Geog

Geogrr a phy Test Series 2022

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GEOGRAPHY
Ans
Answwer Hints: Test No
Test .14
No.14
1. In spite of its merits, quantitative revolution could not enable the geographers to formulate
universal laws and paradigms. Elaborate.
The application of statistical and mathematical techniques, theorems and proofs in understanding
geographical systems is known as the Quantitative Revolution in geography.
By the end of 1960s quantitative revolution was dominating many of the journals published
throughout the English speaking world. Most of the researchers used quantitative methods, and
thus contributed to the development of theories and models. But these theories and models presented
only a partial picture of the manenvironment relationship.
The over enthusiasm of the preachers of Quantitative Revolution has however given way to the
present phase in which mathematical and statistical methods have become just one of the tools for
approaching geographical problems.
Stamp pointed out that there are many fields of enquiry in which quantification may stultify rather
than aid progress, because there will be temptation to discard information which cannot be punched
on the cards or fed onto a magnetic tape.
Minshull observed that the landscape was becoming a nuisance for some geographers, that many of
the models will only apply to a flat, featureless surface, and warned that there is a real danger that
these ideal generalization aboutspatial relationship could be mistaken for the statements about the
reality itself.
It may also happen that the geographers would try to justify their models or hypotheses in a subjective
way which could give a distorted picture of the geographical reality. This tradition has started in
the developed nations of the west where theories and models were constructed on the basis of data
collected in their regions. With the help of these data the models developed in Europe and America
may be elevated to general truths and universal models. In reality we do not have universal urban
geography and universal agricultural geography. There are different urban and agrarian processes
which are working in different parts of the world and leading to different cultural landscapes.
Owing to this generalization and model building on the basis of quantitative techniques may be
misleading. Apart from this, the data used by the western experts hardly refer to a period of about
100 years.
Further, it reflects the modes of production and distribution of the developed capitalist societies. The
processes which operate in the rigidly planned economies of the socialist countries of Europe and
the east European countries are altogether different. The processes of urbanization and development
which change in space and time are different in different economic and political systems.
2. Advancements in remote sensing technologies have transformed regional planning and
management. How much has India managed in inculcating these modern techniques in its
planning process? Discuss.
Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics of an area by
measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance (typically from satellite or aircraft). Special
cameras collect remotely sensed images, which help researchers “sense” things about the Earth
Application of Remote Sensing technology may lead to innovation in the planning process in various
ways:
(i) Digitization of planning base maps and various layout plans has facilitated updating of base
maps wherever changes have taken place in terms of land development etc. Digital maps provide
flexibility as digital maps are scale free. Superimposition of any two digital maps which are on
two different scales is feasible. This capability of digital maps facilitates insertion of fresh survey
or modified maps into existing base maps. Similarly superimposition of revenue maps on base
maps with reasonable accuracy is of great advantage compared to manually done jobs.
(ii) Since information and maps are available in digital format, correlating various layers of
information about a feature from satellite imagery, planning maps and revenue maps is feasible
with the help of image processing softwares and such super imposed maps in GIS software like
Map info, Arc View, Auto CAD Map and Arc GIS etc. provide valuable information for planning,
implementation and management of urban areas.
(iii) Remote Sensing techniques are extremely useful for change detection analysis and selection of
sites for specific facilities, such as hospital, restaurants, solid waste disposal and industry. An
attempt has been made here to demonstrate the potentials of remote sensing techniques in base
mapping, land use and land cover mapping, urban change detection and mapping, urban
infrastructure and utilities mapping, urban population estimation, management etc
(iv) Remote Sensing techniques have also been used to estimate weather conditions,soil moisture
levels that are critical for agricultural productivity apart from being used in predicting disasters
like floods and cyclones etc.
Applications of Remote sensing in India RE
India has increasingly looked to adapt modern technologies in its planning process at various levels.
1. During the last decade remote sensing and GIS techniques are applied to explore agricultural
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applications such as crop identification, area estimation, crop condition assessment, soil moisture
estimation, yield estimation, agriculture water management, agro meteorological and agro
advisories. The application of remote sensing in agriculture, i.e. in crops and soils is extremely
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complex because of highly dynamic and inherent complexity of biological materials and soils.
Remote sensing (RS) technology has potential to estimate crop area and forecast productivity at
district and regional level due to its multispectral, large area and repetitive coverage. Launch of
the Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS-1A, IB & 1C) carrying linear imaging self-scanning
sensors (LISS I, II & III) provided a much-required impetus to agricultural applications. The
launch of RISAT has filled another dimension to the agricultural remote sensing as all weather
capability of data is now reality from Indian satellite.
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2. Urban Remote Sensing (URS) has become a useful tool for urban planning and urban ecological
research as URS can be defined as the measurement of surface radiance and properties connected
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to the land cover and land use in cities. Today, Earth Observation system provides geocoded
data and present an opportunity to collect relevant information for urban and peri-urban
environments at various spatial, spectral and temporal scales. Urban Remote Sensing provides
spatial Information associated with social indicators to explain the interrelations between
ecological conditions and socio spatial developments. URS becomes a necessary prerequisite to
study the modifications made by urban forms on the landscape as a complex system. URS can
help detect and evaluate the distribution of impervious and other such surfaces which is a key
parameter of urban ecology (availability of surface and ground water, vegetation dynamics,
and runoff, etc). Remote sensing technology can be used to evaluate the physical composition
of urban areas like commercial, residential or mixed land use, green space and other open
spaces. The trend of using remotely sensed data for urban studies started with the first generation
satellite sensors such as Landsat MSS in USA and in India the Cartosat series. Full fledge
assessment is performed by combining remote sensing data with other spatial attribute
information from various sources. Both these data are incorporated into GIS environment and
combined analysis is then performed. GIS is a computer aided system that is used to capture,
store, retrieve, analyze, and display both spatial and non spatial data.
3. Several types of remote sensing data, including aerial photography, multi-spectral scanner (MSS),
radar (Radio Detection and Ranging), Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) laser and

