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What is Work and its Impact?

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 What is Work
and its Impact?
Austin Mardon • Gurman Barara • Ishpreet Chana
Alexia Di Martino • Irene Falade • Rokya Harun
Alexandra Hauser • Jamie Johnson • Amy Li
Jennifer Pham • Noah Varghese

i
 Copyright © 2021 by Austin Mardon

All rights reserved.

This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any
manner whatsoever without the express written permission
of the publisher except for the use of brief quotations
in a book review or scholarly journal.
First Printing: 2021

Editor: Anastasiya Yermolenko

Typeset and cover design by Gillian Austin

ISBN: 978-1-77369-424-5

Golden Meteorite Press

#103, 11919 82 St NW
Edmonton, AB T5B 2W3
www.goldenmeteoritepress.com

ii
Table of Contents
What is work?....................................................................................................................... 1

History of Work in Society............................................................................................... 7

Role of Work and Employment in Society...............................................................13

Differences in Work Culture Around the World.....................................................19

Impact of Work on an Individual’s Wellbeing.........................................................29

Gender in the Workplace...............................................................................................35

Impact of Workplace-related Government Policies around the World.........41

Impact of Technological Innovation on the Workplace.....................................47

In Popular Culture............................................................................................................53

Opposing Viewpoints, Controversy, and Public Opinion...................................59

iii
 What is Work
and its Impact?

v
 1
What is Work?

GURMAN BARARA

T he concept of work has been around for centuries and is deeply rooted in human history.
The definition of work is variable and depends on its use in context. Work can refer
to a physical or mental act carried out to achieve a purpose, a place of employment, a job
or task that an individual performs. In the context of this text, the term work refers to an
occupation and the employment industry.

The employment rate in Canada is estimated to be roughly 60% (for populations that are
eligible to legally work). The minimum age for employment varies in Canada depending
on certain provinces and industries. For instance, in Ontario, children can work at the age
of 14 but cannot work in industrial establishments such as factories or construction sites.
Furthermore, individuals in this age group cannot work during school hours. However, in
Alberta, youth are able to work as young as 12 years old given that they have acquired parental
permission, work outside of school hours, and get approval from the Director of Labour
Standards. The workplace is made up of small businesses and firms, which may contain only
a few workers to corporate giants with hundreds of employees. The demographic factors, role
of technology, and ethics can all be discussed concerning work. The employment and work
opportunities in Canada are diverse and can be classified into four main sectors: primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.

Primary Sector

The primary sector of employment is focused on the extraction and harvesting of raw
materials. This sector would include work opportunities such as mining, farming, fishing,
or anything associated with resource extraction. In Canada, the employment in primary
sectors is largely influenced by location. For instance, the Fishing Industry in Canada plays
a major role in the economy and is quite saturated in provinces surrounded by large bodies
of water such as the Atlantic Provinces and British Columbia on the Pacific Coast. Another
industry in Canada’s primary sector is Forestry. The Forestry Industry had roughly three
hundred-thousand employees in 2019 and contributed roughly $23.7 billion dollars to
Canada’s gross domestic product (GDP). The majority of the country’s forests are located
in British Columbia, Quebec, and Ontario. That being said, the majority of the Forestry
industry and employment is saturated in these provinces. The Mining Industry also falls
under the primary sector in Canada and is responsible for over four hundred-thousand jobs

1
across the country. In 2017, Mining contributed approximately $100 billion to Canada’s GDP
and still plays a great role in the generation of Tax Revenues by the Canadian Government.
Another industry responsible for extraction is the Oil and Gas Industry. The Oil and Gas
Industry is primarily based in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin—spanning from
Northeast British Columbia to Southwest Manitoba. Canada has the third largest oil reserve
in the world, thus, the Oil and Gas Industry has allowed for over half a million jobs and work
opportunities. This industry also contributed about $105 billion dollars to the Canadian
economy in 2020. It is estimated that the upstream of oil and gas projects in Canada will
lead to over two million employment and work opportunities from the years 2020 to 2025.

Lastly, the Farming and Agriculture Industry also falls under the primary sector of employ-
ment and is mostly saturated in the Prairie Provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Mani-
toba. In Canada, agriculture was responsible for over two hundred and fifty thousand jobs in
2018. Canada is also one of the world’s biggest harvesters and exporters in products such as
crops, meat and maple syrup—the exports of these products generated over $60 billion for
the Canadian economy in 2016. A growing concern in the Farming Industry is that there
is a shortage of human labor. This may be the case because farming jobs are highly labor
intensive and operate on a seasonal basis—it is suggested that Canadians prefer less labor
intensive jobs that operate year-round. As such, many foreign workers were hired to work
in this history through Canada’s Temporary Foreign Workers Program.

An important concept associated with primary sector employment is sustainability. Several

sustainability initiatives have been implemented in the primary sector to maintain a balance
between meeting human needs today without severely depleting resources for future genera-
tions. In the Fishing Industry, the Canadian government spends millions of dollars annually
to monitor, control, and enforce rules regarding overfishing. Moreover, the environmental
impacts of fishing are also tightly controlled to minimize damage to fish habitats, freshwater
ecosystems, coral reefs, and endangered species. In the Forestry Industry, over hundreds
of millions of seedlings were planted across Canadian forests to counteract and ensure that
there is not a depletion of lumber. The environmental impacts of the extraction of resources
are also minimized through initiatives such as Towards Sustainable Mining—, which aims
at managing environmental risks associated with mining. Sustainability and environmental
conditions are important considerations in the primary sector. The extraction of non-renew-
able resources not only depletes Earth’s limited supply of such resources, but also generates
a lot of pollution and greenhouse gas emission. As such, several businesses and industries
in this sector have a responsibility to minimize and reduce their carbon footprint. For
instance, farmers have minimized the use of chemical agents such as pesticides, herbicides
and fertilizers that can run off into rivers or streams and pose negative environmental effects.
Moreover, the use of several farming techniques that limit the use of large machinery and
subsequent pollution are being implemented in this industry.

The primary sector is a major contributor to the Canadian economy. Not only does working in
the primary sector allow for the extraction and harvesting of resources, it formulates positive
trade relations with foreign countries. For instance, Canada is ranked first in the world for
the production and export of potash. Moreover, Canada generated roughly $7 billion from
the export of fish in 2018. This shows the importance of work in the primary sector and how
this sector of employment is the backbone of the Canadian economy.

2
Secondary Sector

The secondary sector of employment aims at the manufacturing and production of products.
The operation of the secondary sector is driven by the primary sector—the materials and
resources extracted in the primary sector are used for manufacturing in the secondary
sector. Although labor and manufacturing may be less expensive abroad, the highly skilled
workforce in the Manufacturing and Production Industry have allowed for a surge in
manufacturing operations in Canada. The Manufacturing Industry in Canada contributes
to roughly 10% of the country’s GDP and is responsible for over 1.5 million jobs across the
nation. Manufacturing industries are highly dependent on technology, and are constantly
evolving as technology advances. It is estimated that the secondary sector accounts for about
30% of Canada’s economic activity—a lot of which is driven by the export of manufactured
goods to foreign countries.

Some of Canada’s major production and manufacturing industries are automobile and
aerospace equipment, food and beverage processing, as well as wood products and oil
processing. Similar to the primary sector, the workplaces in the secondary sector are
distributed across Canada based on locational factors. Workplaces and industries in the
secondary sector are usually located close to their primary sector counterparts. This is done
so that the cost of transporting raw materials to production and manufacturing plants are
minimized. For instance, sawmills and wood processing plants are highly prevalent in British
Columbia, where the Forestry Industry is highly saturated. Additionally, a lot of oil extraction
in Canada is based in Alberta; as such, the province is well known for Manufacturing
Industries in petroleum, coal products, and machinery for agriculture and construction.
About 10% of the Albertan workforce is employed in the Production and Manufacturing
Industry. With the increase in demand for renewable energy sources, it is expected that a
lot of focus in oil and gas production will be directed towards wind turbine and solar panel
manufacturing. It should also be mentioned that the secondary sector in Alberta is also
focused on food and beverage, clothing, and technology and electronics production.

Highly populated areas—known as Census Metropolitan Areas—often contain

Manufacturing and Production plants due to nearby high demand. For Instance, automobile
manufacturing industries are highly prevalent in the Toronto Census Metropolitan Area.
Furthermore, roughly 12% of employment in Toronto is based in the Manufacturing Industry
itself. Not to mention, the most populated province, Ontario, accounts for almost 47% of
sales in Canadian manufacturing.

As the Canadian population ages, there has been an increasing shortage of work in
manufacturing. As such, several skill development and training programs are being
implemented for workers in the Manufacturing Industry to prevent the future shortage in
labor. Having said that, there is a growing demand for workers in the manufacturing and
production sector.

Tertiary Sector

The purpose of the tertiary sector is to provide services to the population. The service
sector is the most prevalent employment sector in Canada and is estimated to account for

3
approximately 75% of employment in Canada. The services provided in this sector vary
greatly and includes jobs in health care, education, retail, banking, recreation, real estate,
restaurants and dine-ins.

The service industry tends to be highly concentrated in Census Metropolitan Areas. Much of
this is attributed to the high population in these areas and the creation of jobs and businesses.
In Canada’s biggest Census Metropolitan Areas—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa
and Calgary—about three hundred thousand jobs were created between 2010 and 2014.

Jobs in the tertiary sector that revolve around technology, health care, and other essential
services are becoming increasingly important and growing in demand. As such, the tertiary
sector is of great importance in the Canadian economy. Many organizations in the tertiary
sector are government operated and publicly—these organizations fall under the public
sector. In Canada, examples of services in the public sector include health care and educa-
tion. On the other hand, companies can also own services and individuals, making them
fall under the private sector.

It is also worth mentioning that the majority of the highest demand jobs in Canada today
are in the service industry. Examples of some of the highest demand jobs in Canada in 2021
include registered nurses, delivery drivers, essential retail workers, and customer service
representatives.

Quaternary Sector

Lastly, the role of the quaternary sector of employment is to carry out knowledge-based
activities and research for the generation of information. This sector of employment is growing
in the Canadian economy and is focused mainly on information technology, research, and
development. The quaternary sector is a relatively new industry and is often associated with
a highly educated workforce.

An increase in activities in the Canadian quaternary sector occurred since the start of the
COVID-19 pandemic—several government funded COVID-19 research initiatives were
launched. It is estimated that the Canadian Institutes of Health Research has invested about
$250 million since the start of the pandemic into research projects.

The Workforce and the Pandemic

The pandemic took a large toll on employment and businesses across Canada. With the
implementation of stay-at-home orders, many employers shifted to remote work opportu-
nities. Today’s technological advancements allowed the option to work from home for many
industries. Several aspects of work such as daily tasks, conferences, meetings, and interviews
were shifted to an online environment. It is believed that even in the post-pandemic world,
several workplaces will incorporate a hybrid model where workers could perform their
duties both in-person and remotely. Other workplaces may continue to offer remote work
as it minimizes capital expenses.

4
However, for some industries, the option to work-from-home is not feasible. Industries
in the primary and secondary sector were largely affected by the pandemic. For instance,
mining and oil extraction businesses experienced an increase in unemployment rates.
With government-imposed lock-downs and stay-at-home orders in many regions, people
were not travelling or commuting to work, malls, and recreational facilities. As such, there
were fewer vehicles on the road and a lower demand for gas, leading to the layoff of several
workers in this industry.

The pandemic has also led to increased prices of products such as lumber. The shutdown of
some saw mills at the start of the shutdown led to a lower supply in lumber. Moreover, the
increase in demand can be attributed to many individuals staying home during the pandemic
and deciding to carry out renovations and home improvement projects. Consequently, there
has been a general increase in demand for lumber, yet, a lower supply. As such, the rise in prices
of products such as wood can be attributed to the impact of the pandemic on the workplace.

Moreover, to maintain the spread of the virus, the government ordered the shutdown of
several non-essential businesses such as dine-in restaurants, barbers and salons, and movie
theatres. Essentially, services in the tertiary sector that are based on close interactions
between humans were the most affected since the start of the pandemic. As such, several
workers in this sector were laid off due to business closures and shut downs. Some businesses
such as restaurants were able to incorporate take-out orders and contact-free delivery to
continue to operate.

Workplace Ethics and Social Responsibility

An important consideration and growing concern in the workplace is ethics—whether

large companies are treating employees fairly, practicing corporate social responsibility,
and setting out some form of ethical standards for employees to follow.

Companies should often consider all aspects of their operations when developing a code
of ethics. This is because ethical guidelines, although somewhat standardized, may vary
between different industries and businesses. For instance, ethical considerations in the
primary and secondary sectors may be highly concerned with the environment. As previ-
ously discussed, an important ethical consideration in the Fishing Industry, for example,
is to focus on sustainable practices by reducing overfishing and minimizing pollution and
environmental damage to lakes and large bodies of water. Many automobile companies
have also announced that they will shift their focus to the production and development of
electric vehicles in an attempt to reduce their carbon footprint.

Ethical considerations in the service sector may give high consideration and place an emphasis
on customer relations. For instance, Amazon is an E-commerce giant with a focus on
becoming the world’s most customer-centric company. Many of the ethical considerations
in Amazon’s workplace are based on customer satisfaction. However, a downside of placing
customer satisfaction as a top priority is that the treatment of employees and workers may be
compromised. Amazon has often been criticized for its harsh treatment of employees such
as offering minimal interactions between coworkers and reduced break times.

5
The idea of ethical considerations and corporate social responsibility in the workplace is
important and a growing concern in today’s society. With climate change becoming a big
issue, a lot of businesses and companies in all employment sectors have started to implement
changes to minimize their carbon footprint.

