10011] 11 1
11 00 00 00 00 11
10 11 00 00 00 00
11 10 11 00 00 00
00 11 10 11 00 00

1011 11010111]
 11 10 11 00 00 00 00
00 11 10 11 00 00 00
00 00 11 10 11 00 00
00 00 00 11 10 11 00
00 00 00 00 11 10 11
Convolutional code

u(1) = (1 0 1) an
 de

1) and u(2) = (1 1 0)
(n

M
(n,k,m)=(3,2,1)

Matrix= 3 x 3(3+1)
U
 = 3 x 12

U =[ 1 1 0 1 1 0]
Convolutional Code
odes - Examples

(1)
g1 = [1
(2)
g1 = [ 0
(3)
g1 = [ 1
)= [1 1]
2) = [ 0 1]
) = [ 1 1]
 (1)
g2 = [0
(2)
g2 = [1
(3)
g2 = [ 1
)= [0 1]
2) = [1 0]
) = [ 1 0]
Convolutional Code

(1) (1)
g2 = [0
g1 = [1 1]
(2) (2)
g2 = [
g1 = [ 0 1]
(3) (3)
g2 = [
g1 = [ 1 1]
odes - Examples

1) = [0 1] (n,k,m)=(3,2,1) u(1) = (1
(2) = [1 0] Matrix= 3 x 3(3+1)
= 3 x 12
3) = [ 1 0]
U =[ 1 1 0 1 1 0]
) = (1 0 1) and u(2) = (1 1 0)
G= 101 111 000 000
011 100 000 000

000 101 111 000

000 011 100 000

000 000 101 111

000 000 011 100

[C] = [ 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
 [c] = [u][G]
= [ 110110] 101 111
011 100

000 101 1
000 011 1

000 000 1
1 1 1 1] 000 000 0
1 111 000 000
1 100 000 000

0 101 111 000

0 011 100 000

0 000 101 111

0 000 011 100
DIVER
ERSITY TECHNIQUE
UES
Diversity Techniques
ques
Classification of Div

Spacial Diversity
In this technique m
and connected to
Diversity

rsity (Space Diversity)

ue multiple antennas are strategic
ed to receiving system.
tegically spaced
While one antenna
antennas may se
select the antenn
enna sees a signal as null, one of
ay see a signal peak and the rece
ntenna with the best signal at any
ne of the other
receiver is able to
t any time
Classification of Div
Space Diversity
Diversity
y
Classification of Div

Frequency Diversity
• It is implemented by transm
frequency.
• The separation between th
Diversity

ansmitting same information on m

en the carriers should be at least

on more than one carrier

east the coherent

 bandwidth.
• Different copies undergo in
go independent fading.
Classification Of Div

Time Diversity
• Repeatedly trans

• The interval betw

 Diversity

sity
transmits information at different

between the transmission of the

rent time spacing

the same symbol

 should be at leas

• Different copies
 least the coherence time.

pies undergo independent fading

ding
Space Diversity
Space Diversity

Maximal R
ximal Ratio Equal gain
Selection Diversity
y Scanning Diversity
combinin
mbining Diversity
Selection Diversity

Selecting the best sig

different branches
ty

st signal among all the signals rece

ches at the receiving end.
received from
Consider M independ
receiver.
Each channel is calle
having the highes
demodulator.
ependent fading channels available a

called a diversity Branch. The recei

ghest instantaneous SNR is connec
able at the

receiver branch
nnected to the
The instantaneous SNR is de
branch over mean noise po

The probability that a single b

 is defined as the instantaneous s
se power per branch denoted by γ

gle branch has an instantaneous

ous signal power per
d by γi.

ous SNR less than some

threshold γ is given by

The Probability that

SNR less than thresh

Pr = (
 that M diversity branches have inst
reshold is given by

Pr = - γ /Γ M
(1-e ) =PM(γ)
e instantaneous
The probability that the SNR >

Pr[γi> γ]= 1-PM(γ)= 1- (1-e

NR >γ for one or more branches

-
(1-e )γ/Γ M
ches is given by
The average SNR improveme
vement offered by selection divers
diversity is given by
Scanning Diversity o
Diversity
Scanning all the signals in a f
predetermined threshold is

This signal is received until it

ty or Feed back

n a fixed sequence until the one w

ld is identified.

til it falls below the threshold and

one with SNR more than a

and the scanning

 process is again initiated.