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 videography data have been used by forest agencies to detect, identify, classify, evaluate and
measure various forest cover types and their changes. It is emphasized that one of the advantages
of the use of remote sensing in forest survey is the relative short time in which most of the
required information can be obtained. indices such as Spectral Vegetation index (SVI), Simple
Ratio (SR), Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and Corrected Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVIc) obtained from satellite data are useful predictors of Leaf
Area Index (LAI), biomass and productivity in grasslands and forests. The IRS satellites (Indian
remote sensing) play an important role in monitoring our forest conditions.
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) is an independent, indigenously developed
satellite navigation system fully planned, established and controlled by the Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO). Applications of IRNSS include Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation,
Disaster Management, Vehicle tracking and fleet management , Integration with mobile phones,
Visual and voice navigation for drivers ,Precise Timing ,Mapping and Geodetic data capture.
The GPS aided geo augmented navigation or GPS and geo-augmented navigation system (GAGAN)
is a planned implementation of a regional satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) by the Indian
government. It is a system to improve the accuracy of a GNSS receiver by providing reference. The
project is being implemented in three phases through 2008 by the Airport Authority of India with
the help of the Indian Space Research Organization’s (ISRO) technology and space support. The
goal is to provide navigation system for all phases of flight over the Indian airspace and in the

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adjoining area. It is applicable to safety-to-life operations, and meets the performance requirements
of international civil aviation regulatory bodies.
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3. Discuss the Central place theory. Also assess its applicability in developing countries.
Central Place Theory (CPT) is an attempt to explain the spatial arrangement, size, and number of
settlements. The theory was originally published in 1933 by a German geographer Walter Christaller
who studied the settlement patterns in southern Germany. In the flat landscape of southern Germany
Christaller noticed that towns of a certain size were roughly equidistant. By examining and defining
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the functions of the settlement structure and the size of the hinterland he found it possible to model
the pattern of settlement locations using geometric shapes.
Assumptions: Christaller made a number of assumptions such as: All areas have
• an isotropic (all flat) surface
• an evenly distributed population
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• evenly distributed resources