Conclusion

Overall, it can be seen how the four sectors of employment come together to play a role in
the economy. Many workplaces that operate in one sector of employment rely on businesses
in other sectors. For instance, workplaces in the secondary sector would rely on primary
sector industries to supply raw materials. Similarly, a lot of service industries such as health-
care or hair salons rely on manufacturers in the secondary sector as suppliers of necessary
equipment. With the advancement in technology, industries that are aimed at extraction,
manufacturing, and providing services are becoming more efficient. Today’s technology
has also allowed for remote working during the pandemic—several workplaces remained
open because employees were able to perform and carry out daily tasks remotely. As the
workplace continues to evolve, ethical considerations and guidelines continue to grow and
take on a greater role in the industry.

6
 2
History of Work

JENNIFER PHAM

F ormally defined as an “action or activity involving physical or mental effort and under-
taken in order to achieve a result” (Oxford English Dictionary, n.d.), the concept of
work has, however, evolved throughout history. Starting from prehistoric times, work was
a means to survival, performed to obtain basic human needs such as food, clothes, and
shelter. The necessity for work came with a need to coordinate associated tasks, thus, intro-
ducing the concept of division of labour. The organization of work is interconnected with
the structure of society, both influencing each other. The idea of work continued to change
with the emergence of class, the addition of different industries, and the advancement of
technologies. Nowadays, work has a separate meaning from its primitive form (as a means to
survival). Work has become a part of the modern-day individual’s identity as an expression
of passion and purpose as well as a way to provide for our families and ourselves. However,
the complexity of work is often overlooked by our daily performance. Thus, this chapter will
discuss the evolution of work and its influence on society.

Prehistoric Times

As mentioned above, work began as a way to meet basic human needs, namely food, clothes
and shelter. The division of labor of the “hunter-gatherers” in the prehistoric times was
based on sex and age (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). Although the organization of work may
not have been uniform across all prehistoric populations, the role of hunting was generally
given to men (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). On the other hand, women were responsible
for more domestic tasks such as gathering vegetation, cooking and taking care of children
(Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). Unlike the preconception that this division of labor suggests
a power imbalance between the sexes, men and women had equal influence in the “hunt-
ers-gatherers” society (Devlin, 2015). In terms of age, physically taxing jobs were assigned to
younger members of the tribe while older individuals were given less physically active tasks
that did not involve hunting (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). Children were also not likely
involved in forage but were rather given domestic tasks such as gathering food (Kranzberg &
Hannan, n.d.). Once collected, the food and supply were distributed equitably. This system
of distribution gave way to the “managerial hierarchy,” where each tribe was divided into
those who gathered the goods, and the leader who made decisions on the distribution of
those goods (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.).

7
The Beginning of Agriculture

While work in the Paleolithic society revolved around the “hunter-gatherers” culture, the
Neolithic society of the New Stone Age distinguished itself with the practice of agriculture.
Although no definitive cause is attributed to the addition of this new industry, the Neolithic
Revolution suggested that agriculture began approximately 12,000 years ago (History.com
Editors, n.d.). However, similar to the “hunter-gatherers” culture, the division of labor in the
agricultural society was also formed based on sex. Men still carried out the more physically
demanding tasks, such as hunting and clearing the land, while women tended to the fields
(Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). However, a power imbalance between the sexes might have
emerged during these times (Devlin, 2015). Men began to have more wives (Mark Dyble as
quoted by Devlin, 2015). Depictions on tombs of men from this period were associated with
their roles as hunters and fighters while those on the tombs of women were not (University
of Seville, 2019). A possible reason given for the development of sexual inequality might be
due to the accumulation of resources provided by agriculture (Devlin, 2015). As agriculture
allowed for a small surplus of resources, trading might have become more widespread, thus,
men are needed to travel and form alliances (Mark Dyble as quoted by Devlin, 2015). At
the same time, while the evidence may suggest a difference in the roles of men and women
in society, the dominance of men over women may not have necessarily occurred.

Along with agriculture, the pottery industry also began around the same time. The organi-
zation of work in the pottery industry may have been divided among the sexes. Men would
have been tasked with gathering and firing the clay while women were mainly concerned
with decorating the pots (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). The pottery industry saw the rise of
the skilled workers and the start of job specialization (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.).

Tools and the Bronze Age

Craft specialization continued to develop throughout the prehistoric times, especially in

metallurgical production. While the basis of some societies in the Bronze Age relied on
agriculture, tools were required to perform various tasks (Lozano et al., 2021). Workers were
organized into the different processes of mining, smelting and forging in the production
of copper tools (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). Due to mines being located in mountainous
regions, workers could not grow their own crops and relied on the surplus provided by
farmers (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). The division of labor during the Bronze Age was also
formed on the difference in sex (Lozano et al., 2021). Men were likely assigned to physically
demanding work, such as in the production of tools, while women were given jobs involving
textiles and crop cultivation. Craft specialization, namely in metallurgy, of the Bronze Age
provided a basis of the organization of work for the next few thousands of years (Kranzberg
& Hannan, n.d.). In contrast to hunting and gathering simply to survive, the expansion of
work industries allowed for specialization. Although work was still performed based on the
needs of society, it was no longer just a way to achieve the most basic human needs.

Ancient Times

Unlike the prehistoric times, societies of the ancient world were significantly more structured.
At the apex of these ancient civilizations, a ruling class emerged with a sovereign at the top

8
and nobles directly serving that sovereign (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). A class consisting of
religious leaders such as priests also worked alongside the ruling class as government officials
due to their ability to read and write (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). Traders and merchants
contributed to the exchange of goods while craftsmen and artisans were concerned with
the production of these goods (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). The bottom of social hier-
archy was marked by peasants and slaves, who often performed manual labor as opposed
to skilled work (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). As implied, the organization of social classes
was intertwined with the organization of labor. Each social class was defined by a specific
set of tasks that defined their contribution to society. Division of labor, such as between
the sexes and among age groups, could occur in each subsequent social class. Furthermore,
the differences in the cultures of these ancient civilizations may have contributed to more
specific methods of organizing labor.

The economies of the ancient world were largely built upon pre-existing industries. Agri-
culture, for example, continued to develop throughout this period. However, members of
the upper class owned agricultural land. In Ancient Rome, large farming estates, known
as latifundia, were properties of the aristocracy although they did not reside on these lands
and left the fields to be tended solely by their tenants, the peasants and slaves (Kranzberg &
Hannan, n.d.). The agricultural sector also saw geographical specialization. Vineyards and
olive groves were commonly found in Greece and Italy while the richer soils of Sicily, North
Africa, and Asia allowed for the growth of cereals (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). Specialization
among the different crafts and trades retained, and new types of work continued to emerge.

The ancient civilizations were also known for the construction of remarkable structures
such as the Great Pyramid. These large-scale projects required the use of mass labor and
the organization of a large number of workers. For instance, the Great Pyramid required
approximately 100,000 over 20 years; thus, its construction would demand a high level of
coordination between the supervisors and workers (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). Unlike the
lone worker found in trades and crafts industries, large building projects needed a variety
of skilled workers including the architects and engineers as well as peasants and slaves
who carried out the manual labor. The social hierarchy was once again manifested in the
organization of mass labor. However, although peasants and slaves were tasked with more
physically-challenging work as a repayment for their service tax owed to the state, they
were not considered expendable (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). Reports written by overseers
often prided on the safety and welfare of these builders (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). The
use of mass labor carried on as infrastructure of ancient civilizations continued to develop.
Systems of irrigation, road network and public buildings all required the efforts of a large
number of workers with a variety of skill sets (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.).

Work and Leisure

In tandem with work, the concept of leisure began to take precedence in society. Leisure
was generally considered a luxury that could only be afforded by the elite (Veal, 2005). Even
before the ancient world, individuals considered to be of higher status such as tribal chiefs,
warriors, priests and their families were able to enjoy leisure time while their basic needs
were provided for by the surplus of resources from manual labor (Veal, 2005). The idea of
leisure continued to develop in the ancient world as Greek and Roman philosophers set out

9
to define work and its purpose in contrast to leisure. In Ancient Greece specifically, manual
labor was considered work reserved for slaves, and was looked down upon (Veal, 2005).
Meanwhile, the luxury of leisure was associated with those of high social status (Veal, 2005).
However, not all types of work were looked down upon as farming was held in high regard
(Veal, 2005). At the same time, the preconception of each type of work suggests that an
individual’s job became a point of judgment for their worth in society.

Medieval Times

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the majority of Western Europe operated with self-suffi-
cient economies until specialized production reappeared under the feudal system (Kranzberg
& Hannan, n.d.). The term feudalism derived from the Latin terms feudalis and feodum, which
mean fee and fief respectively (Cartwright, 2018). Under this system, the members of the
aristocracy owned land. This land was divided into units called fiefs and given to tenants in
return for some form of payment (Cartwright, 2018). The most common form of payment
was military service, provided by a knight, who would promise loyalty and protection to the
landowners (Cartwright, 2018). Other tenants who lived on the land were members of the
lower class. These tenants were free laborers who would offer part of the revenue as a form
of payment for the land since they could not provide military service (Cartwright, 2018).
Serfs and peasants, who made up the most of the population in medieval Europe and were
placed at the bottom of the social hierarchy, would work the land without payment in return
for food (Cartwright, 2018). Thus, considering the large presence of this organization of
work, the noble class laid the basis for determining the division of work under feudalism.

The expansion of existing industries continued in the middle ages of Europe. The clergy
class competed with the ruling class in its influence over the people in society. Unlike the
aristocracy, the clergy were both consumers and producers (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.).
Monasteries were often self-sufficient, and even accumulated a surplus to be used for trade
(Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). Monks also spent their time experimenting ways to enhance
agricultural techniques (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). They produced goods such as cheese
and wines that would be sold in the market (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). The influence of
the clergy paved the way for the need to construct larger churches and cathedrals, which
required specific skilled workers such as those involved in installing stain glass, stone masonry
and woodcarving (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.).

The Putting-Out System

The transition from self-sufficient to large-scale economies influenced a new organization of

work known as the putting-out system. The system was a form of domestic manufacturing
where workers were provided with the materials to perform work on and the finished products
were returned to a contractor in return for payment. The putting-out system developed most
prominently in the wool-cloth industry, which may have begun as early as the middle ages
in Europe (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). While the peasants were able to produce clothes
with their own materials, those materials were not favored by the upper class (Kranzberg
& Hannan, n.d.). Therefore, merchants began to bring wool to the artisans to be spun and
woven into clothing (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). In the putting-out system, the workers
did not own the items they performed work on during any stage of the production process.

10
Unlike before, this system clearly defined two separate factors of production, entrepre-
neurship and labor.

Prior to the Industrial Revolution

During the period prior to the Industrial Revolution, from the 16th to 18th century, economic
growth was attributed to a few factors. The European colonization of the Americas led to
an increase in wealth from the exploitation of metals in the “New World” (Kranzberg &
Hannan, n.d.). At the same time, banking, commerce and the concept of money also devel-
oped (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). The emergence of the bourgeoisie (originally a word
for the middle class) commanded a growing demand for goods to satisfy the rise in their
standard of living (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). This event contributed to the expansion
of pre-existing industries as well as the introduction of new products. Furthermore, this
period also saw development of technologies with small factories, leading to the Industrial
Revolution (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.).

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in the mid-18th century in England. It was one of the most
significant historical events that contributed to the functioning of modern economies and
societies in the Western Hemisphere. The Industrial Revolution increased productivity as
machines aided in the rapid production of goods, paving the way for mass production. This
time saw the decline of agricultural-oriented economies (Fitzgerald, n.d.). Moreover, the
subsequent transition to industrialization. The relationship between the landowners and
their tenants began to dissolve as people moved to cities to work in factories, resulting in
rapid urbanization (Fitzgerald, n.d.; Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). At the same time, business
owners, such as factory owners, were able to profit from the growth in industrialization and
formed a new class of wealthy individuals that distinguished themselves by being self-made
rather than inheriting success. The working class also grew as many left farming and turned
to factory work (Fitzgerald, n.d.). Men, women, and children were able to work in factories
although women and children received lower pay than men (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.).
The division between entrepreneurship and labour was further highlighted during the
Industrial Revolution. Conflicts arose from the hardship experienced by the working class
and the seemingly profit-driven mindset of business owners, leading to the development of
economic and political ideologies such as socialism.

Automation

A new division of labor - between machines and their operators - took precedence during
the Industrial Revolution. As technologies continued to advance, the desire for automation
was widespread as it promised increased production. However, the most important aspect of
automation, arguably, was the opportunity to eliminate manual labor (Kranzberg & Hannan,
n.d.). This ideology is manifested in the origin of the word robot, which was derived from the
Czech term robota meaning serf labor (Love, 2020). The ability to eliminate manual labour
meant that people could focus on more creative means of production while machines could
be controlled to easily improve accuracy, quality and production (Kranzberg & Hannan,
n.d.). The first industrial robots, however, could only perform simple jobs and had trouble

11
differentiating between objects (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). Nevertheless, industrial robots
and machines were improved over the years to become an important part of the production
process in modern factories. The rise of the machines also came with the fear that jobs
would be taken from people. While this remained largely a topic of debate, technological
advancements had required different skill sets from computer scientists to engineers to skilled
laborers who could operate these devices (Kranzberg & Hannan, n.d.). Thus, the path to
automation may not be a revolution against humans but a window to new types of work.

Modern World

Our society, at least in the Western Hemisphere, is one based on work (Ransome, 2005).
We spend a large part of our waking hours doing work after spending years of our lives in
school preparing for that work. Not only does work take up a significant amount of time in
our public lives, work has become an integral part of our personal lives. When introducing
ourselves to a stranger, an answer to some form of the question “What do you do for living?”
is always given. However, our jobs are not simply a means to meet our basic needs but a
part of our identity. From our time in school, a career is painted as an expression of passion.
In reality, passion in choosing a career may be overlooked as financial gain to support our
consumerism and a certain lifestyle is considered more important. Our careers are often
marked as a way to contribute to society, which in the modern capitalist culture (Ransome,
2005) means measurable productivity. Hence, leading to some fields and industries to be
valued over others. The concept of work in our modern world is complex as it has become
integrated into our public and private lives.

