Layered Architecture in Computer

Networks
Layered architecture in computer networks refers to dividing a
network’s functioning into different layers, each responsible for a
certain communication component. The major goal of this layered
architecture is to separate the complex network communication
process into manageable, smaller activities that can be better
developed. In this article, we will discuss Layered Architecture in
Computer Networks.
Introduction to Layered Architecture
Every network consists of a specific number of functions, layers,
and tasks to perform. Layered Architecture in a computer network
is defined as a model where a whole network process is divided
into various smaller sub-tasks. These divided sub-tasks are then
assigned to a specific layer to perform only the dedicated tasks. A
single layer performs only a specific type of task. To run the
application and provide all types of services to clients a lower
layer adds its services to the higher layer present above it.
Therefore layered architecture provides interactions between the
sub-systems. If any type of modification is done in one layer it
does not affect the next layer.
 Layered Architecture

As shown in the above diagram, there are five different layers.

Therefore, it is a five-layered architecture. Each layer performs a
dedicated task. The lower-level data for example from layer 1 data
is transferred to layer 2. Below all the layers Physical Medium is
present. The physical medium is responsible for the actual
communication to take place. For the transfer of data and
communication layered architecture provides simple interface.
Features of Layered Architecture
 Use of Layered architecture in computer network provides with
the feature of modularity and distinct interfaces.
 Layered architecture ensures independence between layers, by
offering services to higher layers from the lower layers and
without specifying how these services are implemented.
 Layered architecture segments as larger and unmanageable
design into small sub tasks.
 In layer architecture every network has different number of
functions, layers and content.
 In layered architecture, the physical route provides with
communication which is available under the layer 1.
 In layered architecture, the implementation done by one layer
can be modified by another layer.
Elements of Layered Architecture
There are three different types of elements of a layered
architecture. They are described below:
 Service: Service is defined as a set of functions and tasks
being provided by a lower layer to a higher layer. Each layer
performs a different type of task. Therefore, actions provided
by each layer are different.
 Protocol: Protocol is defined as a set rule used by the layer for
exchanging and transmission of data with its peer entities.
These rules can consists details regarding a type of content
and their order passed from one layer to another.
 Interface: Interface is defined as a channel that allows to
transmit the messages from one layer to the another.
Significance of Layered Architecture
 Divide and Conquer Approach: Layered architecture
supports divide and conquer approach. The unmanageable and
complex task is further divided into smaller sub tasks. Each sub
task is then carried out by the different layer. Therefore, using
this approach reduces the complexity of the problem or design
process.
 Easy to Modify: The layers are independent of each other in
layered architecture. If any sudden change occurs in the
implementation of one layer, it can be changed. This change
does not affect the working of other layers involved in the task.
Therefore, layered architectures are required to perform any
sudden update or change.
 Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular as
compared to other architecture models in computer network.
Modularity provides with more independence between the
layers and are easier to understand.
 Easy to Test: Each layer in layered architecture performs a
different and dedicated task. Therefore, each layer can be
analyzed and tested individually. It helps to analyze the
problem and solve them more efficiently as compared to
solving all the problems at a time.
 Scalability: As networks grow in size and complexity,
additional layers or protocols may be added to meet new
requirements while maintaining existing functionality.
 Security: The layered technique enables security measures to
be implemented to varying degrees, protecting the community
from a variety of threats.
 Efficiency: Each layer focuses on a certain aspect of verbal
exchange, optimizing aid allocation and performance.
Evolution of Layered Architecture
In computer networks, layered architecture is majorly used for
communication. The two network models that makes use of
layered architecture are:
 OSI Model
 TCP/IP Model

1. OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. OSI is a seven
layered architecture. All these seven layers work collaboratively to
transmit data from one layer to another. Below are the layers of
OSI Model.
 Physical Layer: Physical layer is the lowest layer of OSI model
and is responsible for the physical connection between all the
required devices. The information present in physical layer is in
the form of bits. Physical layer performs various functions such
as bit rate control, bit synchronization, transmission mode etc.
 Data Link Layer: Data Link layer provides with successful
delivery of message from one node to the another. It checks
whether this delivery of message is error free. Other functions
performed by data link layer are error control, framing, flow
control etc.
 Network Layer: Network Layer is responsible for the
transmission of data from one host to another host that is
connected in different network. It performs other tasks such
routing and logical addressing.
 Transport Layer: Transport Layer is defined as a layer that
takes services from network layer and provides services to
application layer. Other tasks performed by transport layer are
service point addressing, segmentation and reassembling.
 Session Layer: Session layer is defined as a layer that is
responsible for establishing a connection, maintenance of
session and to provide with security. Other functions of session
Layer are to establish session, termination and
synchronization.
 Presentation Layer: The data from application layer is
extracted at the presentation layer. This layer is also known as
translation layer. The functions of presentation layer are
encryption, decryption, compression and translation.
 Application Layer: Application layer is the topmost layer of
OSI Model. Application layer is also known as desktop layer. It
provides with other functions such as directory services, mail
services, network virtual terminal etc.