• similar purchasing power of all consumers and consumers will patronize nearest market
• transportation costs equal in all directions and proportional to distance
• no excess profits (Perfect competition)
Explanation of some terms: Central Place, low order, high order, sphere of influence
• A Central Place is a settlement which provides one or more services for the population living
around it.
• Simple basic services (e.g. grocery stores) are said to be of low order while specialized services
(e.g. universities) are said to be of high order.
• Having a high order service implies there are low order services around it, but not vice versa.
• Settlements which provide low order services are said to be low order settlements. Settlements
that provide high order services are said to be high order settlements.
• The sphere of influence is the area under influence of the Central Place
The three principles in the arrangement of the central places:
Christaller noted three different arrangements of central places according to the following principles:

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1. The marketing principle (K = 3 system);
2. The transportation principle (K = 4 system);
3. The administrative principle (K = 7 system).
4. Socio-economic growth in India has witnessed great spatio-temporal disparities. Explain the
cause for the same. Discuss possible redressal mechanisms.
Regional inequalities refer to a condition of asymmetry in standard of living in different parts of a
given area . Existence of regional inequalities in India stem from a variety of factors such as British
focusing resources in coastal areas , absence of land reforms in certain states, geographical factors
such as hilly terrain in some Himalayan states, conflict zones etc.
India remained with the socialistic pathway of growth planning after Independence. It aimed at
development with social integrity. For the past few fiscal years, India is enjoying a period of
extraordinary economic growth. Despite which noteworthy accomplishment, India is still facing
large socio-economic disparities due to the non-inclusiveness of economic growth in India.
Disparities in economic and social development across the regions and intra-regional disparities
among different segments of the society causes challenges like violent conflicts, unplanned and
haphazard migration e.g. Insurgency in North-east and Left wing extremism in large parts of central
and eastern states of India.

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An important aspect of regional disparities in India is the significant level of disparities, which exist
within different States. For example, Vidarbha in Maharashtra, Saurashtra in Gujarat. Northern
and Central regions of India the level of industrial development does not significantly influence the
agricultural and overall socio-economic development while agricultural development influences
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overall socio-economic development
Measures
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1. Massive investments in backward regions and strategizing on various public policies directed at
encouraging private investments in such regions in order to boost economic growth. Ex. Subsidies,
exemptions and tax breaks given to industries for investing in backward regions. For instance
North East Industrial and Investment Promotion Policy (NEIIPP 2007) for
2. Formation of new states from areas that were ignored in states that are performing poorly such
as formation of Jharkhand by separating tribal areas from Bihar .
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3. Programs of agriculture, community development programs, Drought Prone Areas Programs,

promotion of irrigation and power, transport and communications and social services aimed at
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providing basic facilities and services to people in all the regions.

4. The large weight given to “Income Distance” by 14th Finance commission is an important step
towards plugging the gaps in per-capita income between states apart from the pre-existing
special category statuses.
The sustainability of the growth rate and the goal of the country to achieve its development target
will be difficult to meet unless India develops as an integrated whole of regional competency.
5. “The two concepts of social space and functional integration have much relevance in
understanding the socio-spatial structure of the Indian villages”. Explain the above concept
with the help of K.N. Singh’s models.
Besides physical characteristics social conditions specially the caste system play dominant role in
affecting the internal morphological structure of the Indian villages. Generally the economic prosper-
ity, social status and functional attributes are very much linked with the centuries old caste hierarchy
which gives a distinct size, shape and layout to the rural dwellings.
K.N. Singh (1972) through his religion ritual and secular dominance models tried to explain the
concept of social space and functional integration in understanding the sociospatial structure of the
Indian villages.