Conclusion

Ultimately, work can be defined as the performance of tasks to fulfill our needs. Therefore,
the idea of work at its core has not changed but the purpose of work has evolved. Beginning
with the prehistoric times, the purpose of work had been to meet basic human needs such as
food, shelter and clothing. The need for certain products led to the proliferation of industries
and their subsequent specialization. The organization of work is deeply connected with
the organization of social structures. The relation between social classes and types of work
began as early as in the ancient world and can still be observed in today’s society. The rise of
the machines paved the way for a new kind of revolution in the process of production, and
provided an opportunity for people to move away from manual labor into more creative ways
of contributing to the process of production. While machines should have reduced the hours
people spent at work, the concept of work in our modern society gave a different insight. Work
has become an integral part of our personal identities. As our standard of living continues
to rise above our basic needs, our jobs are aimed to achieve these new lifestyles. At the same
time, our career is often not chosen solely on the basis of survival but also on our passion.
The balance between financial gains and emotional gains continue to be an important part
of the modern conception of work. With advancements in technologies growing rapidly in
recent years, the nature of work will continue to develop in the future.

12
 3
Role of work and employment in society

IRENE FALADE

W ork is a means of enhancing people’s sense of usefulness and belongingness as well

as providing for financial means. It has a role as a socializing mechanism, a source
of social exchanges, and individual identities hence work being viewed as a pillar of social
organization. It is fundamental in various dimensions of social integration like health,
housing and interpersonal networks. In society, work is an important factor that aids in
promoting community cohesion and safety, increasing civic participation; reducing public
spending in a range of welfare benefits, and promoting social and economic development;
organizing social life at a macro level.

Community Cohesion

Community cohesion is the ability of all communities to function and grow together in
harmony rather than live in conflict. Its purpose is to build communities where people feel
like they belong and are comfortable interacting with each other and others from different
backgrounds. Communities can be made up of people from the same cultural or ethnic
background, neighborhood, religion, sexuality and so on. These differences in communities
is the necessity behind community cohesion, work is a great factor that has been proven to
help provide promotion of this ability. Case studies from different areas depict different
work approaches allowing new communities to be recognized, acknowledged, and allowed
to participate with other communities in their areas.

The Coventry New Communities Forum was organized through the city council housing
department’s contacts with new arrivals in the area. They developed links with 45 informal
networks and fledgling organizations that led to the formation of the New Communities
Forum that is supported by senior council members as a two-way communication channel
between the communities and city council. Oldham’s Youth Council is another successful
project of community cohesion promoted through work. This Oldham Youth Council
consists of 47 members, all young and from different communities that are democratically
elected to represent the young people of Oldham. In 2007, they had a participation of 4,600
young people in their authority-wide elections. The purpose of this council is for the voices
of young people of different communities to be heard and represented locally, regionally and
nationally. Professionals in various services support them and organizations like the youth
services, hold quarterly meetings on issues, and have regular contact with senior officers, the

13
LSP and elected members. Through this they promote opportunities for the young people
of Oldham, hold campaigns on topics affecting the lives of the young people, and help
them influence decisions affecting their lives. This youth council brings young individuals
regardless of their communities and backgrounds in Oldham as a united front that actively
works together for a place in their society. Work as a task, a physical effort and activity helps
to build community cohesion for the sake of harmony, equality and safety in societies.

Meaning of Work

A study conducted to understand the meaning of work from a national sample of employed
signifies that work serves as more than a function to earn a living. Most of the men from the
sample state that having a job helps them feel more connected to the larger society, it gives
them something to do and a feeling of having a purpose in life even if they had enough money
to support themselves. This finding is supported by observations of retired or unemployed
men who experience a feeling of dislocation and deprivation.

The interview for the study posed a question to hypothetically take away the economic
function of working, this question is what led to the discovery that work serves as more
than a means for economic support. The question was “If by some chance you inherited
enough money to live comfortably without working, do you think that you would work
anyway or not?” From a total sample of 401 men, 80% of them responded that they would
keep working even though they did not need to for financial support. The quality of the
responses indicated that the participants valued the question seriously and personally, the
vividness and emotionality of their responses suggested that the researchers were tapping
into an area that was very real and meaningful to them. Some of the reasons the participants
provided for answering that they would still continue to work included positive ones such
as: working keeps one occupied, gives one an interest; working keeps an individual healthy,
is good for a person; and the type of work is enjoyable. There were also negative reasons
given from a little over one-third of the respondents, negative reasons meaning negative
consequences those results from not working. The most common of these reasons were that
the participants “would feel lost if they didn’t work, would go crazy” and “wouldn’t know
what to do with my time, can’t be idle.” This negative reasoning came from around 36% of
the 80% of respondents that would keep working; their answers suggest that working is a
way of avoiding the dangers of being lonely and isolated. An overall 14% of the total respon-
dents in the sample expressed the same fears, which supports the examination of work as a
critical positive element in the emotional economy of many individuals because it anchors
the person to society. Further evidence from responses to the question, “Suppose you didn’t
work, what would you miss most?” shows work serves more than an economic function.
The responses from over two-fifths of the respondents is that they feel like they would lose
something vital to their wellbeing if not working, while around a third of them point to
missing the social aspects of working the most. This study on employed men indicates that
work plays more than an economic role in society, it is not simply a means of earning a live-
lihood as seen by the amount of participants who insist on continuing to work even if they
are financially comfortable. Work has a role of being an anchor for individuals into society,
it is important to their wellbeing, gives them a purpose, something to do/be occupied with.

14
Employment

Employment in society is necessary for stabilizing the economy and fostering economic
growth, for individuals however employment serves a means of meeting their financial
needs. The modern economy functions on these factors of working together, citizens of
legal age work in jobs to earn an income to survive. The especially those in the labor force
produce the goods and services that make up the economy through this and generate majority
taxation income that the government uses to play own economic role, such as providing
for the unemployed. The workers also become consumers through the gaining of income
from their jobs to produce goods and provide services, which gives back into the economy
creating the cycle of modern economic growth and stability. This is the capitalist structure
of the modern economy that is based on individuals or businesses’ private ownership of the
means of production, trade, and profits.

In every society, the employment structure has the labor force divided into primary, secondary,
tertiary, and quaternary sectors. This varies across countries. The primary sector is focused on
raw materials, the extraction of raw materials, mining, fishing, and agriculture. The secondary
sector is also known as the manufacturing sector for its focus in producing finished goods,
construction, and utilities like electricity and gas. The tertiary sector, which is also called
the service sector, focuses on providing services to consumers; it involves tourism, retail,
financial services, information technology, communication, and real estate. Finally, the
quaternary sector that is known as the intellectual side of the economy dealing with knowl-
edge and education, research and development and the public sector. In richer countries, also
known as first world countries like the USA, Canada, Australia, and many countries from
Europe have more people working in the tertiary and quaternary sector than the primary
or secondary sectors. Whereas in poorer countries also known as third world countries like
many countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, they have more people working in the
primary and secondary sectors than the tertiary and quaternary sector.

To expand on this, there will be three examples of employment structures from different
countries and some of the reasoning behind their set up. First off, the UK is noted to have a
low proportion of people working in the primary sector mainly because of mechanization.
Mechanization is the introduction of machinery or automatic devices into the agriculture
and raw materials industry, which is what, has happened in the UK. Furthermore, their
nonrenewable resources such as coal have become exhausted and they now resort to importing
it from other countries. The secondary sector is also losing the employment of people due
to the factory jobs being given to robots. Their tertiary and quaternary sectors maintain the
most growth in the employment of individuals with people working in hospitals, schools,
financial services and leisure areas.

Secondly, there is the Brazil employment structure, Brazil is known as a Newly Industri-
alized Country (NIC). It is still in the process of developing its economic base leaving a
great number of its people working in the primary sector mainly farming. They also boast
a large proportion of people in their tertiary sector because Brazil is growing in its appeal
as a tourist destination opening avenues for more work. The improvement of their health
care, education and transport industries also contribute to the growth of the tertiary sector.
Finally, that leaves Ghana, a Less Economically Developed Country (LEDC). A majority

15
of the people in the country work in the primary sector because unlike the UK, Ghana does
not have the machinery used for farming, mining and forestry. The raw materials sector is
a big part of the country because Ghanaians grow their own food to eat. They do not have
a lot of people working in their secondary sector due to a lack of machinery that is used
for factories. In addition, multinational countries depend on raw materials from Ghana to
manufacture their products.

Economy and Class

The economic role-plays a part in the social structure of employment through the class
hierarchy in society. The class hierarchy also known as the social class structure is made
up of individuals grouped up based on their socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic status
is social standing or class of an individual or a group of people based on their education,
income and occupation. The income and occupation carry a heavier weight due to the modern
economies capitalist values. The standing is usually divided into the four classes: the upper
class, middle class, working class, and the lower class. The upper class is composed of the
wealthiest individuals in society with the highest social status. The middle class is sometimes
divided into upper-middle and lower-middle class, upper-middle class is described as well
educated people with high economic security while lower-middle class are the other end of
the spectrum making less money and not as educated. There tends to be an overlap between
both ends of the middle class. Next, the working class is described as individuals in the
labor force without a bachelor’s degree earning minimum wage. People from the working
class would fall into the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy but mainly
the tertiary industry in first world countries because of mechanization. The lower class is
sometimes combined with the working class however; they are mainly described as service
employees, low-level manual laborers and the unemployed of society.

These classifications are society’s way of categorizing people based on their economic posi-
tion, this plays into how one is viewed and treated among others in society. The economic
role creates a division between individuals of different classes that leads to consequences
in society. An individuals’ social class can impact their health care, family life, education,
political participation and even experiences with the criminal justice system. It is usually
people outside the upper class, who feel the consequences of the class hierarchy. Lower class
groups dealing with it the most, this is known as classicism. Prejudice or discrimination of
an individual or group based on their social class. Examples of this are seen in healthcare;
people from a lower socioeconomic class tend to have less access to adequate healthcare, less
overall good health, and less insurance coverage than those from the higher socioeconomic
classes. For example, in the COVID-19 crisis, there is a disproportionate risk based on
class, race and occupation. That is, individuals from the working and lower classes are at
higher risk of contracting the disease, especially those who work front-line jobs that were
deemed essential but offer only low pay. These are the same people who also don’t have the
best access to healthcare or insurance to cover them should they become sick because of their
social class assigned based on their limited financial resources. Socioeconomic status plays
a big role in determining access to healthcare results in health inequality with the upper
class gaining the best outcomes.

16
Conclusion

Work and employment are vital parts of society; they both revolve around jobs, occupations
and an individual’s contribution to society. Work is something that one does either at an
official job, an internship or volunteer opportunity; it enhances their need to be useful and
their belonging to society. Work helps give people a purpose; it gives them a tie to their
society and opportunities to create bonds with others. It is a pillar of social organization
such as health, housing and interpersonal networks, it also aids in promoting community
cohesion. As noted in earlier paragraphs, community cohesion is the ability for different
groups to come together in harmony. Through working together in examples such as the
Oldham Youth Council and the Coventry New Communities Forum, individuals of different
communities were able to come together and create spaces for all their voices to be heard,
acknowledged, and respected. As read in the study to understand the meaning of work,
participants indicate that work is more than an economic support. It keeps them occupied
from being idle, provides a purpose in life, and a social aspect of interacting with others at
their jobs. These examples serve to show that work plays a huge role in society outside its
economic support. While the role of employment is more focused on individual’s jobs and
their socioeconomic status. Employment is what fosters economic growth and stability in
the modern capitalist society. Its different sectors provide for different needs in the economy.
Employment is also a factor being the class hierarchy, dividing people into groups based on
their socioeconomic status that plays into how society functions and treats its people. Work
and employment have key differences in their roles in society but both come down to their
impacts on the individuals in the society.

17
 4
Differences in Work Culture around the World

AMY LI

The Types of Work Culture

F rom the Harvard Business Review, Cheng and Groysberg performed surveys of organi-
zations worldwide, assessing work culture between the years 2017 and 2019. According
to Cheng and Groysberg (2020), there are eight distinct company cultures: each varying
according to people’s addictiveness to problems and interactions with others. The eight
cultures are caring, results, purpose, learning, safety, order, authority, and enjoyment. In
that particular order, caring and results were the most valued behaviors in participants’
businesses. This finding suggests that the respondents valued teamwork and meeting goals.
On the other hand, authority and enjoyment were least prioritized, so commanding and
doing tasks without planning was not respected.
Work culture, in general, can differ in a variety of forms, whether that be within the busi-
ness or even between groups of people at the same workplace. Work cultures can also differ
nationally or regionally. However, it is prominently different at the global level.

In their sample, on average, across the board, caring was the highest and most preferred
culture. Conversely, authority was the least valued culture. When cultures were ranked
according to different geographical regions, however, there were some exciting results.

Different Regions’ Work Culture

When evaluating how different regions respond to changes or whether organizations prefer
stability to flexibility, African organizations tend to have a broader range of flexibility.
This is because much of Africa’s work culture relies on their work’s learning and purpose
aspect. This quality means that African businesses prioritize modernization, cleverness,
and embracing heterogeneity in the workplace.

Regions such as Eastern Europe and the Middle East value stability. Safety was a primary
emphasis in both areas, as they prefer alertness and consistency. Unsurprisingly, in the
Middle East, many organizations ranked authority as the highest category.

When evaluating how different regions’ workers interact with each other or whether

19
respondents value teamwork or depend on themselves to accomplish tasks, regions such as
Western Europe, North and South America preferred independence; but how they express
their independence is different. For instance, Western Europe and North America rely on
results and goal making to measure success and freedom. Compared to other regions, South
America placed enjoyment as the top priority, implying that having fun and not taking things
too seriously was important. In Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, teamwork and compre-
hensive strategy were hallmarks of their culture. Hence, watching out for others, establishing
safety, and outlining steps were necessary. In Asia, businesses prefer regulations and a struc-
ture-based approach to work. Everyone respects each other and cooperates with the rules.