The advantage is this method

ed.

thod is very simple to implement.

ment.
Scanning Diversity
ty
Basic form of Sc
of Scanning Diversity
Maximal Ratio Comb

Maximal ratio combining (MR

MRC is performed by aligning
adding the signals together
This method requires Phasing
ombining

(MRC) is a common diversity tec

gning the phase of the signal for e
ether.
asing circuit for each antenna ele
y technique.
for each RF chain and

a element.
Equal Gain Combini

• Combining all th
weights for all si
achievable SNR

• In certain cases
bining

all the signals in a co-phased ma

all signal levels so as to have the
SNR at the receiver at all times.

ases it is not convenient to provid

d manner with unity
e the highest
es.

ovide for the

 variable weightin

• Gain of each bra

• These are Co-ph

diversity.
 ghting capability.

h branch signal is weighted to set

Co-phased to provide equal gain c

o set it to unity.

ain combining
EQUALIZATION
Fundamentals of Eq

The Mobile channel is random

Adaptive equalizer operating

 Equalization

ndom and time varying, equalizer

ting modes:
alizers must be adaptive.
• Training
• Tracking
Structure of a Basic
sic Adaptive Equalizer
izer
 Mul
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Multiple Access Tec
R
B
Techniques
Rekha.A
BITS, Pilani
Multiple Access Tec
Communications
• In multiple Acces
a common comm
information to a

• Share a finite am
Techniques for Wireles
s
ccess System a large number of
ommunication channel to transm
to a receiver.

e amount of radio spectrum.

eless

er of users share
ansmit
• The sharing of th
capacity by simu
bandwidth to mu

• Duplexing gener
 of the spectrum is required to ac
simultaneously allocating the ava
o multiple users.

enerally required
 o achieve high
e available
Duplex Communica

• A duplex communication s
connected parties or device
directions.
ication

on system is a point-to-point syst

evices that can communicate with
 system composed of two
e with one another in both
• Duplexing can be done.

▪ Time Domain

▪ Frequency Domain
e.

main
 Various Mutip

FDMA – Frequency division m

TDMA - Time division multiple

Mutiple Access Techniq

on multiple access

ultiple access
niques
CDMA – Code division multip

Packet Radio
ultiple access
Multiple Access (
ess (MA) Technologies
Time Division Multip

• TDMA system divide the ra

only one user is allowed to
ultiple Access

he radio spectrum into time slots a

d to either transmit or receive.
lots and in each time slot
e.
Frame format of TDM
Synchronization information
TDMA
mation
Time Division Multip

The efficiency of the TDMA sy

data that contains informati
access scheme.
ultiple Access

MA system is a measure of percen

mation as opposed to providing o
ercentage of transmitted
ding overhead for the
The total number of bits per fr
bOH - The number of overhead
per frame - bT
head bits per frame
Time Division Multip

Number of channel slots that

ultiple Access

that can be provided in a TDMA s

MA system
m- Maximum number of TDM
Bt is the total spectrum alloca
Bguard – Guard band allocated
Bc – Channel bandwidth.
TDMA users supported on radio c
location
ated
dio channel.
 Frame efficie

bT= Total number of bits per f

= Tf * R

Tf = Total frame duration

iciency parameters

per frame
R = Channel Rate
Frequency division m

• In FDMA each user is alloc

• During the period of the cal

on multiple access

allocated a frequency band or ch

e call, no other user can share th

or channel.

re the same channel.

Channels Supported

The number of channels that

system is given by
rted by FDMA

that can be simultaneously suppo

upported in a FDMA
Bt is the total spectrum alloca
Bguard – Guard band allocated
Bc – Channel bandwidth.
location
ated
 UPLINK
(MHZ)

1850 - 1910
K DOWNLINK WID
) (MHZ) OF BA
(MH
910 1930 - 1990 60
 WIDTH BAND
OF BAND GAP
(MHZ) (MHZ)
60 20
 1710 - 1785
824 - 849
830 - 840
2500 - 2570
880 - 915
1749.9 - 1784.9
785 1805 -1880 75
49 869 - 894 25
40 875 - 885 10
570 2620 - 2690 70
15 925 - 960 35
784.9 1844.9 - 1879.9 35
75 20
25 20
10 25
70 50
35 10
35 60
FDMA/FDD
f
t
FDMA/TDD
f
t
TDMA/ FDD
t
 f

t
f
TDMA/TDD
t
f
 Wire
Comm
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
eless and Mo
munication
obile
Rekha.A
BITS, Pilani
Random Acce
Packet Radio
Packet radio is a fo
transmit digital dat
• Packet radio multip
may induce delays
• ALOHA is the pack
common channel.
ess protocol-

orm of packet switchin

ta via wireless comm
ple access is very ea
s.
ket radio Protocol is u
ng technology used to
munications links.
asy to implement but

used to transmit on a
 may induce delays
• ALOHA is the pack
common channel.
s.
ket radio Protocol is u
used to transmit on a

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 ALOHA(Multip

ALOHA stands for Additive

Aloha, refers to a simple c

(transmitter) in a netwo

f the frame successfully re

ple Access Pro

e Links On-line Hawaii Are

communications scheme in
ork sends data when ever

eaches the destination (re

otocols)

ea.

n which each source

there is a data to send.

eceiver), the next frame

f the frame successfully re
is sent. If the frame fails
again.