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1. Religion-Ritual Model Hindu social organization based on caste system leads to the maximization
of social distance due to socio-ritual notions like purity-pollution, untouchability, etc. It envisages
a Brahmanuntouchable ritual continuum in which all other caste groups occupy different niches
according to their social status. The practice leads to the development of twin settlements of
caste Hindus and out-castes which are separated from each other more by social space than by
any appreciable barriers. Brahmans, being the priestly castes and performers of rituals and
ceremonies, find place in almost all villages and so is the case with untouchables whose labour
and services make the foundation of village economy.
The segregation was much pronounced during the past favouring the outgrowth of hamlated
structure of villages , In case of compact settlements outcastes generally lived on the outer parts
of the builtup area in a direction (south, southeast and north etc.) less conducive for wind
movement, for even air gets polluted after coming in contact with a Shudra ‘s body.
2. Secular-Dominance Model Contrary to the religionritual model of distance maximisation secular
dominance model brings different castegroups closer to each other, so as to function as
complementary unit under old jajmani system. Land holders (mostly higher castes) for their
agricultural work and services while landless low castes for earning their livelihood have to
depend upon each other for their survival.
This reduces the distance between these two social groups making the settlement compact and

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unified. There are instances when landowning dominant castes invited various service castes to
settle within the village territory for carrying out the functions of jajmani system. Rajputs, being
the principal land holders in the Ganga Plain, have exercised this secular power in the
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colonization of many villages while in some other cases castes like Brahmans, Kayasths, Banias,
etc, also held this privileged position.
This functional interdependence is seen even in case of certain Muslim villages as remnants of old
decayed tradition prevailing amongst the converts.
Either of the two models is not capable of explaining the present sociospatial structure of the villages
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independently. It is their joint pull which gives distinct pattern to the village morphology and under
the stresses of new socioeconomic orders the old system is gradually losing its importance. Jajmani
system is now a decayed institution and the rigidity of the caste system is fading out. The rise in the
socioeconomic conditions of the Dalits due to improvement in their education level has made them
conscious about their rights as a result of which the traditional barrier is breaking down.
6. Critically analyse the concept of Growth Pole and Growth Centre and its present day
applicability.
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Growth Centre and Growth Pole:

A centre which has potential for growth can be developed a growth centre by the government. It
grows by itself and is responsible for the growth of surrounding areas. The concept was developed
by Myrdal and Perroux. According to Perroux, all the settlements are governed by three important
facts such as:
i. Size of Population: The distribution of population is governed by the natural factors
ii. Distance factor: Accessibility between the centres is another natural factor.
iii. Services offered to the people: centres are provided with services which is a cultural factor.
Each settlement has its own hierarchy of services depending on the size of the population and
functions. Depending on the services, a centre is graded as growth centres. Growth is initiated in a
centre by the services and growth is transferred on to its physical space which is important for any
function to thrive which he called as Benal Space. This become economic space when the centre
provided economic services for the users. When there is interaction between Benal Space and a user
centre become growth a growth centre. There is centripetal and centrifugal interaction. A centre
provides services so the people from the centres and surrounding areas come to the centre for
utilization of services it offers. This is called centripetal movement of relationship. People converge
at growth centres to utilize the services which are of higher order hierarchy. So, there is crowding
of growth centre.

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According to Perroux, the influence of growth centre percolates through to the neighbouring areas
which he calls as ‘trickle down process’ i.e. growth trickles down the growth centre to the neighbouring
areas and influences them. There can be an industrial growth centre also. In the beginning innovative
industries were started in the growth centres which may give rise to the other industries. Innovative
industries are served by other industries like the ancillary industries become concentrated in a region
and become industrial areas and later becomes agglomeration economy. In due course, this region
becomes an industrial complex. It generates growth impulses. An ideal growth centre is an industrial
growth centre.
In due course, the concentration of activities in a growth centre becomes so high that it becomes as
a growth pole. The process of this concentration is known as polarisation. Growth Pole is a town or
group of towns in which industrial development and expansion is taking place. In advances countries
it is possible to set up industries in a wide range of locations because transport, water, electricity is
widely available. In poorer counties, there are few locations where development is possible because
of the lack of infrastructure and so most industries concentrate in the capital, main port or one of
the few large cities.
According to Myrdal, Growth centre is responsible for the growth of the neighbouring areas by the
virtue of services. He acknowledged the concept of Perroux. The influence in neighbouring areas is
known as ‘SPREAD EFFECTS’. The growth centre is responsible for spread effects. There are
centripetal and centrifugal effects mainly due to growth centre.