In the following section, specific countries will be explored in further detail.

China

In the workplace, hierarchy is like the floor of the house. To maintain stability, hierarchy is
used to determine how to treat others based on people’s rank. Hence, workers seek advice
from their managers for consultancy yet are still scared to state their opinions. These fears
are gradually fading, however.

China adopts a collectivist mindset, which is expected of China. Therefore, relationships

are essential. Once a connection is formed, there are sets of rules, which include duties and
privileges. Trust is not just given to anyone; it is often only within groups or departments.

The work culture is masculine-dominated, harping on success as a motivation to attain

goals. Consequently, Chinese workers will forfeit family time and time spent on hobbies
just to keep working. It is also hard to admit competition, even though it frequently occurs
between departments. Work strength is also not expressed through words or gestures but
by assertiveness and attaining goals.

The Chinese are flexible when it comes to rules. Uncertainty drives their work, and this is
even demonstrated in their language. Their flexibility depends on the situation, but their
sensibility usually dominates their thinking.

Establishing long-term customers and coworkers is essential, especially obtaining trust or

guanxi; this is ideal for businesses to prosper. This mentality is even evident in parents who
want to invest in long-term education for their children.

When it comes to communicating with others, context plays a huge role. For instance, it
would be rude to tell someone “No.” When resolving conflicts, it would be wise to employ
other perspectives and people for input. In addition, video calls would be much more effective
than phone calls; small group meetings are better than large company-wide ones. Finally,
communicating should be straightforward, so people do not have to over interpret.

20
France

There is a balance between promoting the quality of life in France while also indulging
in career development. Hierarchy is also adopted, and this aligns with their longing for
self-gratification. However, when the hierarchy model occurs alongside economic instability
and a poor labor market, people start to feel apprehensive. Consequently, engagement with
others coincides with a want to return to people’s personal spaces.

Traditional rules are slowly fading, and people are more enticed to provide open spaces that
encourage communication and flexibility. Nonetheless, French people will still prefer their
rooms. To adapt to more collaborative spaces, it will require thorough devising and contact
between both parties involved.

With France’s history as a country being autocratic, the workplace still relies on autocracy
and hierarchy. People are given titles and formal procedures for addressing someone; this
provides stability in the workplace. French people also feel obligated to express their rights
but also show responsibility in their job. This will only go smoothly if everyone respects
each other and does what they are asked of.

Career and quality of life are meant to be balanced. Assertiveness and cooperation also
apply in this balance. Rules are also the groundwork, and workers rarely question them.

French workers value relationships built over a long period and decisions take a while to
form with careful analysis. At the same time, they have prospects for the future that need
to be attained, such as investing in research and maintaining amenities. Therefore, it is also
essential to appreciate the gains made every day and the quarterly milestones achieved.

Communication relies on heavy context. It is challenging to communicate spontaneously,

and so personality and internal thoughts are often hidden. People tend to keep things to
themselves; nonverbal cues are challenging to comprehend as well.

Germany

The culture is quite masculine, arguably the most masculine among the other countries.
Individuality and competition are also the top defining characteristics of Germany. Striving
for promotions and ranks is challenging yet a good thrill for workers. At the same time,
the workplace should be spacious, modernized, provide good lighting, comfort, and high
quality spaces for work. In this way, the workplace also emanates a feminine atmosphere
that complements the traditional masculine approach in the workplace. Suggesting changes
to managers takes time and thorough examination, which can hinder innovation.

Privacy is a necessity. Closed doors are a given, and even touching people’s belongings in an
office is considered rude. Whether it is visual, spatial, or sound, privacy is a form of respect
that everyone should have. Sound masking and more walls between workstations would be
a requirement. Ergonomics are applied as well; natural light and outside scenery should be
accessible to all workers. Their priority preference also explains the fear of uncertainty and
structured strategy to tasks. In all, Germany has a booming economy and high standards for

21
quality preservation, making the workplace highly adept. Hierarchy is still pretty evident.
Nonetheless, leaders should be willing to debate, but workers still need guidance from
supervisors. However, workers are encouraged to discuss their opinions. Leaders should
not turn down their workers’ input because it ultimately leads to more informed decisions.

German workers are cautious throughout their work and try to reduce risks anywhere. They
are detail-oriented even in the design and architecture of the workplace.

Germans have no spontaneity. They value knowing what will be happening every day at any
given time. Simultaneously, they need to balance their short-term goals with a vision for
what will happen long term. They need to be aware of the sustainability of their measures
and which solutions are compatible in the end.

Compared to China and France, they are low context when it comes to communication.
Communication is eased through shared experiences and being informative to team members.
Developing relationships is not a priority, though, since group members will change over
time. Instead, it is about what is communicated and not how it is communicated.

Great Britain

Great Britain workers are highly independent. Work relationships are not a priority, and
security is not the leading reason for staying at a job. That being said, salary is still significant.
If workers are dissatisfied, they will leave; typically, people job-hop every couple of years.

Workers value their privacy and their words not as aggressive so that surrounding people
will not be disturbed. Status does not determine everything; employees are welcome to be
open and advisory. People also define class from titles and education level.

The working environment is masculine. It is characterized by long hours and often avoiding
meals; it is quite a tough mentality.

British people are unafraid of abrupt changes and confident that people can figure out
problems without trouble. After all, changes are a natural part of life. So even some chaos
is tolerated and seen as the status quo.

Short-term goals and quarterly statements are preferred; it is all about the present moment.
However, at the same time, it is crucial to understand how to sustain businesses in the long term.

Communication is low context. Close connections formed in the workplace are not neces-
sary. Often words will convey meaning much better than emotions. Communication is also
minimized; calls can go ignored if a worker does not want to be sidetracked. Instead, email
is the preferred form of communication.

India

Autocracy is essential, and power is achieved through accomplishments. Leaders tend to

make significant decisions, considering that the workplace represents power and hierarchy.

22
Typically, executives get huge offices while workers operate in an open space; this format
goes unquestioned.

India is collectivist; people watch out for themselves and their security, family, and commu-
nity. Millennials in India are becoming more individualistic, prioritizing their aspirations
over the company and leveraging their country.

India’s work culture is masculine in the sense that they pride themselves on success and
power. At the same time, they cherish spiritual values and cooperation. To appeal to workers,
workplaces are becoming more caring and clean.

Indian workers have no problem with uncertainties since they adapt pretty well, making
India a growing, global economic power. Thus, employees will not need that much guidance
from management in transitioning to their job. Moreover, given Indian workers’ flexible
nature, countries will use India to experiment with different business approaches.

Indians focus on long-term gains, which are derived from their belief in karma. They believe
that there is no rush to complete tasks in one day. The focus should instead be on establishing
connections rather than generating profit immediately. Since India’s work culture is unlike
today’s business, foreign cultures may find India hard to understand.

India’s communication is high-context. Intimate groups are formed at the workplace. They
try to avoid conflict; therefore, reading between the lines can be difficult. The language can
be easily misinterpreted. For example, the side-to-side head tilt can mean either yes, no, or
maybe. To avoid hurting one’s feelings, Indians will say yes rather than no to avoid karma.
Lastly, enthusiastically asking questions can open the door for conversations. Face-to-face
contact is also the ideal form of communication.

Italy

Italy values seniority and hierarchy. While innovative ways of working are not as readily
accepted, with worldwide trends emerging from multinationals, Italy is starting to
take new ideas.

The leadership style is autocratic and based on hierarchy. As a result, workers follow the
leader’s instructions and may hesitate to collaborate. The leader calls the last shot.

Italian workers are very individualist. They rather than the team they are a part of define a
worker’s identity. Instead, people prefer to work by themselves.

The workplace is competitive, with most workplaces dominated by males with confident
mindsets. People will hide their projects until they are formally presented to gain their
personal goals or milestones.

Italians depend on job security and the sureness of their job status. This explains why most
people stay at their jobs, as job-hopping would be extremely risky. At the same time, Italians
are fine with improvising since navigating through obstacles is already a part of their culture.

23
Short-term goals are preferred due to the immediate rewards. Nonetheless, they always
reflect on the past to see their mistakes. Italian communication is high context. Given the
historical traditions that keep people at ease, using their voices to carry emotions is far more
effective than just words.

Morocco

Morocco’s work culture is a blend of Arabic and European cultures. It is also a mesh of its
traditional rules and the young generation’s influence in the multinational scheme.

Authority dominates the scene. People are expected to know their limits, and the leader is
almost seen as a father figure. Decisions are made at the top, but people will still consult
with advisors for guidance. The decision-making process is bureaucratic, though, so it may
take a while to reach a final decision. Employees can depend on their managers for advice.

The working attitude is collectivist. Everyone helps each other out, with solid ties to forming
groups. Family is the number one priority, and family often comes before the individual.
Nepotism is even practiced since the culture is naturally family-driven.

Competition and cooperation are the keys to success. However, it is challenging to integrate
modernity into their traditional and religious values. This is clear when people wonder how
women operate in the workforce and how government policies will adapt to this. In general,
Moroccan women want to be more involved in society. This is desired since it will increase
the economic situation of families in urban areas.

Security is a top priority for Moroccan workers. There is a stigma of failure, and that shame
can translate over to the family. This is often why struggling businesses will continue to
operate rather than shut down completely. It is challenging to market a new concept or idea
and expect it to go well. Thus, Moroccans need time to get used to these projects.

Time should not be taken for granted since workers will let others use the time to demonstrate
a point. After all, people believe that time will adjust according to the circumstances. They
believe that the future has been written out for them, referred to as maktoob. Essentially
this term means that Moroccans do not think that they can exceed the social status they
were born into. Moroccans also take full responsibility for their actions and adapt to the
circumstances promptly.

Moroccan communication is high context. Direct confrontation can be seen as rude. As well,
facial expressions can convey a lot more meaning than just words. To talk about business
from the get-go is also a bit forward, since there are designated places to discuss work, such
as in the offices where the environment is much more appropriate.

The Netherlands

The Dutch embrace individuality but rely on consent from workers to create harmony. With
an efficient public transportation system, bikes are a common mode of transportation. More
often than not, people will take their work with them rather than making an effort to go to

24
the office every day. Respect comes not from hierarchy but one’s knowledge and credibility.
Authority is not handed to anyone; workers have to deserve and work for it.

The Dutch are individualists, and if there are any workplace discussions, they are always
pragmatic and serve a functional purpose. Modesty is also preferred over showing off accom-
plishments. They have a ‘live and let live’ motto to life. This means that as long as everyone
is fine and his or her personal and family time met, this exceeds the importance of work.

The Dutch are also risk-takers. They are less bound by rules and are curious to investigate
new approaches to problems.

People have long-term goals. They are not worried about keeping up with appearances.
Instead, perseverance is far more critical.

Communication is low context. The way people talk is straightforward. Relationships

are not mandatory and will adapt as needed; time is also necessary when developing
work relationships.

Russia

Given their radical past, different attitudes and approaches will clash in the workplace,
making their culture quite multifaceted. Though historically autocratic, there is still a shift
towards group decision-making and democracy.

Among the developing countries, they are the most individualistic. Nonetheless, they are
still collectivist in their approach. They rely on personal networks, and workers will often
hear the saying that it is “better to have 100 friends than 100 rubies”.

Peers will appreciate forming bonds, but as economies have more rewards for hard workers,
work style will be driven by competition and for personal growth rather than the more
nurturing styles.

The workplace is rule-oriented, and it has been impossible to break the rules. As a result,
bribes are expected since the margins for practices are vast. Obstacles are expected to be
overcome. People also constantly look for new jobs to increase their salary.

People are generally living day-to-day, waiting for a paycheck with no plan for the future. At
the same time, Russians are proud of their nation’s achievements, such as in World War II
and being the first space flight. Russians also detest debt, and birth rates are at a minimum.

The communication is high context. Relationships are essential before intimate discussions
can take place. Words can be a bit broad at times and open to interpretation. Verbally,
Russians can also come off as blunt. Consequently, business presentations require lots of
context and information preceding the topics.

25
Spain

There is a constant switch between traditions and finding new ways to work. People in the
past relied on hierarchy and long hours. Nowadays, young people are eager for change. As
young people become the norm, work will be tackled much more informally.

Since Spain is at the top of the economic ladder, successful companies understand the
need to be more creative and global. At the same time, young people strive to modify their
existing work culture.

Given their history of paternalism, hierarchies played a role in ensuring structure in the work-
place. Once younger generations enter the scene, though, there is a shift towards democracy.
Upper staff positions are less merited for seniority, but the credibility and relationships built;
this provides an opportunity for young professionals to shine and make a change.

Spain is both individualist and collectivist. Loyalty to the team is essential. At the same
time, workspaces prefer privacy and independent work. At the international level, though,
Spanish businesses are working to work more collaboratively.

Competitiveness and high achievers drive work. At the same time, personal endeavors and
family time are equally important. True success lies in having a work/life balance. Spaniards’
personal lives have deep roots in their culture, so eliminating their time would be disastrous.

Spaniards find comfort in rules and in knowing what comes next. However, management
can also be taken not as seriously, and even improvisation is accepted. A Spanish saying for
this is, “A new law, a new loophole.”

Spaniards are used to being spontaneous. As a result, this might clash with a company’s fear
of uncertainty in the business. When dealing with global economies, then, Spaniards will
have to learn to plan.

Interpersonal connections and being a part of a close community are essential. After all,
Spaniards are family-oriented. To Spaniards, expressing their thoughts is more important
than what is being said; therefore, emotions are integral for communication. That being said,
videoconferencing is much more effective for communicating than emails or voice calls since
video calling is much more intimate.

United States

American culture prides itself on uniformity and being pragmatic. Innovation can be seen
through their branding and design of the workplace. As well, the workplace is highly informal
and relaxed compared to other countries. This is evident from the dress code to how people
communicate. Employees are welcome to state their opinion, and networks formed are much
more enabling than authoritative.