This protocol was originally

by Norman Abramson.
eaches the destination (re
s to be received at the de

y developed at the Univer

eceiver), the next frame
estination, it is sent

rsity of Hawaii in 1970

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Types of Rand

• Pure ALOHA

• Slotted ALOHA

• CSMA-CD
dom Access
• CSMA-CD
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
 Packet Radio P

ll packets sent by all u

sers may generate ne

et λ be the mean arriv

Protocols

users have a constan

ew packets at random

val rate of packets pe

nt packet length.

m time intervals.

er second.
et λ be the mean arriv

et t be the packet dur

hen, the traffic occupa

by λ. t
val rate of packets pe

ration in seconds.

ancy R of a packet ra
er second.

adio network is given

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Packet Radio P

The probability that n

frame time
Protocols

n packets generated
during a given
Packet duration =
= No.of bits per pac
cket / bit rate

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Pure ALOHA

The pure ALOHA proto

data transfer.

A user accesses a cha

transmitted.

After a transmission, th
ocol is a random access

annel as soon as a mes

he user waits for an ack

s protocol used for

ssage is ready to be

knowledgment.
 transmitted.

After a transmission, th
In case of collisions,(w
period of time and re

As the number of users

the probability of col
 he user waits for an ack
when NACK) the termin
etransmits the message

s increase, a greater de
llision increases.
knowledgment.
nal waits for a random
e.

elay occurs because

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Pure ALOHA

The vulnerable perio

od for pure ALOHA is f
found to be 2τ.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Pure ALOHA

There fore the proba

during 2τ duration
ability that n packets a
interval is given by
are generated
Throughput = Re -2R
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Slotted ALOHA

▪ In slotted ALOHA,
each interval corre
▪ The subscribers ea
▪ Transmit a messag
slot, thus resulting
A

time is divided into d

esponds to one frame
ach have synchronize
ge only at the beginn
g in a discrete distribu
discrete intervals ,
e.
ed clocks.
ning of a new time
ution of packets.
▪ Transmit a messag
slot, thus resulting
▪ This prevents part
with a portion of an
▪ The vulnerable pe
duration, since par
synchronization.
 ge only at the beginn
g in a discrete distribu
tial collisions, where o
nother.
eriod for slotted ALOH
rtial collisions are pre
ning of a new time
ution of packets.
one packet collides

HA is only one packet

evented through

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Slotted ALOH
HA

T
Throughput = Re -R
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
CSMA/CD
Station is ready to send

Med
Check occu
channel
 New attemp

dium
upied
pt Waiting according
to back-off algorithm
 Med
Check occu
channel

medium
available

Sending of data and

checking the channel

No collision

Finish
dium
upied

Discovered collision
 send
jam signal

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Binary Expone
After a collision, time is divi
trip propagation time
After each collision each sta
If two computer frames colli
number, their frames will co
After the second collision, e
ential Back-off
ided into discrete slots whos

ation waits 0 or 1 slot times b

ide initially, and each compu
ollide again.
each computer picks either 0
f
se length is equal to the roun

before trying again.

uter picks the same random

0, 1, 2 or 3 at random and
number, their frames will co
After the second collision, e
waits that number of slot tim
If a third collision occurs (th
the number of slots to wait i
In general, after i collisions,
that number of time slots is
ollide again.
each computer picks either 0
mes.
he probability of this happeni
is chosen at random from th
, a random number between
skipped.
0, 1, 2 or 3 at random and

ing is 0.25), then the next tim

he interval 0 to 7.
n 0 and (2i − 1) is chosen, an

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

 N
BITS Pilani
ilani Campus
Networking
R
Rekha.A
Circuit Switch

In circuit switching, a
the source and the
takes place.

It remains dedicated
duration of the tran
hing

an electrical path is es
e destination before a

to the communicating
nsmission.
stablished between
any data transfer

g pair for the entire

It remains dedicated
duration of the tran

The connection is rel

by either of the com

Data transmission us
switched data tran
 to the communicating
nsmission.

leased only when spe

mmunicating entities.

sing PSTN is a typica

nsfer.
 g pair for the entire

ecifically signaled so
.

al example of a circuit

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Circuit Switch
hing
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Circuit Switch

3 phases are involve

• Connection e
• Data Transmis
• Connection re
hing

ed in circuit switched d
establishment
ssion
elease
data transfer.
 • Connection re

Time taken for the da

connection TCS = T
Te- Time for path set
Tt- Time for data tran
Tr- Time for path rele
elease

ata transfer in a circui

Te+ Tt + Tr
t up or connection est
nsmission
ease.
it switched

tablishment

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Cont…

Te depends upon the

path between the s

Te = (N-1) Tm
e number of switching
source and destinatio
g nodes in the
on.
Te = (N-1) Tm

N – number of nodes

Tm- average route se

network.
s in the path

election time in each

node for a given

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Cont….
Tt(Time for data transm
the size of the mess
Tt = M/R
M= message length in
R= data rate in bps.