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Negative Effects of Growth Centre Concept:
There is also backwash effect from the growth centres. People from neighbouring areas moves to
the growth centre for various purposes. There is a stream of migration to growth centre from
neighbouring areas which is generally rural to urban migration. Due to this, the development becomes
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one-sided or imbalanced. All skilled personnel move to the Growth Centre. This migration leads to
polarization of activities in growth centre.
The concept of growth pole has been developed by Myrdal and Perroux from central place concept.
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Growth centre highlights only marketing principle. In developing countries growth centre is widely
used to develop backward areas. The concept of innovative and propulsive industries of Perroux
had been used by the developed countries to develop industrial growth centre. In India, most of the
objectives of the five years plans after 1970 cover the growth centre concept. The planner had the
opinion that by creating growth centers in several regions especially where the economy is backward
the backward can be removed due to effect of the influence of growth centres. The growth centres
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were created in several regions to improve economic development in backward areas for instance
Bokaro, Bhilai, Durgapur industrial areas. In developed countries the concept of industrial complex
and aggregate economy have been successfully implemented to generate growth. They have also
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developed the concept of leading industries from propulsive industries and created industrial growth
centres.
7. Differentiate descriptive and process-oriented approach in Welfare geography. Highlight the
chronological development of Welfare approach.
Welfare geography is an approach to geography where the emphasis is on spatial inequality and
territorial justice. Destined up with the rise of radical geography in the early 1970s, welfare geography
stresses the need to identify and explain the existence of crime, hunger, poverty and other forms of
discrimination and disadvantage. Welfare geography focuses on the connection between the spatial
variation of need and structures of a provision in the creation of geographies of welfare . This early
work was largely descriptive and developed the abstract formulation used in welfare economics,
grounding it empirically but maintaining the use of algebraic representations. It provided a basis for
evaluation
The descriptive approach is used to identify injustice & inequality in a particular population in
a particular area. For example, identifying the beneficiary of toilet construction, fertilizer subsidy.
The descriptive approach sought to reveal who gets what, where and how which is explained
as follows:

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1. Who?
Identifying the subgroup of the population to whom should give preferential treatment or give
overburden, for example, for the welfare of the society, the poor should get the subsidy and the
rich should pay tax.
2. What?
Who gets what, what should be given to the targeted population? it can be Cloth, Food grains,
House, Water, roads, LPG etc.
3. Where?
Who gets where it deals with identifying the region of the target and welfare should be based
on the region-specific. Livelihood and requirement of the different region are different, for
example city planning model cant be implemented in the village and Plain area development
not suited in the hilly area
4. How?
Deals with how one gets the benefits in welfare geography such as Top-down approach,Bottom
to Up approach etc.

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Process Oriented Approach
It deals with how social and economic injustice existed in society and Why the richer segment of the
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population is getting richer day by day and the poorer are getting poor day by day. Marxist economics
replaced neo-classical economics as the basis for illustrative analysis, which takes place at two different
levels. The first involves understanding how the whole social, economic and political system functions.
In the case of capitalism, this level of analysis reveals that inequality is endemic. Uneven development
is the spatial imprint, the geographical result of the restlessness of capitalism as a system. The second
level of explanation attends to the details of particular social, economic and political systems; for
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example, how housing policy under capitalism advantages some people in some places and
disadvantages other people in other places. The analysis of the politics behind these policies has
recently been strengthened as part of renewed interest in the relationship between social justice and
the state.
8. ‘The size of the population, its growth rate, age/sex composition & pattern of migration are
closely influenced by the population policy of the respective government’. Explain the above
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statement with suitable examples.