Americans are individualistic. This makes sense given the vast amount of immigrants that
came to forge their opportunities, which then manifested into the individualist culture. Even
in a family dynamic, people are encouraged to make their own choices and take ownership of
26
their life. At the same time, recognizing personal efforts is just as crucial as self-motivation.
In addition, American organizations pride themselves on being philanthropic, helping out
charities whenever possible. Americans are also results-oriented and goal-oriented. They
are satisfied when they win and when they are held in charge. To them, making the right
and logical decision is better than exploring passions. At the same time, Americans still
strive for work and life balance while finding true happiness in their lives.

Workers encourage outside-of-the-box thinking. Routine is not innovative, and rules

are only in place if they make logical sense. For managers, strategy is a priority since they
overstress the operations every day. Short-term goals are preferred. Americans are leaning
more towards sustainability in the workplace. When collaborating with external businesses,
the status can change over time depending on market conditions. While finding purpose
in work is essential, quarterly statements, updates and results are just as crucial. Commu-
nication is low context. Achieving goals is more important than the relationships formed.
Communication is also direct and to the point. There is an emphasis on the words rather
than bodily expressions; there is no beating around the bush. Therefore, indirect commu-
nication in some countries may be incomprehensible to Americans. Some nations may find
America’s communication style harsh.

Implications of Different Work Culture on Employees

It is essential to realize the differences in work culture in different regions. This is because
specific actions will be perceived differently in the areas that value other characteristics of
work culture. Knowing the distinct work cultures that teammates have previously been
exposed to will enable teams to work effectively. For instance, taking the responsibility
to modify the emergency procedures in case of a fire might be rewarded in a region where
dexterity and research are a priority. However, this action might be frowned upon in an area
that values constancy and balance.

Implications of Different Work Culture on Managers

It is crucial to understand the different work cultures and how they will mesh when designing
teams and governing others. It will define whether team members are motivated towards
collaboration or self-reliance or how much workers rely on order and rules Without under-
standing the work cultures, it can lead to misinterpretation and pressure within a team. For
example, workers may prefer to hold back their comments during a discussion, while some may
speak openly without hesitation. Therefore, managers need to learn how to motivate workers,
provide enticing incentives, train workers effectively, and provide helpful decision-making
strategies while considering cultural barriers.Variances in culture can create tension and
provide opportunities for organizations to gain help and perspectives across the globe. It is
also important to note that cultures, even within a region, can vary a lot. Thus, managers
should not assume nor form stereotypes of workers because of their geographical location.
Despite a boss’s own goals and aspirations, understanding cultures within an organization
is a vital effort for a powerful administration of workers.

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 5
Impact of Work on an Individual’s Wellbeing

ROKYA HARUN

I n general, a person’s wellbeing encompasses all aspects of an individual’s perception of ’

their health, happiness and sense of purpose. Since an individual’s employment status and
work environment has an impact on one’s life satisfaction, the relationship between work
and personal wellbeing can be explored. Throughout the years, work has taken the form of
indentured labour and slavery to contracting and paid employment (Litchfield et al., 2016).
As a result, the type of work a person does and its associated work environment has an impact
on the level of satisfaction achieved. For example, increased use of technology in the 21st
century has allowed for more people to work from home (also known as teleworking), which
has its own positive and negative effects on wellbeing compared to in-person work, such
as shift work at hospitals. As humans advanced from the pre-industrialization times, the
activities undertaken by people shifted, and therefore, the nature and concept of work has
evolved. Litchfield et al. (2016) states that in the 21st century, the widespread availability of
information technology has managed to transform the rate of change in work. For example,
physically demanding work has been replaced by machinery and transferred to less developed
parts of the world. With the growth in the knowledge economy, a big threat to working in
modern society are the sources of workplace stress that impacts one’s psychological health
with mental health problems and illnesses. As a result, 70% of Canadians are concerned
about the psychological health and safety of their workplace, according to the Mental Health
Commission of Canada (n.d.). However, workplaces can also help maintain positive mental
health benefits as people are given the opportunity to be productive. Evidently, there are
both positive and negative effects of working that can affect an individual’s psychological
and physical wellbeing.

Sources of Negative Effects of Work on Personal Wellbeing

Deteriorating physical and mental health is caused by various sources of workplace stressors.
According to Rajgapol (2010), there is increased acknowledgment regarding employee mental
health acting as a critical predictor of overall health. As a result, poor mental health and job
pressures can contribute too many physical disorders, such as hypertension, diabetes, and
cardiovascular problems. From a work perspective, incapability and mortality affect the
working-age population due to the rising prevalence and decreasing age of onset of chronic
illnesses. The hierarchical character of organizations is one area in which individuals may
encounter workplace difficulties. According to Rajgopal (2010), conflict in the workplace

29
arises from issues with superiors and coworkers, bureaucratic restraints, work-family
balance, performance pressure, and worsening employment prospects. Such stressors can
cause occupational ill health, poor productivity, and human error, resulting in increased
sick absences, high staff turnover, and poor employee performance (Litdhfiel et al., 2016).
Therefore, addressing the stressors affecting employee wellbeing can improve the quality
of work and provide for an environment that encourage healthy behaviors. Rajgopal (2010)
explains that dealing with a demanding supervisor is the most common source of workplace
stress because authority figures may set unrealistic goals. For example, employees may phys-
ically and emotionally drain themselves after working excessively long hours with increased
workloads and pressure to provide quality work at the same pay grade. To resolve the conflict
of unrealistic expectations, open dialogue between the employee and supervisor can help to
set realistic deadlines. Further stress can also result from employees tasked with duties that
are not a part of their predetermined function or skillset. Consequently, a worker’s capacity
to deliver their job duties effectively can be hindered by companies frequently requiring
employees to multitask. The easiest method to resolve issues of improper task assignment
is to communicate with superiors as soon as possible. Proper delegation of job duties would
reduce pressure and work-related psychological disorders, such as anxiety disorders, since
work role ambiguity may decrease. Although pressure can be motivating, excessive pressure
and other expectations lead to stress, such as the comparison of employee performances.
For instance, having to cooperate with difficult coworkers is another factor contributing to
workplace stress. Dealing with a problematic colleague is difficult since one worker’s perfor-
mance is met with comparison to another’s performance. A friendly discussion leading to a
mutual agreement between the coworkers can help to resolve any altercations. Increasing a
worker’s ability to be collaborative and cooperative is one method of influencing attitudes
to work. Overall, increasing levels of engagement between workers and colleagues may
lead to improved personal wellbeing by addressing unrealistic expectations regarding their
performance (Litchfield et al., 2016).

Unrealistic expectations can cause stress and suffering by placing an employee under
unhealthy and unnecessary demands. Next, Rajgopal (2010) explains that too much time away
from family also contributes to an employee’s stress as they struggle to find the right balance
between work and family responsibility. Since family issues can also affect an employee’s
performance at work, allocating adequate time for both work and family life encourages
work-life balance. However, long and unpredictable hours may act as a hindrance to achieving
a proper work-life balance. The organizational structures of workplaces trying to survive
competition may also act as significant stressors to employees due to the constraints placed
by needed policies and regulations. Such rules may limit a worker’s ability to problem solve
and be creative, which may lessen their perception of their wellbeing due to their decreased
freedom. A lack of control over work processes, job overload, and uncomfortable working
conditions are all sources of employee stress. Solutions that encourage cognitive abilities
leading to creative thinking, improve general health, and encourage collaborative attitudes
to work are required to promote wellbeing (Rajgapol, 2010; Lithfield, 2016).

Sources of Positive Effects of Work on Personal Wellbeing

Although some aspects of work can be harmful to one’s wellbeing, the absence of work
can also have adverse effects on one’s life satisfaction. Unemployment can influence health

30
because there is a link between poverty and illness. Litchfield et al. (2016), who explains
that job loss, support this notion and prolonged unemployment results in increased levels
of mental and physical problems that adversely affect one’s wellbeing. For example, rates
of anxiety, depression, suicide, hypertension, diabetes, stroke, and heart attack have been
shown to increase in those facing unemployment (Litchfield et al., 2016). As a result, the
positive aspects of being employed are needed to balance out any shortcomings related to
working. Positive qualities associated with a good paying job include receiving benefits,
having the ability, “to live in healthier neighborhoods, provide quality education for their
children, secure child care services, and buy more nutritious food, all of which affect health”,
according to the The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (2013). Higher earnings also translate
into higher life expectancies, as evident by the fact that the life expectancy of male workers
retiring at age sixty-five has risen 5.8 years compared to the average life expectancy from
1977 for people with high earnings. While only a 1.3 year increase is seen for people at the
bottom-half of the income distribution with lower earnings (The Robert Wood Johnson
Foundation, 2013). The lower life expectancies for low earning individuals demonstrates
that unemployed people tend to have numerous health challenges beyond income loss. For
example, The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (2013) states that unemployed Americans
were more likely to be diagnosed with depression and report feelings of sadness and worry
due to having fair or poor health from stress related conditions, as compared to employed
Americans. Although there is significant evidence of a link between unemployment and poor
health outcomes, such findings cannot be used to assume that the opposite relationship exists
regarding work causing an improvement in health (Antonisse & Garfield, 2018). Antonisse
& Garfield (2018) examined the body of literature that explored the effects of work on an
individual’s health. They found that some studies demonstrate positive effectiveness from
working, while other studies show no relationship or isolated effects. For example, a multi-
tude of longitudinal studies examining the health effects of employment found significant
evidence that being employed reduces the risk of depression and improves overall mental
health. However, there were insufficient findings regarding the effect of work on other health
outcomes caused by a lack of studies or inconsistent findings. Antonisse & Garfield (2018)
also explains other areas of research, such as the association between mental health and
returning to work or re-employment. Research findings on re-employment demonstrates
that “re-employment leads to improved psychological health and measures of general well-
being” and with limited findings on the effects on physical health (Antonisse & Garfield,
2018). The beneficial effects of re-employment on psychological health likely depends on
the job’s security along with the “individual’s motivation, desire and satisfaction” (Antonisse
& Garfield, 2018). As a result, being employed may have positive or negative effects on
personal wellbeing depending on the stability, stress, hours, pay and overall nature of the
job, while unemployment is almost universally a negative experience. Overall, continuous
employment prevents the stress associated with facing job loss, while higher earnings during
employment allow for better opportunities and benefits that contribute to better wellbeing.

Impact of Shiftwork on Wellbeing

The emergence of workplaces, such as hospitals, being open 24/7 and demanding long hours
has intruded upon traditional patterns of work-life balance and social support mechanisms
(Litchfield et al., 2016). For instance, one component of corporate organization systems
that may trade an individual’s level of wellbeing for efficiency is shift work. According to

31
Dall’Ora et al., “shift work refers to a wide variety of working time arrangements, including
all working hours that are outside the normal daytime ones” (2016). Dall’Ora et al. (2016)
explains that workplaces can organize shift systems in a variety of ways. Shifts are organized
by considering numerous factors, such as the duration of the shift, timing of rest breaks,
and the order of consecutive shifts. The proper organization of shift work is important due
to the various effects that shift work can have on employee performance and well-being.
Dall’Ora et al. (2016) continues by stating that shift work is common in operations, such as
healthcare workers that are needed to provide twenty-four-hour service. The organizational
challenge of providing twenty-four-hour services may also be seen in other occupational
sectors such as police, transport, and power provision industries. As a result, shift work is
needed to allow for the rotation of employees to provide continuous services in non-stop
operations. Despite the benefits of shift work, primary quantitative research studies examined
by Dall’Ora et al. (2016) demonstrate that characteristics of shift work may compromise
employee performance and wellbeing. Moreover, long work hours may also affect work-
life balance and decrease personal wellbeing. For example, working shifts that are longer
than twelve hours and working more than forty hours a week are associated with adverse
outcomes. Working overtime was also associated with a decrease in job performance.
Dall’Ora et al. (2016) demonstrates that the order in which shift work is organized also
affects employee performance. For instance, rotating through different shifts consecutively
was linked with worsening job performance, while fixed night shifts allowed employees
to perform better by enabling resynchronization. Nonetheless, working fixed night shifts
reduced the employee’s job satisfaction and wellbeing. Next, employees require breaks on
time when working to act against employee fatigue and improve alertness. The breaks need
to be long enough to have a positive impact since short breaks that prevent proper recovery
between shifts can increase pathological fatigue instead. The literature review conducted
by Dall’Ora et al. (2016), found that the effects of shift work on performance outcomes
are consistent throughout all occupational sectors. In summary, organizing shiftwork can
become complex, since the associated characteristics of shiftwork have various effects on
employee performance and wellbeing.

Workplace Diversity and Wellbeing

According to Patrick & Kumar (2012), workplace diversity encompasses differences in race,
gender, ethnic group, age, personality, cognitive style, tenure, organizational function,
education, background, and other differences seen in an organization. Research supports
that fact diversity in the workplace can be beneficial as it leads to improved performance by
broadening worker’s perspectives, and could, therefore, increase job satisfaction and prompt
personal wellbeing. To value the similarities and differences between individuals, organi-
zations can use the process of diversity management to maintain a positive yet diverse work
environment. This allows for all workers, despite their differences, to reach their potential
and contribute equally to the organization’s strategic goals and objectives. There are many
strategies adopted by organizations to include diversity as a core value in its employees.
According to Patrick & Kumar (2012), common strategies used to achieve the goal of valuing
diversity include encouraging creativity; raising employee morale, productivity, and retention;
providing new workers the chance to work in areas where they may grow; and bettering
relationships with clients. However, barriers, such as discrimination, can prevent people from
believing that employees and applicants for all jobs should be considered for employment

32
and advancement based on their abilities, and regardless of color, religion, national origin,
gender, age, sexual orientation, or disabilities (Patrick & Kumar, 2012). Discrimination in
the workplace can decrease personal wellbeing, since people may be treated unfairly due to
a variety of reasons, such as negative interactions with co-workers or barriers in employment
and advancement that could decrease their quality of life. As a result, the work environment
of an organization and its values on diversity can impact one’s well-being.