2. TCP/IP Model
1. Network Access Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications.
This layer is responsible for generating the data and requesting
connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network
Access layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we
will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is
identified by network access layer. Error prevention and “framing”
are also provided by this layer. Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples
of data-link layer protocols.
2. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines
the protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission of
data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this
layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for
delivering packets from the source host to the destination host
by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2
versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are
using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4
addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of
users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for
providing hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to
find the hardware address of a host from a known IP address.
ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous
ARP, and Inverse ARP.
3. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt
acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets to ensure that
packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end
communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as
though they were physically connected by a circuit. TCP
transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character
transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that
establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte
order, and an ending point that closes the connection make up
this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the
other transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving
and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that
transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP
because it eliminates the processes of establishing and
validating connections.
4. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It
is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free
delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer
are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer
protocol. It is used by the World Wide Web to manage
communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS
stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with
SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the
 browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry
out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations
software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is
because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It
sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to
synchronize the clocks on our computer to one standard time
source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP.
Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer
reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28
PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
Benefits of Layered Architecture
 Modularity
 Interoperability
 Flexibility
 Reusability
 Scalability
 Security
Challenges in Layered Architecture
 Performance Overhead
 Complexity in Implementation
 Resource Utilization
 Debugging and Troubleshooting
 Protocol Overhead
Real-World Applications and Examples
 Internet Browsing
 Email Communication
 Video Streaming
 Online Gaming
 Voice over IP (VoIP)
 Smart Home Devices
 Cloud Computing
 Blockchain Networks
Conclusion
Layered architecture in computer networks significantly simplifies
the complex process involved in network communication by
dividing them into smaller process, each with its own function and
responsibility. This method improves modularity, interoperability,
flexibility, and security, making network systems easier to design,
manage, and expand. Despite problems like as performance
overhead and implementation complexity, the layered model’s
benefits may be seen in real-world applications such as internet
browsing, email communication, video streaming, and more,
emphasising its importance in modern networking.

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection , where open

stands to say non-proprietary. It is a 7-layer architecture with each
layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers
work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to
another across the globe. The OSI reference model was
developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for
Standardization ‘, in the year 1984.
The OSI model provides a theoretical foundation for
understanding network communication . However, it is usually
not directly implemented in its entirety in real-world networking
hardware or software . Instead, specific
protocols and technologies are often designed based on the
principles outlined in the OSI model to facilitate efficient data
transmission and networking operations
What is OSI Model?
The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework
that explains the process of transmitting data between computers.
It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out
specialised network functions , allowing for a more systematic
approach to networking.
 OSI Model

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Data Flow In OSI Model
When we transfer information from one device to another, it
travels through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels down
through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7
layers on the receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable
delivery.
 Network Layer : Segments are packaged into packets and
routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next
device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and
transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches
its destination correctly, and these steps are reversed upon
arrival.
Let’s look at it with an Example:
Luffy sends an e-mail to his friend Zoro.
Step 1: Luffy interacts with e-mail application
like Gmail , outlook , etc. Writes his email to send. (This happens
in Layer 7: Application layer )
Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like
encrypting data and formatting it for transmission. (This happens
in Layer 6: Presentation Layer )
Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender
and receiver on the internet. (This happens in Layer 5: Session
Layer )
Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds
sequence number and error-checking information to maintain the
reliability of the information. (This happens in Layer 4: Transport
Layer )
Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best
route for transfer. (This happens in Layer 3: Network Layer )
Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC
address is added for local devices and then it checks for error
using error detection. (This happens in Layer 2: Data Link
Layer )
Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/
optical signals over a physical network medium like ethernet cable
or WiFi.
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Zoro, the process will
reverse and decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be
shown on Zoro’s email client.
What Are The 7 Layers of The OSI Model?
The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a
top-down order:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical Layer – Layer 1
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the
devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one
node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal
received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data
Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the
synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the
transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the
different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus,
star, or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data
flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-
duplex.
Note:
 Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer
devices.
 Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also
known as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers .

Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of
the message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data
transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical
layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of
the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address .
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into
frames depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface
Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC
address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing
an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire
asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will
reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It
provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are
meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link
layer adds physical addresses ( MAC addresses ) of the
sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of
error control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or
lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides
else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates
the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is
shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link
layer helps to determine which device has control over the
channel at a given time.

Note:
 Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
 Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card)
and device drivers of host machines.
 Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one
host to the other located in different networks. It also takes care of
packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available. The sender &
receiver’s IP address es are placed in the header by the network
layer.
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is
suitable from source to destination. This function of the network
layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The
sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by
the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device
uniquely and universally.
Note:
 Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet .
 Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as
routers and switches.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and
takes services from the network layer. The data in the transport
layer is referred to as Segments . It is responsible for the end-to-
end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also
provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted
data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation , and also
implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number s
in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network
Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with
the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by
default or manually. For example, when a web application
requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because
this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many
applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number
from its header and forwards the Data which it has received to the
respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the
message from the (session) layer, and breaks the message
into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a
header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination
station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the
correct process, the transport layer header includes a type of
address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the
message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that
includes:
 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an
acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet or group of
packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and
secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and
includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver
does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows
for much faster communication between devices. Connection-
oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
Note:
 Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments .
 Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a
part of the OS and communicates with the Application Layer by
making system calls.
 The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
 Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,
maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures
security.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and
Termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish,
use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add
checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in the
data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so
that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the
messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to
start communication with each other in half-duplex or full-
duplex.
Note:
 All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated
as a single layer in the TCP/IP model as the “Application
Layer”.
 Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network
application itself. These are also known as Upper Layers or
Software Layers.
 Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.

Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message
through some Messenger application running in their browser. The
“ Messenger ” here acts as the application layer which provides
the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-
called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is
sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be
transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer . The
data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated
as per the required format to transmit over the network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC .
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data
into another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the
ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG, GIF.
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we
find the Application layer which is implemented by the network
applications. These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window
for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user.
Example : Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
Device or Protocol Use : SMTP .
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a
remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This
application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host,
and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed
database sources
and access for global information about various objects and
services.
Note: The OSI model acts as a reference model and is not
implemented on the Internet because of its late invention. The
current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
OSI Model – Layer Architecture
Informati
on Form
Laye Layer Responsibil (Data Device or
r No Name ity Unit) Protocol

Helps in
identifying the
Applicatio
client and Message SMTP
n Layer
synchronizing
7 communication.

Data from the

application
layer is
Presentati extracted and
Message JPEG , MPEG , GIF
on Layer manipulated in
the required
format for
6 transmission.

Establishes
Connection,
Maintenance, Message (or
Session
Ensures encrypted Gateway
Layer
Authentication message)
and Ensures
5 security.

Take Service
from Network
Transport Layer and
Segment Firewall
Layer provide it to the
Application
4 Layer.

Transmission of
data from one
Network host to another,
Packet Router
Layer located in
different
3 networks.
 Informati
on Form
Laye Layer Responsibil (Data Device or
r No Name ity Unit) Protocol

Node to Node
Data Link
Delivery of Frame Switch , Bridge
Layer
2 Message.

Establishing
Physical
Physical Hub , Repeater , Mod
Connections Bits
Layer em , Cables
between
1 Devices.

OSI vs TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP protocol ( Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol ) was
created by U.S. Department of Defense’s Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1970s.
Some key differences between the OSI model and the TCP/IP
Model are:
 TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers but OSI model has 7
layers. Layers 5,6,7 of the OSI model are combined into the
Application Layer of TCP/IP model and OSI layers 1 and 2
are combined into Network Access Layers of TCP/IP
protocol.
 The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model, hence it is a
foundational protocol that defines how should data be
transferred online.
 Compared to the OSI model, the TCP/IP model has less strict
layer boundaries.
 All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed for data
transmission but in the OSI model, some applications can skip
certain layers. Only layers 1,2 and 3 of the OSI model are
necessary for data transmission.
 OSI vs TCP/IP

Why Does The OSI Model Matter?