The size of the population, its growth rate, age/sex composition & pattern of migration are closely
influenced by the population policy of the respective government. Each country has its own population
policy. These policies range from encouragement of high fertility to varying degrees of discouragement.
Some of the developed countries such as Canada, France, Japan, USA etc. are following the policy
of slow growth aka policy of Pronatalism. In these countries growth of population is below 1%.
The population policies in the developing & underdeveloped countries are to reduce the size of the
population by various methods such as mass communication, coercive practices etc.
In most of the developing countries, the techniques for reducing the birth rate vary from supplying
contraceptives & information in some countries to much more direct involvement in others. It is
well accepted fact that the rate of annual increase can be reduced only if all the measures are
combined & the education, income, standard of living improves.
The Indonesian government with the help of UN’s, the World Bank and WHO, built more than
3000 clinics in Java and Bali islands to develop awareness about family planning. Mass media, such
as radio, television & newspaper were used to promote the acceptance of small families & draw
people to the clinic.
In some developing countries the efforts to reduce the birth rate has moved beyond voluntary family
planning into various forms of coercion. For e.g. strict one child norms in China, heavy financial

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penalties in Singapore who has more than 2 children. Also in Singapore the parents who have been
sterilized after the birth of 2nd child have been rewarded with guaranteed free education &
employment for their children.
In India, a voluntary family planning policy has been adopted right from the beginning of 1960s,
but a tough sterilization policy adopted in 197677 could not bring the desired results. As India is
democratic country where each individual has his own freedom thus rigid policy was rejected by
the masses.
During last two decades, there had been some dramatic decrease in birth rate in different parts of
India but fertility rates differ from state to state & region to region.
In the developed countries the growth of population is either at the level of replacement or showing
trends of negative growth. Thus most of the European countries are taking positive steps to increase
the growth rate of their population.
France, grants substantial payments & services to parents to help the child rearing. Eastern Europe
is much more active in encouraging population growth. Three children per family has become the
adopted goal in several East European countries. In Hungary & Romania, contraceptives are banned
& abortions are permitted only on doctor’s orders in the hope that birth rates can be increased.
The birth rate in Russia has declined substantially after 1991 thus creating lot of socio economic &
cultural problems. Thus in Russia where the rate of natural increase in 2005 was only 0.18% the

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government is giving lot of incentives & publicity for increase in population. For E.g. introduction of
Mother Lenin Award which will be given to the mothers who gave birth to 12 or more children.
Australia and New Zealand have considered themselves as underpopulated countries. The policies
of these governments have been pronatalist & proimmigration.
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A policy to have zero growth rate of population has been adopted by these countries. Japan,
Singapore, China, South Korea & Indonesia are the only Asian countries who are successful in
reducing birth rates. The population policy adopted by Japan in 1950 strongly discouraged a family
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with more than two children.

Most of the South American countries, being Catholic in their faith do not accept family planning
programmes except in the case of medical grounds.
In most of the African countries the respective governments have adopted the policy to increase
population. This is based on the belief that continued population growth is the key to economic
development.
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9. Discuss the role of Command Area Development Programmes in improving farmers

socioeconomic conditions.
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An area served by canals, wells, tube wells, tanks etc. for irrigation is known as command area.
Central Government started Command Area Development (CAD) programme in 1974-75 with the
objective to bridge the gap between irrigation potential created and utilized through micro level
infrastructure development for efficient water management and enhancement of agricultural
production and productivity so as to improve socio-economic conditions of the farmers. This
programme is implemented by Area Development Authority. Specialists from different departments
work under this authority which makes it easy to achieve the fixed targets. This programme was
initially applied to Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area in 1974.
Following are the main objectives of this programme:
• Often the influential farmers with large expanses of land at their disposal get the maximum
benefit of irrigation facilities and a small and marginal farmer are often deprived of irrigation
facilities which they rightly deserve. Warabandi was introduced to solve this problem. It is a
rotational system which assures equitable and timely supply of water to all farmers irrespective
of the size of their holdings. This programme is implemented with the help of Panchayats.
• Construction of field channels and field drains to reduce the pilferages and mis-use of water
and making sure of effective use of water for irrigation. Central assistance up to 50 per cent
(limited to the prescribed cost norms) is provided for irrigation and field development activities.