Effect of Self-Employment on Personal Wellbeing

Self-employed people differ from the wage-employed, as they are essentially their boss.
An increase in work autonomy may be associated with different mental and physical health
outcomes that affect one’s well-being. A study by Nikolova (2018) shows that self-employed
people, who were initially unemployed or were working as full-time employees, demonstrated
improvements in their mental health. Their research showed that necessity entrepreneurship
(going from unemployment to self-employment) was associated with large increases in
mental health, but no differences in physical health. The increase in mental health seen in
necessity entrepreneurs is not caused by changes in income, personality, or risk preferences.
On the other hand, opportunity entrepreneurs that switched from regular employment
to self-employment experienced both improvements in mental and physical health, while
experiencing a greater increase in their mental health. Opportunity entrepreneurship expe-
riences higher job demands and multi-tasking. Despite this, Nikolova (2018) concludes that
entrepreneurs experience positive health benefits. Overall, aspects of self-employment, such
as the fulfillment of needs for relatedness, autonomy, and competence may be associated
with improvements in mental and physical health that could promote personal wellbeing.
On the other hand, when self-employed people find themselves in financial distress, the
negative effects on wellbeing may be more severe due to uncertainty in earnings, which is
not experienced by wage workers. As a result, working as a self-employed individual has its
own consequences on wellbeing, likely due to the increase in autonomy.

Conclusion

The organization of workplace environments and the content of work has changed over
the years. The nature of one’s work, such as their autonomy, motivation and duties can
affect an individual’s wellbeing. With this, the widespread availability of technology has
transformed the way people work and what they do for a living. Although technology can
give workers the freedom to navigate through increasing demands, it may also offset one’s
work-life balance. How technology is used and the organization of work is important in
determining personal wellbeing. Gender roles in work have also had a dramatic impact
on how people are managed in the workplace, with women and diversity issues acting as
barriers in the workplace (Litchfield et al., 2016). Evidently, various factors can influence
wellbeing at work. Over the years, wellbeing has taken a more important role in people’s lives
as they look towards sustainability rather than purely financial progress (Litchfield et al.,
2016). As a result, employers will have to account for the personal wellbeing of employees,
which will take on an increasingly important role in job satisfaction and performance.
Various strategies, such as workplace wellness programs, job safety training, and education
initiatives, may be implemented into workplaces to improve and maintain employee health
(Litchfield et al., 2016).

33
 6
Gender in the Workplace

ALEXANDRA HAUSER

W hen considering gender in the workplace, the first thoughts are discrimination,
harassment, and the wage gap. All things considered, these three things are very
notable when investigating the role of gender in the workplace and help to describe some of
the measurable differences between the treatments of different genders at work. Stereotypes
are attributed to occupations, and are based on the same stereotypes attributed to gender
identities, which can have significant impacts on hiring practices and the demographic of the
workforce. Often, people find themselves “put into boxes” with unreasonable expectations
of them simply due to their gender because of stereotypes. Workplace harassment, the wage
gap, and career development are all examples of areas where gender-based discrimination
is found in the workplace. By looking at what gender is, as well as the interactions between
gender and occupations, a better understanding of gender in the workplace will be achieved.

What is Gender?

To better understand what gender in the workplace looks like, gender itself needs to be
understood. Gender, as a social construct, refers to “characteristics of women, men, girls and
boys” (World Health Organization, n.d.). It varies between society, changes over time, and
“produces inequalities that intersect with other social and economic inequalities,” meaning
it is intersectional (World Health Organization, n.d.). Gender is different from sex, which is
the biological and physiological features that describe males, females, and intersex persons,
like chromosomes and hormones. While gender and sex interact with each other, they are
separate from gender identity.Gender identity is a person’s “self-conception” as a man or
woman, a combination of the two, a fluctuation between the two, or outside the categories
(Britannica, 2020). As mentioned, it is separate from biological sex, but the two still interact.
The level of interaction between gender identity and biological sex changes from person to
person, with some people experiencing little connection and others, for example, among
people who are transgender, finding that “biological sexual characteristics are distinct and
unambiguous” (Britannica, 2020). “Basic gender identity” is often established by the age
of three and does not change afterward. However, a “secondary gender identity” can be
developed as sex-associated behaviors are adopted while aging. Gender norms are behaviors
and roles associated with one’s gender identity and are sometimes harmful to people’s health
and well-being, such as norms related to “rigid notions of masculinity” (World Health
Organization, n.d.).

35
Gender Stereotypes and Stereotyping Occupations

As gender norms play a prominent role in how different gender identities express them-
selves, many stereotypes have developed. Stereotypes are considered “generalizations about
groups that are applied to individual group members simply because they belong to that
group” (Heilman, 2012). Gender stereotypes have two kinds of properties: descriptive and
prescriptive. Descriptive gender stereotypes are stereotypes that “designate what women
and men are like,” while prescriptive gender stereotypes are stereotypes that “designate what
women and men should be like” (Heilman, 2012).

These two kinds of stereotypes play a significant role both inside and outside the workplace
but still maintain importance regarding work. For example, gender stereotyping during
childhood plays a role in the types of occupations that children decide to pursue as adults.
Gender norms, such as those surrounding masculinity and femininity, are often applied
to different occupations, making people choose jobs that align with the norms assigned
to them by their gender identity. Thus, men choose careers that are “traditionally ‘mascu-
line,’” such as scientists, police officers, and tradesmen, while women choose careers that
are “traditionally ‘feminine,’” such as teachers, nurses, and secretaries (Garret et al., 1997;
Careersmart, n.d.). These choices can be considered to be due to a “perceived ‘lack of fit,’”
between the gender stereotype designated to the woman and the qualities believed to be
required for the job (Heilman, 2012).

While the study by Garrett, Ein, and Tremaine was completed in 1997 and found that there
was significance in their results of male-stereotyped occupations. First graders giving results
that were most stereotyped and fifth giving results that were least, it was completed over 20
years ago, and the extent of the stereotyping may have changed since then (Garrett et al.,
1997). In 2020, Cartei et al. looked at “implicit occupational stereotyping in children.” They
did this by assessing how children changed their voices (feminizing or masculinizing) when
imitating people in different occupations (Cartei et al., 2020). They found that the girls’
change in tone “reached a high and low plateau” after age seven, while the boys continued
to increase for the different occupations. However, the study did not go into the origin and
development of stereotyping (Cartei et al., 2020). As such, it shows that even with 20 years
of societal development, stereotyping jobs based on gender is still prevalent. It is important
to note, however, that both of the studies mentioned focused on stereotyping in children.
However, while beliefs, and the reasoning’s behind them, can change throughout one’s
lifetime, they begin developing at the age of five and can influence the beliefs held as adults
(Heiphetz et al., 2013).

While this part of gender-based occupation stereotyping affects what the demographics of a
workplace may look like (i.e. how many females and males are in different roles), the demo-
graphics are also influenced by stereotypes during hiring. A study by González, Cortina,
and Rodríguez looked at this influence in 2019. The study sent fake resumes to 1372 job
openings over two months in Madrid and Barcelona in 2016, and the places differed in the
ratio of men to women and the qualifications of the workers (years of experience, managerial
experience, et cetera) (González et al., 2019). Matched pairs of male and female applications
(matched in qualifications) were sent to each job opening but differed in their overall qual-
ifications for the job. Analysis of the results showed that there was an “overall presence of

36
gender discrimination” and that employers had an openness for modifying their decisions
if the “candidates’ personal characteristics [differed] from the group norm” (González et al.,
2019). There was also an “absence of discrimination” against “highly qualified non-mothers,”
which can be evidence that the bias is due to stereotypes than prejudice. In terms of data,
male candidates received more calls for interviews (10.9%) compared to women (7.7%),
meaning that the likeliness a woman achieves an interview is 30% lower than it is for a man
(González et al., 2019; Universitat Pompeu Fabra - Barcelona, 2019). The stereotyping
that occurs within hiring affects what the workplace looks like both because it affects the
ratio of men to women and the quality of the hired males and females.Stereotyping also
plays a role within the workplace regarding discrimination. As mentioned previously, the
stereotyping based on gender identity creates stereotypes surrounding occupation. Thus,
if someone does not “submit” to the norms surrounding an occupation, choosing a “male”
occupation as a female, or vice versa, they can experience varying degrees of discrimination
in their workplace, partially rooted in the concept that they “do not belong.”

Gender-Based Discrimination

As described by the American Psychological Association, discrimination is “the unfair or

prejudicial treatment of people and groups based on characteristics such as race, gender,
age or sexual orientation” (2019). There are many laws in place worldwide, like the Fair
Housing Act, Civil Rights Act, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, and Americans
with Disabilities Act, in the United States of America, which aim to protect people from
discrimination. However, these acts typically cover more significant acts of discrimination,
for example, the non-hiring of a person of color because of their appearance and culture.
Many acts, which may be considered more significant, as shown by the equally qualified
males being called for interviews over females in the González et al. study, still occur every
day (2019). Even more common are “micro aggressions,” which are considered day-to-day
and include things like “receiving poorer service at stores or restaurants, being treated with
less courtesy and respect, or being treated as less intelligent or less trustworthy” (American
Psychological Association, 2019). These micro aggressions are very common in the work-
place, especially with gender.

1. Workplace Harassment
Workplace harassment is exactly as the word indicates: harassment that occurs in the work-
place. According to the Government of Canada, the definition of harassment is:

Improper conduct by an individual that is directed at and offensive to another

individual in the workplace, including at any event or any location related
to work, and that the individuals knew or ought reasonably to have known
would cause offence or harm. It comprises objectionable act(s), comment(s)
or display(s) that demean, belittle, or cause personal humiliation or embar-
rassment, and any act of intimidation or threat. It also includes harassment
within the meaning of the Canadian Human Rights Act (i.e. based on
race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, age, sex, sexual orientation,
marital status, family status, disability and pardoned conviction). (2015)

37
The harassment can be either a series of events or one severe event with a lasting impact. From
the definition, there are a few criteria required to be met to determine whether workplace
harassment has occurred, including:

• Improper and offensive conduct

• Behavior was directed act the complainant
• The complainant was offended or harmed
• Knew or reasonably ought to have known that such behavior would cause
offence or harm
• The behavior occurred in the workplace or at any location or any event
related to work
• There was a series of incidents or one severe incident (2015)

From these criteria and the definition, harassment can include intimidation, invasion of
personal space, unwelcome sexual advances, rude, degrading or offensive remarks, and much
more (Government of Canada, 2015).

Workplace harassment can be associated with gender in a few ways. Statistics Canada looked
at the level of harassment in Canadian workplaces in 2016, finding that “19% of women and
13% of men reported that they had experienced harassment in their workplace in the past
year” (Moyser & Hango, 2018). While the most common type of harassment was verbal
abuse, the second most common was humiliating behavior. On the topic of sexual harass-
ment, 4% of women reported compared to less than 1% of men (Moyser & Hango, 2018).
The final conclusion was that “overall, women experienced workplace harassment slightly
more than men, at 19% compared with men, at 13%” (Moyser & Hango, 2018). While there
may not be an exact reasoning to explain this occurrence, this study can be used as evidence
to show the relationship between gender and workplace harassment. As mentioned earlier,
the behavior may result from gender stereotyping, but more research into its origins must
be completed to be sure.

The study completed by Statistics Canada may not necessarily reveal the breadth of the issue,
as a report by a United States task force that looked at harassment in the workplace revealed
that “approximately 90% of individuals who say that they have experienced harassment never
take formal action against harassment, such as filing a charge or complaint” (Feldblum &
Lipnic, 2016). This lack of reporting may be due to various things, such as worries about
escalation by the harasser and whether the report will be taken seriously.

2. Gender Wage Gap

The gender wage gap between men and women is “a measure of pay disparity” (Gould et
al., 2016). In more straightforward terms, women are paid less relative to men. The pay gap
measurement can be calculated by “dividing women’s wages by men’s wages,” generating a
ratio that is then expressed in dollar terms. There are three options for comparison, comparing
the annual earnings of full-time and part-time workers, comparing annual earnings of only
full-time workers, and comparing hourly wages of full-time workers (Canadian Women’s
Foundation, 2018). For each type of measurement, in 2016, women in Canada earned 69
cents for every dollar earned by men, 75 cents for every dollar earned by men, and 87 cents for
every dollar earned by men. The vital thing to note is that regardless of the comparison, the

38
wage gap exists. In addition, it is essential to note that the wage gap differs among minorities,
such as indigenous women earning 65 cents for every dollar and racialized women earning
67 cents for every dollar (Canadian Women’s Foundation, 2018).

Some argue that the wage gap does not exist, even with the data mentioned previously, or
that the gap is caused by women’s choices, like their choice of occupation. While the occu-
pation of women does have an impact on their earnings, this is due to the male and female
stereotyped occupations paying differently (Canadian Women’s Foundation, 2018). For
example, the work considered “traditionally female” earns less than “traditionally male”
work, likely since they often parallel domestic work that used to be performed by women
free. Additionally, women are often employed in “lower-wage occupations and lower-paid
industries” (Canadian Women’s Foundation, 2018). This can be attributed both to the
stereotyping of occupations and systemic issues like sexism, classicism, and racism, limiting
the ability for women to access the resources, including education and other opportunities,
required to have higher-paying occupations. For example, on average, women have less
work experience because they are “more likely to temporarily exit the labor force” to raise
children and be caretakers, preventing them from achieving their career goals (Gould et
al., 2018). However, much of the reasoning behind the wage gap is unexplained, most likely
due to discrimination (Canadian Women’s Foundation, 2018). According to Wright et al.,
societies that have a small gender wage gap can be expected to have a small gender gap in
“workplace authority”. Since the gender wage gap, as of 2016, is so prominent, with women
making nearly $590 000 USD less than men across a lifetime, there must be a significant
gap in workplace authority (Wright et al., 1995; Wilson, 2019).