Even though the modern Internet doesn’t strictly use the OSI
Model (it uses a simpler Internet protocol suite), the OSI Model is
still very helpful for solving network problems. Whether it’s one
person having trouble getting their laptop online, or a website
being down for thousands of users, the OSI Model helps to
identify the problem. If you can narrow down the issue to one
specific layer of the model, you can avoid a lot of unnecessary
work.
Imperva Application Security
Imperva security solutions protect your applications at different
levels of the OSI model. They use DDoS mitigation to secure the
network layer and provide web application firewall (WAF), bot
management, and API security to protect the application layer.
To secure applications and networks across the OSI stack,
Imperva offers multi-layered protection to ensure websites and
applications are always available, accessible, and safe. The
Imperva application security solution includes:
 DDoS Mitigation: Protects the network layer from Distributed
Denial of Service attacks.
 Web Application Firewall (WAF) : Shields the application
layer from threats.
 Bot Management: Prevents malicious bots from affecting the
application.
 API Security: Secures APIs from various vulnerabilities and
attacks.
Advantages of OSI Model
The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system
into 7 different layers. Its advantages include:
 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it
easier to understand and troubleshoot.
 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has
fixed functions and protocols.
 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model .
 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get
updates separately.
Disadvantages of OSI Model
 Complexity: The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be
complicated and hard to understand for beginners.
 Not Practical: In real-life networking, most systems use a
simpler model called the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), so
the OSI Model isn’t always directly applicable.
 Slow Adoption: When it was introduced, the OSI Model was
not quickly adopted by the industry, which preferred the simpler
and already-established TCP/IP model.
 Overhead: Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of
rules and operations, which can make the process more time-
consuming and less efficient.
 Theoretical: The OSI Model is more of a theoretical
framework, meaning it’s great for understanding concepts but
not always practical for implementation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a
conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a
telecommunication or computing system into seven distinct layers:
Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation,
and Application. Each layer has specific responsibilities and
interacts with the layers directly above and below it, ensuring
seamless communication and data exchange across diverse
network environments. Understanding the OSI model helps in
troubleshooting network issues, designing robust network
architectures, and facilitating interoperability between different
networking products and technologies.

X.25 is generally a protocol that was developed by

Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) of
International Telecommunication Union. It usually allows various
logical channels to make use of same physical line. It basically
defines a series of documents particularly issued by ITU. These
documents are also known as X.25 Recommendations. X.25 also
supports various conversations by multiplexing packets and also
with the help of virtual communication channels. X.25 basically
encompasses or suits to the lower three layers of the Open
System Interconnection (OSI) reference model for networking.
These three protocol layers are :
1. Physical Layer
2. Frame Layer
3. Packet Layer
These are explained as following below.
1. Physical Layer : This layer is basically concerned with
electrical or signaling. The physical layer interface of X.25 also
known as X.21 bis was basically derived from RS-232 interface
for serial transmission. This layer provides various
communication lines that transmit or transfer some electrical
signals. X.21 implementer is usually required for linking.
2. Data Link Layer : Data link layer is also known as Frame
Layer. This layer is an implementation or development of
ISO High-Level Data Link Layer (HDLC) standard which is
known as LAPB (Link Access Procedure Balanced). It also
provides a communication link and transmission that is error-
free among any two physically connected nodes or X.25 nodes.
LAPB also allows DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) or DCE
(Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment) simply to start or end a
communication session or start data transmission. This layer is
one of the most important and essential parts of X.25 Protocol.
This layer also provides a mechanism for checking in each hop
during the transmission. This service also ensures a bit-
oriented, error-free, and also sequenced and ordered delivery
 of data frames or packets. There are many protocols that can
be used in frame-level as given below :
 Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB) – It is specified
by ITU-T Recommendation X usually derived from HDLC. It
is the most commonly used protocol that allows establishing
a logical connection.
 Link Access Protocol (LAP) – This protocol is very rarely
used. This is usually used for framing and transferring data
packets across point-to-point links.
 Link Access Procedure D-channel (LAPD) – It is used to
convey or transfer data over D-channel. It also enables and
allows transmission of data among DTEs through D channel
especially among a DTE and an ISDN node.
 Logical Link Control (LLC) – It is used to manage and
ensure the integrity of transmissions of data. It also allows
transmission of X.25 data packets or frames through a LAN
(Local Area Network) channel.
3. Packet Layer : Packet layer is also known as Network Layer
protocol of X.25. This layer generally governs the end-to-end
communications among various DTE devices. It also defines
how to address and deliver X.25 packets among end nodes
and switches on a network with the help of PVCs (Permanent
Virtual Circuits) or SVCs (Switched Virtual Circuits). This layer
also governs and manages set-up and teardown and also flow
control among DTE devices as well as various routing functions
along with multiplexing multiple logical or virtual connections.
This layer also defines and explains the format of data packets
and also the procedures for control and transmission of data
frames. This layer is also responsible for establishing a
connection, transmitting data frames or packets, ending or
terminating a connection, error and flow control, transmitting
data packets over external virtual circuits.