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• Land has to be levelled so that water is spread uniformly in the agricultural fields. Giving
proper shape to fields and their boundaries through consolidation of holdings so that the objective
of optimum utilisation of water is achieved. Simultaneously provision of chak roads is also
essential.
• Educating farmers through demonstrations and imparting technical training for adopting new
agricultural innovations and adopting cropping patterns according to natural environment as
well as improving fanning practices and maintaining fertility of soil.
• Preparing plan for supply of inputs, credit, seeds, fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides to the
farmers.
• Promoting ancillary activities such as animal husbandry, forestry, poultry, marketing and
processing facilities.
• Diversifying agriculture to make it more profitable.
• To lay more emphasis on the cultivation of more remunerative crops like oil seeds, pulses,
greenmanure crops.
• To use ground water for compensating the shortage of surface water.
• Reclamation of the water-logged, saline and alkaline areas rendered uncultivable due to over

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irrigation by canals.
To introduce participatory management of irrigation.
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The Command Area Development programme was restructured and renewed as Command Area
Development and Water Management (CAD&WM) with effect from 2004. Under this programme,
financial assistance is being provided to the State governments on 50: 50 basis for construction
activities and on 75: 25 basis to carry out training programmes for field functionaries/ farmers,
monitoring, evaluating. adaptive trials and demonstration.
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At the initial stage, 60 major and medium irrigation projects were taken up under the CAD
programme, covering a Culturable Command Area (CCA) of about 15.0 million hectares. At present
there are 145 projects covering a CCA of 16.02 million hectares.
The National Water Policy stresses on participatory approach in water resources management. There
is a great realisation of the fact that participation of beneficiaries greatly enhances the optimal use
of the irrigation facilities and proper use of irrigation water. The participation of farmers in the
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management of irrigation would give responsibility for operation and maintenance, collection of
water charges from the areas under the jurisdiction of Water Users Associations (WUAs) and redressal
of petty grievances.
Empirical Studies suggest that Command Area Development Programme has made positive impact
on some import indicators, like increase in irrigated area productivity and production, irrigation
efficiency etc. In spite of all these efforts, the problem of water logging has been reported in many
irrigated commands. For reclaiming the water-logged areas, 579 schemes in 9 states viz. Bihar, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Odisha, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh
have been approved for reclaiming water-logged area.
10. Write a detailed note on General System Theory in geography.
The concept of general system theory was developed by biologists in the 1920s. It was Ludwig von
Bertalanffy who declared that unless we studied an individual organism as a system of multifarious
associated parts we would not really understand the laws which govern the life of that organism.
After some time he realized that this idea could be applied to other non-biological systems, and that
these systems had many common characteristics over a range of sciences. It was possible to develop
a general system theory which gave the same analytical framework and procedure to all sciences.
A general system is a higher-order generalization of a multiplicity of systems which individual sciences
have recognised. This is a way of unifying the sciences. This led to interdisciplinary approach in
research. In other words, the general system theory is a theory of general models.

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The general system theory can be understood in the light of a new concept of mathematics and
physics. This concept is known as ‘cybernetics’ (from the Greek kybernete—helsman). Cybernetics
may be defined as the study of regulating and self-regulating mechanisms in nature and
technology. A regulatory system follows a programme, a prescribed course of action which produces
a predetermined operation. In nature, there is a very large number of self-regulating mechanisms,
such as the automatic regulation of body temperature. These self-regulating mechanisms follow
certain common laws and these can be described mathematically in the same way. Whilst regulation
is very precise in nature, in human societies it is defective.
Cybernetics places emphasis on the interaction between components rather than making sharp
distinctions between cause and effect. Between two components, causal mechanism may work both
ways. An impulse which starts in one part of the system will work its way back to its origin after
being transformed through a range of partial processes in other parts of the system. This cybernetic
theory enables us to understand the operation of the general system theory.
The abstract character of a system is emphasized when we realize that a system, if it is to be analyzed,
must be ‘closed’. An open system interacts and interconnects with the surrounding systems, and
therefore, becomes difficult to analyze. All real systems (such as landscapes) are open systems. When
we analyze a system we can only consider a finite number of elements within the system and the
reciprocal relations between them.
The elements and connections which we are not able to consider in such an analysis must be