3. Career Development
The development of one’s career is very dependent on their workplace. The connections made
from people along the way and opportunities gained are all incredibly important in this
development. Given that gender-based discrimination is prevalent in the workplace, many
people, particularly women, struggle with access to the opportunities that are important
in career development. As mentioned, many women have to temporarily stop working for
various reasons, like to raise children, which contributes to the lack of career development.
Since the wage gap may show a significant gap in workplace authority between the genders,
the development of women entering into more managerial roles will suffer (Wright et al.,
1995). Women can be effective leaders but struggle to “reach leadership roles in male-dom-
inated industries” (Campuzano, 2019). This is evident as there has never been a female
head of state in many counties, and women only make up 5.1% of leaders in “Fortune 1000”
firms as of 2015. This dampening on career development can be attributed to many things,
from the stereotyping of occupations to “long-standing socialized beliefs about women’s
inability to lead or make decisions” (Campuzano, 2019). Since they cannot develop within
their careers over their lifetime, the lack of women in leadership positions shows another
side of the interactions between gender and occupation.

Conclusion

Gender and the workplace are complicated topics. There are many ways that the two intersect,
and each aspect of a job could be explained under the lens of gender. Issues like pregnancy
discrimination and the stigma surrounding paternity leave are just some examples of these

39
points of intersection. In addition, the gender-based stereotypes that are so prevalent in
modern society have caused many issues within the workplace, and will continue until there
is less of a focus on the societal expectations of different genders. Lastly, it is essential to
note that gender identities span much further than just men and women, and there is little
research on the experiences of other groups, like non-binary people, in the workplace, so the
extent of the interactions between gender and occupation continue not to be fully understood.

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 7
Impact of Workplace-related Government

Policies around the World

ISHPREET CHANA

O ver the years, many developments in the workplace have been made. From accepting
individuals despite their race, culture, sexuality, to equality between men and women
in the workforce. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has affected the labor markets in
many negative ways. For example, many individuals have lost their jobs and there have been
shortages across many trades, causing many individuals to suffer from serious depression,
among other mental health issues. The International Labor Organization (ILO) has addressed
these issues and helped many countries around the world. For instance, countries around
the world took serious measures in social protection, providing sick leave (the government
in China has provided salaries towards individuals who are unable to work), social assistance
benefits (in Hong Kong adult residents received a one-time transfer of $1,280 to help boost
the economy), and more. The policies created by the ILO and the various governments
around the world have had positive impacts, helping economies to keep running, despite
the epidemic. Lastly, the purpose of this article is to provide insight into the impacts of
workplace-related government policies in countries such as India, China, Canada, Japan,
Africa, Europe, and Spain.

India

The Constitution of India outlines the fundamental rights and the Directive Principles of
State Policy (DPSP). The DPSP provides economic and social conditions that promote peace.
One such principle is that the health of the workers, both men and women, and children
are not abused and that the people are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations
unsuited towards their strength and age. Some other policies include having a clean and safe
working environment, and proper physical and mental health, which leads to a vast growth
in economic growth due to the positive impacts within the workplace. Furthermore, the
goals of the government prioritize sustaining and maintaining health and safety within the
workplace. Also, providing incentives towards employers and employees in order to gain
high quality health and safety, developing and implanting the required knowledge within
the areas regarding safety and health in workplaces in different sectors, focusing towards
monitoring performance through data collection, and making occupational health and
safety as a primary standard in every operation. Moving on, the government has multiple

41
potential policies on skill development. For example, they believe that better and higher
levels of skill quality aid in adjusting within various challenges that arise and also provide
more employment opportunities. In India, there are approximately 12.8 million individuals
who enter the labor market annually, with 3.1 million skill development programs currently
running that aid in employment. Additionally, India has set on skilling 500 million people
by 2022 to expand their economy.

The policy on HIV/AIDS has many issues involved with it. For instance, a large number
of individuals experience a negative interaction during employment due to their condition,
which makes it difficult to find opportunities. In order to find employment, many individuals
moved overseas to seek employment opportunities. According to The National AIDS Control
Organization, approximately 2.31 million individuals had HIV/AIDS in 2007. From the
2.31 million individuals, 88.7% adults within the age range 15-49, 7.5% of the elderly 50
and above, and 3.5% were seen within ages below 15.

China

The Chinese government has created various laws to protect people from seeking employ-
ment. These include the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, Labor Law of the
People’s Republic of China, among others. The Chinese government takes development of
the region into high priority. For instance, they use the development of the economy as a
major factor for expanding employment opportunities. Through employment they develop
many new community services, commercial and trades, and tourism. The government has
also developed labor intensive industries that create many products that are consistently in
demand in the market. Local governments have further developed special funds that aid
individuals living within the urban and rural areas to receive proper and adequate training
regarding skills used in the workforce. A favorable taxation policy allows the government
to support individuals who are unemployed and guide them into gaining employment. For
instance, they provide small loans to support individuals into starting their own business and
expand the economy as well. In the mid 1980’s, the government created unemployment insur-
ance to provide individuals with Medicare and multiple other privileges to help individuals
find employment opportunities. In 1998, they developed the system of “three guarantees,”
in which they guarantee allowances for state owned businesses, unemployment insurance,
and allowances for the citizens living in urban areas. In 2002, the government implanted a
“Plan for Strengthening Vocational Training to Improve Employment Qualifications,” that
provides individuals with the ethics and skills needed in the workplace. Alongside this, they
also offer various long-distance training programs to individuals living far away.

Despite the laws being put into place, individuals still experience hate crimes around the
world. For instance, the legislation for equality was passed in 1982 in China and regardless
of this documentation, hate crimes still prevail. In the nineteenth century, homosexuality
was classified as a mental disorder in the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders, but
was removed in 2001. However, in some parts of China, homosexuality is still considered a
mental disorder, where LGBTQ+ individuals are forced to undergo treatments. Addition-
ally, some companies in China do not hire LGBTQ+ employees and do not provide certain
benefits and promotions, due to their sexuality.

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Canada

For certain jobs, employers are allowed to refuse employment towards the elderly due to
perceptions regarding the inability to work efficiently. Workplaces are also providing programs
regarding the health and safety to promote the well-being of the workers and employers.
Overall, good health leads to later retirement and allows the elderly to be employed for a
longer period of time. In 1886, the government created the first legislation regarding the
Injuries Act, which allowed employees to take action against employers if they acquired
an injury during their work performance. Over the years, various regulations have been
implemented to control the number of hours towards labor for children, the closing hours,
the number of fire escapes/ventilations, the heating/lighting conditions, etcetera.

In 1974, in Elliot Lake, multiple miners went on a strike to spread awareness regarding
unsafe working conditions. Due to the strike movement, the Occupational Health and
Safety Act was passed in 1978, in which the conditions of the workplace were also taken into
consideration. For instance, individuals working within construction zones are provided with
proper sanitization, masks, and are given breaks accordingly. In addition, Health Canada
created a Workplace Health and Public Safety Program to provide training to individuals
that potentially leads to better health and enhances workplace ethics. From the progress
made into workplace conditions, the rate of work-related injuries have decreased significantly
since 1988. Moreover, in 1995, the Employment Equity Act was passed to promote equality
and eliminate discrimination within the workplace. It states that no individual should be
denied employment or from receiving promotion options due to their gender, race, sexuality,
and culture, benefiting those such as Aboriginal people.

Japan

In Japan, there are three major labor laws, which are the Labor Standards Law (LSI), the
Trade Union Law (TUL), and the Labor Relations Adjustment Law (LRAL). The LSI was
passed in 1947 to promote proper working conditions including the safety of the employers/
employees and proper hygiene. The TUL was passed in 1949 and guarantees that the workers
have the right to organize. Finally, the LRAL was passed in 1946 to provide individuals
with labor management adjustments. Throughout the years, these laws have been amended
to add additional rights and to promote better work ethics in the workplace. Moreover, these
various acts strictly apply to employers/employees within the private sector and also affects
foreign workers that have a visa consisting of a work permit.

The Worker Dispatching Law allows employers to hire employees for a limited amount
of time based on a contract. Temporary work does not apply towards jobs related to port
transport, guard services, and construction. However, any other services and jobs may hire
a dispatched worker for up to one year. After exceeding the one-year contract, the employer
will be required to hire the employee on a permanent status. Part-time work is also offered
under the Part Time Work Law (PTWL), which was passed on 18 of June 1993. “Part-time
workers” refers to individuals who work for a certain number of hours within their schedule
in which they work. Initially, part-time workers were not given promotions or regular pay
raises, but when the PTWL came into play, it protected individuals from experiencing these
situations and allowed them to receive promotions and pay raises. Moreover, “vocational

43
training contracts” (a contract between an employer and a young employee) do not exist in
Japan; instead they are given a regular labor contract. If an employer wants to terminate a
contract, they must give a notice in writing and thirty days before they want to suspend the
employee. Furthermore, based on their Constitution, discrimination due to gender, race, and
family origin is not tolerated. The Equal Employment Opportunity Act protects individuals
from experiencing hate crimes in the form of discrimination and from experiencing forms
of sexual harassment. If an individual does experience discrimination, they are obligated
to report it to the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare.

Africa

There are several sources that compose the South African Labor law and this includes the
Legislation, collective agreements, common law, and custom and legal writings. However,
the labor laws have been amended and changed several times and the major employment
law statutes are: the Labor Relations Act (LRA), the Basic Conditions of Employment
Act (BCEA), the Skills Development Act (SDA), the Employment Equity Act (EEA),
the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA), the Unemployment Insurance Act
(UIA), and the Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act (COIDA).
According to the BCEA, the employer must give an employee a contract stating when they
start working and other details regarding their responsibilities and duties. There are two
types of employment contracts. The first one is the “fixed-term contract,” in which it states
the duration of the contract, and can be renewed or terminated after it ends. The second
type is the “indefinite-period contract,” in which the duration of the contract is not spec-
ified. Therefore, the contract may end based on retirement, termination upon agreement,
the death of either employer/employee, or other circumstances. Due to the Constitution,
individuals are protected from experiencing discrimination. Additionally, the EEA ensures
that everyone is treated equally and are given fair treatment and opportunities. It eliminates
many barriers, including race, culture, sexuality, gender, age, et cetera. Moreover, employees
have the privilege to take a “family responsibility leave”. However, it can only be taken if the
employee has worked longer than four months and if they work at least four days a week.
“The family responsibility leave” can only be taken in the circumstances that the child of
the employee falls ill or in the event of a death within the family. Continuing, the BCEA
states that employers are only allowed to hire a child that is over the age of fifteen and the
work the child does must be appropriate, not being detrimental to the child’s wellbeing
and mental health.

Europe

Over the course of several years, mental health problems have increased in Europe. Many
individuals with a commonly known mental disorder are employed (Depression, anxiety),
but this creates several challenges such as finding coping mechanisms. According to statis-
tics, 30% of work-related illnesses are caused by stress. It has been found that people with
mental disorders are capable of finding a job, but tend to lose their job quickly compared
to individuals without a mental disorder. As such, people who suffer from depression were
found that their annual income was reduced by approximately 10%. The government has
also outlined several laws to aid in ensuring that the workplaces and businesses function
effectively. Some laws are the European Community Law (provides equality), the Single

44
European Act (promotes emphasis on occupational health and safety), and the European
Convention on Human Rights (protects human rights), and the European Social Charter
(Treaty that guarantees fundamental economic and social rights). Moreover, according to
Article 141 in the European Community, it ensures that both men and women receive equal
pay. If any employee does in fact receive less than another employee does, the European
Court of Justice (ECJ) takes the matter into evaluation. In addition, the ECJ also ensures that
part-time workers are given equal pay. Towards health and safety matters, the Framework
Directive contains several rules that employers and employees must follow. For example,
the employer is primarily responsible for providing care to injured employees through the
company medical officers, the organization of equipment for preventing injuries, and more
among other responsibilities. According to the law, European Work councils have also been
formed. These serve the purpose of eliminating conflict between employees by improving
forms of communication channels, and also to attract more employees into the workforce.

Spain

The Spanish Labor Law protects individuals seeking employment and governs their relations
with their employers. Since its origin, many amendments have been made and various addi-
tions have been added. These include the Spanish Constitution, Royal Decree 2 (the Statute
of workers), Royal Decree 3 (reformat towards the labor market), Royal Decree 16 (measures
on improving hiring), Law 31 (Work Risk Prevention), Law 3 (Equality between both men
and women), and the Royal Decree 8 (Social Security). There are two types of contracts that
employers can sign with their employees - fixed term and open-ended contracts. Within the
contracts the employer must state the following: duration of the employment, base salary
with any benefits, total working hours (overtime hours cannot be greater than eighty hours
per year.), total number of holidays, collective agreement, notice periods, and the place where
the services are going to be provided. The “notice period” is a termination of employment but
must be given fifteen days prior. However, the notice period rule does not apply to interim
contracts (enforceable business contracts). For health and safety obligations, the employers are
responsible for taking the necessary steps in order to provide safe working conditions. Every
company or work center that consists of 50+ employees has a Health and Safety Committee,
which evaluates everybody’s actions on a regular basis. In addition, they provide programs
and plans regarding the hazards and safety of the workplace. All employees in any type of
workplace are entailed towards protection against facing harassment and discrimination.
If an employee does face harassment based on ethnic origin, disability, sexual orientation,
et cetera, the employer is considered in breach of the contract.