Tr also depends upon t

mission) depends upon
sage.

bits

the number of switching

the data rate and

g nodes in the path.

R= data rate in bps.

Tr also depends upon t

Connection release
which propagates fr
Tr = NTh
Th= time taken by a no

There fore Tcs = (N-1)T

 the number of switching
is generally initiated by
rom one end to the othe

ode to make house kee

Tm + M/R + NTh
g nodes in the path.
y a release signal
er.

eping entries

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Disadvantages
switching
• The path set up tim

• The entire line qua

the circuit.

• The speed of oper

s of circuit

me is typically of orde

ality is affected if there

ration of the circuit is

er of 20-30 s.

e is one bad link in

limited by the slowes

• The speed of oper
link in the circuit.

• The network provid

ration of the circuit is

des no error control fa

limited by the slowes

acilities

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Store and Forw

Store and forward sw

ability to store use
towards the destin
available.
ward Switching

witching, the switching

er messages and forw
nation as and when th
g

g nodes have the

ward the same
he link becomes
Node
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Store and Forw

S &F switching may b

• Message swit

• Packet Switch
ward Switching

be classified as

tching

hing
g
• Packet Switch
hing
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Message switc

In this switching, onc

is transmitted in its
to the another.

The processor perfor

• Receive the user m
ching

ce the transmission is
s entirely with out a br

rms the following func

message full and stor
s initiated, a message
reak from one node

ctions:
re the same.
The processor perfor
• Receive the user m
• Check the messag
perform error reco
• Determine destina
• Choose an approp
certain routing crite
• Forward the mess
 rms the following func
message full and stor
ge for data transmissi
overy if required.
ation address from the
priate link towards des
erion.
sage to the next node
ctions:
re the same.
ion errors and

e user message.
stination based on

on the chosen link.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Message Switc
tching
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Drawbacks of
switching
For long messages i
adequate storage sp
transmission is initiat

If an error occurs dur

have to be retransmi
 Message

it becomes important
pace on the receiving
ted.

ring transmission, the

itted.
to ensure that there i
node before the

e entire message may

If an error occurs dur
have to be retransmi

If a high priority shor

in transmission, it wil
long message
ring transmission, the
itted.

rt message comes wh
ll have to wait until th
e entire message may

hile a long message is

he transmission of the

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Packet Switch

In packet switching m
packets, often fixe
in a S and F fashio

Messages are split a

destination.
hing

messages are split int

ed in size and the pac
on.

at the host and reasse

 to number of
ckets are transmitted

embled at the
Messages are split a
destination.

Each packet transmis

The packets of a sing

routes and arrive a
at the host and reasse

ssion is independent

gle message may trav

at the destination with
embled at the

of the others.

vel via different

h different delays.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Packet Switch

Typical Packet forma

Header
Destination ID Source
hing

at

e ID Message Packe
ID ID
 USER
et Control DATA
Destination ID Source
e ID Message Packe
ID ID
et Control DATA

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam

Delay in Store
tr
A

B
e and Forward
ransmission
propagatio

nodal
processing queueing
on
 dnodal = d

dproc: nodal pro

▪ check bit errors
▪ determine outpu
 nodal
processing queueing

dproc + dqueue + dtrans +

ocessing dqueue: q
▪ time w
for tra
ut link
▪ depen
level o
 dprop

queueing delay
waiting at output link
ansmission
nds on congestion
of router
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Contd..

dtrans: transmiss
▪ L: packet leng
▪ R: link bandw
▪ dtrans = L/R
sion delay:
gth (bits)
width (bps)
▪ dtrans = L/R

dprop: propagation
▪ d: length of phy
▪ s: propagation s
medium (~2x10
▪ dprop = d/s
 delay:
ysical link
speed in
8
0 m/sec)
BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam
Problems

Assume five branch s

branch receives an
SNR is 20dB, dete
drop below 10dB f
employed and whe
mean SNR
 selection diversity is u
n independent signal.
ermine the probability
for the case when do
en diversity is employ
 used. Each
. If the average
y that the SNR will
diversity is
yed. Compute the
 employed and whe
mean SNR
Solution:

Pr = - γ
(1-e ) =/Γ M 0.00
Mean SNR =
en diversity is employ

= 0.095 (no Diversi

000078 ( five branch d

= 20(2.28)=
yed. Compute the

ity)

diversity)
45.6dB

BITS Pilani, Pilani Cam