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disregarded completely. We have to assume that they do not affect the system. In the analysis of a
region, we can of course take into account individual influences and single elements which are not
geographically located within the predetermined area or region. The abstract system remains closed
all the same because we enclose these elements and relationships in our conceptual model. The
system is not synonymous with the model we have made for it, represented by the elements and
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connections we have chosen to enclose or consider.
In other words, we can only study a system after we have determined its boundaries. This presents
no mathematical problem since the boundaries draw themselves insofar as some lying outside it,
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although it is not all that easy to choose those elements, in practical geographical research. As an
example, Harvey describes a firm which functions within an economy on the basis of a particular
set of economic circumstances. When we analyze the internal relations and elements within the
firm as a closed system, we must regard these circumstances as unchangeable. To extend the
boundaries of the system so as to include the changing social and political relationship in the society
of which the firm is a part may well alter the result of the analysis. So, even in this simple case, the
drawing of boundaries creates problems.
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Thus, a system consists of:

(i) A set of elements identified with some variable attributes of objects.
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(ii) A set of relationships between these attributes of objects and the environment.
Merits of Abstract Construal of a Systems:
The abstract construal of a system has a number of important advantages, which are given below:
(i) Any geographical region (landscape) has a number of phenomena. System analysis attempts to
reduce this complexity to a simpler form, in which it may be more easily comprehended and
which models can be constructed.
(ii) It allows, for example, the development of an abstract theory systems which is not tied down to
any one particular system or set of systems.
(iii) This theory provides us with good deal of information about the possible structures, behaviours,
states, and soon, that might conceivably occur.
(iv) It provides us with the necessary technical apparatus for dealing with interactions within complex
structures.
(v) System theory is associated with an abstract mathematical language, which, rather like geometry
and probability theory, can be used to discuss empirical problems.

[10] Hints: Geography

Structure of a System:
A system is composed essentially of three components:
1. a set of elements;
2. a set of links; and
3. a set of links between the system and its environment.
Elements of a System:
Elements are the basic aspects of every system, structure, function, development. From the
mathematical point of view, an element is a primitive term that has no definition.
The definition of an element depends on the scale at which we conceive of the system. For example,
the international monetary system may be conceptualized as containing countries as elements; an
economy may be thought of as being made up of firms and organizations; organizations themselves
may be thought of as system made up of departments; a department may be viewed as a system
made of individual people; each person may be regarded as a biological system; and so on.
The concept of element as a component unit of a system has been plotted by Blalock and Blalock
which has been shown in the given figure. This figure shows two different views of interaction. The
upper diagram shows System A and System B interacting as units, with smaller system interactions

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going on within each system. The lower diagram shows Systems A and B interacting at lower
levels.
Links or Relationships:
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The second component of a system is links (relationships). The links in a system which connect the
different elements in it.
Three basic forms of relationships can be defined as under:
(i) Series Relation: This is the simplest and is characteristic of elements connected by an irreversible
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link. Thus, ai—aj forms a series relation and it may be observed that this is the characteristic
cause and effect relation with which traditional science has dealt. This relationship can be
explained by taking an example from India. The productivity of rice in Punjab depends on
irrigation available or cultivation of saffron in the valley of Kashmir is due to the Karewa soil.
(ii) Parallel relation: This relationship occurs when two or more elements affect a third element,
or inversely when one element affects two or more others. For example, the precipitation and
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temperature variables influence vegetation and vegetation, in turn, influences the amount of
rainfall received and the general temperature conditions.
(iii) Feedback Relation: A feedback relation is the kind of link that has been newly introduced into
analytic structures. It describes a situation in which one element influences itself. For example,
the leguminous crops sown in a field enrich nitrogen in the soil and thus the crops get themselves
affected.

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Hints: Geography [11]