Conclusion

In conclusion, all of these countries have their own legislations each having a profound
impact on the way business’s function. Additionally, the countries have similar policies to
promote safety and protect employees against different forms of discrimination. For instance,
in Africa the EEA ensures that each individual is treated with the utmost respect and is
given an equal chance for opportunities. The various policies have a huge influence in the
workforce, as it promotes a good relationship between the employers and employees, which,
in turn, makes the economy function smoother and helps individuals gain skills/experience

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 8
Technological Innovations that

Transformed the Workplace

ALEXIA DI MARTINO

W ork is a way for humans to provide goods and services to others in exchange for a living
wage. It has always existed in some way or another since the beginning of humanity.
From bartering systems for gathered berries in ancient villages to the introduction of coins in
Asian and European societies to our present digital bank accounts, we have always found a way
to receive some form of currency that allows us to have an improved quality of life and these
methods of doing so have evolved over time. As creative inventors developed new ways and
devices to perform tasks, they naturally permeated into the workforce as well. We have seen
distinct periods of these types of introductions, most notably in the Industrial Revolutions.

The Industrial Revolution

Many of us cannot even fathom a time when all work was done by hand using fundamental
tools. The first movement up from low technology to factories, fossil fuel usage, obsolescence
of dated methods like transport by horse and carriage is known as the Industrial Revolution.
These years of progress brought about monumental change in the textile industry. In 1733,
the first mechanical loom was introduced. It was able to weave textiles with a wider range
of thread counts and at a faster pace than human factory, workers could attain. Production
rates increased as a result. This machinery allowed countries such as Great Britain to reach
a production of 8 billion yards of cloth by the year 1912 (Brain, n.d.). Similar to what is
seen in modern times; garments in the 1700s were both necessary for one to be clothed
and additionally acted as a symbol of status. Machines continued to be created like the
cotton-spinning mill and more advanced mechanized looms to maximize the cotton that
was woven and exported (Brain, n.d.).

Steam engine trains were common modes of transport to move materials and goods between
locations on land. James Watt was an inventor from Scotland who created innovative solutions
that improved their functionality. Steam engine trains are powered through the heating
of a cylinder within the engine using heated coals, which produces steam, followed by its
subsequent cooling. After being appointed to restore a steam engine, Watt discovered that
he could modify the cylinder in such a way that allowed for a 60% reduction in coal usage.
Coal mining acquisitions were optimized and steam engine trains were more efficient,

47
allowing them to be used more frequently. London was the first city to leverage locomotives
into the travel industry. In 1825, a steam train by the name of Locomotion No.1 was the
first railway train that carried passengers (Brain, n.d.).

Technological innovations also provided safer practices for workers in a time without many
workplace regulations. Miners deal with extremely dark underground caverns to extract
precious economic minerals or other resources. The year 1815 brought the invention of the
head lamp, a helmet with a lightbulb affixed to the front, which allowed miners to see in
these dark environments. Prior to this, they were forced to use the open flames of a candle,
heightening the risk of a workplace fire accident (Brain, n.d.). There were other applications
of aforementioned locomotive technology in the mining industry to aid them in the trans-
port of the coal they had mined. Using “electric, steam, compressed-air, and even gasoline
locomotives,” they were able to send coal cars through the tunnels of the mines rather than
manually hauling them (Rakes, 1999).

Successive Industrial Revolutions

The initial boom in technology in the late 1700s to early 1800s is what is usually meant by
the ‘Industrial Revolution.’ However, scholars note that there have been three additional
and distinct Industrial Revolutions in human history, adding to a total of four (Mothe &
Uyen Nguyen Thi, 2010).

The Second Industrial Revolution took place around the late 19th to mid-20th century. Many
consider this the most impactful and revolutionary of the four. This Industrial Revolution
represents the workforce’s new adaptation to mass production. Now that machines were
commonplace in most industries, goods could be produced on a greater scale. This was also
a time when production lines sprung to popularity. The manufacturing and retail industries
were able to maximize the complexity of their products as well as the efficiency in their
composition. Production centers could then distribute this large influx of goods domestically
using the rapidly developing nationwide railroad systems (Engelman, 2020). Henry Ford
introduced the automobile in 1908 (Smith, 2005). As the automobile industry developed
further through the Second Industrial Revolution, cars became more widespread across
nations. Employees could now partake in jobs farther away from their primary residence,
as they had this novel option of individual travel. Where trains would make for a lengthy,
costly method of land transport, cars provided a more convenient solution. Further global
human connection was facilitated by the introduction of communication devices such as
the telegraph and the telephone (Kennedy, 2020).

The second half of the 20th century to the early 21st century brought on the Third Industrial
Revolution. It is characterized by its representative shift toward digitization and globaliza-
tion of the market. Information and communication technology from devices introduced
in the past Revolution was able to progress further and connect exports between countries
across the globe (Taalbi, 2018).

Finally, the Fourth Industrial Revolution. This is the present age, with the revolution
beginning in the early 21st century. The internet is the most notable new feature of this
period. We have seen automation, artificial intelligence (AI), and the facilitation of internet

48
connection between many of the devices that were first introduced in the Third Industrial
Revolution (Ballalle & Himendra, 2018).

Digitization of Customer Service Practices

Technology has revolutionized many sectors of work - especially in customer service settings
such as fast food, retail, and offices involving receptionist interaction with customers. Jacob
Ritty was an American entrepreneur who, in 1871, opened up a saloon in the American
state of Ohio. He encountered an issue of his employees and bartenders taking cash for
themselves from the saloon’s earnings. This inspired Ritty to create a machine that tracked
the cash that was received by and returned to the customers. With his brother John Ritty,
they were able to obtain a patent for the cash register in 1883 and the device has evolved
monumentally since (“National Cash Register (NCR)”, 2020).

Self-checkout and self-service machines in customer service establishments are also on the
rise. There is controversy in this due to the workforce shift as a result. As opposed to a human
cashier that scans and bags items for their customers at the grocery store or even a librarian
checking out readers’ library books, the customer is responsible for completing these final
steps at specialized checkout machines instead. This reduces the number of cashiers needed
to support the same level of customer activity. Instead of one cashier managing a single
grocery lane, they can now monitor six self-checkout machines instead (Lee & Leonas, 2020).

Loss Prevention

A common issue encountered in any retail workplace is customer theft. It is possible that the
aforementioned development of self-checkout technology can cause customers to acciden-
tally, or purposefully scan their products inaccurately (Taylor, 2016). However, other types
of technology that play roles in the prevention of customer theft offset this.

Image capture and digital storage technology evolve every single day. Most stores are
equipped with security cameras that enhance in-store monitoring. There may be a camera
located in every aisle as well as cameras monitoring checkout lanes and exits. This allows
a reduction in theft occurrences from the psychological understanding of the customer
that their actions are being monitored and the added capability of providing proof should
a customer decide to shoplift, which allows retailers to avoid economic loss (Taylor & Gill,
2014). Facial recognition technology is another development, whereby computer algorithms
can identify an individual through analysis of their facial structure from a digital image
or video capture from these cameras (Singh & Prasad, 2018). Economic development is
preserved and improved in this way. Corporations can ensure better wages and greater job
security for their employees with these conserved funds. Security guards or loss prevention
employees at retail locations also have the added benefit of additional monitoring through
technology to aid them in their job.

E-Learning and Online Hiring Practices

Electronic learning is another innovation that has grown throughout the 21st century. With
access to a computer and internet connection, virtually anyone is able to obtain diplomas,

49
certificates, workplace safety training, and more. Online learning typically contains compo-
nents like instructional videos, informative text, and quizzes, typically referred to as a
‘module.’ Employers may assign modules to their employees that teach skills relevant to
their role (Ong & Jambulingam, 2016). Safety courses are typically federally created and
distributed, such as Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) in
Canada, or Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the United States
(Colligan & Cohen, 2004). Ease of access to technology has developed to the point where
many corporations have created proprietary training programs and modules that highlight
company-specific roles, their mission statement, and employee expectations. Companies such
as Amazon, Marriott, and AT&T are just a few with these opportunities (Thottam, 2021).

As the global population increases, the job market sees a proportional rise in competition.
People seeking employment can access these resources to give them a stronger, well-rounded,
and more attractive career skill set. This can all be done in their own home, through courses
known as Massive Online Open Courses (MOOC) (Ong & Jambulingam, 2016).

Likewise, applying for jobs is facilitated by the internet. Job seekers can network through
professional career sites such as LinkedIn to connect with employers. LinkedIn allows
people to showcase their academics, job history, and career projects in a professional social
media-like space. Most large corporations have their own corporate hiring site, where
current job vacancies across the country are listed and detailed. Interested applicants can
instantly upload a digital document of their application documents (Shahiri & Osman,
2014). In the past, networking would have to be done physically in person and was quite
limited geographically. Applicants would be required to print a hard copy of their cover
letter, curriculum vitae (CV), university transcripts, and more for each workplace that they
were interested in. With the internet, people can reach out to many more employers in a
fraction of the time and are not limited by the proximity of where they live. This allows
the working class to seek out and advance in more specific careers that precisely suit their
abilities, benefiting the workforce overall.

Remote Work

The COVID-19 pandemic placed great stress on in-person commuting to the office. Those
who could complete their work to an equal degree from home using their personal computer
were instructed to opt for this decision. The prospect of remote work did not just arise in
2020 as a result of the pandemic. Word processing, video conferencing, and graphic design
software have been available since the early 21st century. Employees ‘bringing the office to
their homes’ is a growing phenomenon. With computer access, employees can access all files
needed away from the workplace through a virtual company portal, as opposed to before
the age of digitization when unique hard copies of documents would be stored in offices
(Shahiri & Osman, 2014). Researchers have looked into the overall effects of proximity
to the working space and efficiency in work since the introduction of these technologies.

The mental health effects of COVID-19 and its impact on remote work are discussed earlier
in Chapter 5. While these effects of working from home are still being looked into and may
have a downside, technology has provided benefits to many that provide some advantages in
spite of the detriment. Without the advanced technology that we have at present, millions of

50
employees across the world would simply not have been able to continue their employment
during the pandemic. The capability to proceed with producing a similar quality of work
without risky physical interaction allowed a continuation of at least some of the economy
under public health measures instructing social distancing.

Internet-Based Jobs

The fourth Industrial Revolution showed the rise of the Internet in society. Once a tool
used as a secondary aid, it is now the basis and livelihood of millions of people’s careers.
Social media Influencers and content creators are two types of careers that did not exist
before the early 2010s. YouTube creators record, edit, and upload videos covering a variety
of topics that appeal to consumers as a living. This can vary from educational videos to
comedy sketches, to cooking or baking tutorials, and everything in between (Arriagada
& Ibáñez, 2020). Twitch, a popular internet live streaming website, allows people to film
themselves partaking in everyday activities such as playing video games, cooking, or simply
interacting with their viewers through the chat function. They can receive sponsorships and
advertisements throughout their live streams as well as paid monthly subscriptions from
their viewers who desire an ad-free experience on a streamer’s account. This allows Twitch
and other live streaming websites to be the primary or sole source of income for millions of
people. These online streams can last roughly 2 to 12 hours, with the most popular streamers
garnering up to 150,000 simultaneous live viewers from all around the globe. An average of
30 million viewers log in to watch these live streams every day (Twitch, 2021).

Jobs such as these have pushed the limits of what is traditionally considered a sustainable
lifetime career. Many of these internet-based jobs are self-directed. The internet has allowed
for an entirely new sector in the entertainment industry, enabling creative entrepreneurs to
create highly specific content for their audiences around the world without the involvement
of a cable corporation or large administrative team behind them. Analytic technology intro-
duced in very recent years has given these careers even greater power. Influencers can access
the precise statistics of user engagement with their posts, videos, or blogs. Most social media
platforms like TikTok and Instagram provide users with the option of switching from a
personal to a business account, enabling them to access these engagement statistics (Wang
et al., 2020). Machine learning and computer algorithm technology utilized in this way can
give creators insight into exactly what their audiences are interested in.

Musicians have also seen a shift to revenue coming from the Internet. Music streaming
services like Apple Music and Spotify are steadily growing and surpassing analog sales.
Again, the COVID-19 pandemic disallowed large gatherings where social distancing is
not possible. This includes concerts and musician touring. This is detrimental as ticket
sales, VIP packages, and touring merchandise can make up a large proportion of an artist’s
revenue. With the aforementioned music streaming services, artists can release new music
to their fans in a matter of seconds. Merchandise is distributed through an artist’s online
shop, where customers can purchase their music, clothing, or other exclusive goods with
the click of a button (Eiriz & Leite, 2017). Internet technology has given these musicians
a platform to receive continued support from their communities where it otherwise would
have diminished.

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Conclusion

Humanity has seen colossal developments in technology over time. The four Industrial
Revolutions, beginning in the late 18th century, brought a massive shift in the way every
sector of work functioned - while also creating more jobs in and of itself. While technology
has given many employees the ability to receive training for their work and perform their
duties away from the workplace, there are detrimental effects that come along with the
advancement. The Internet was introduced in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. This not
only changed the way that people performed their jobs, but it also introduced an entirely
new wave of careers.

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 9
In Popular Culture

JAIME JOHNSON

P opular culture’s influence on the workplace has been evident for decades. Movies, tele-
vision shows, advertisements, books, and every other medium of entertainment that
appeals to the masses can have strong impacts on work culture and organizational practices,
both good and bad. In this chapter, we will look at the ways popular culture has been or can
be leveraged to make a more positive working environment, as well as some of the negative
impacts and how we can navigate those to a more fulfilling work life.

The Positive Impacts of Popular Culture in the Workplace

Travis Jones, Principal Strategist on Race and Culture (2014), thinks that in order to
maintain an atmosphere of work-life balance, popular culture and discussions about it in
the workplace may be the answer. When Jones was a PhD candidate in 2014, he focused
his studies on Organizational Science, which entailed issues and research questions that
centered on diversity in the workplace. His interests were in topics about race, religion, social
class, and popular culture. He questioned whether diversity work could be looked at as a
subject outside of an organizational structure that tends to focus on things that make up
the structure from within such as leadership, attrition, engagement, and inclusion. He also
wondered if popular culture could assist with creating a healthier work environment. In his
experience, employees are asked to “leave their culture at the door,” but when popular culture
deals with issues like race, religion, or gender, an opportunity for introducing these topics to
the workplace presents itself in a way that not only makes it more comfortable to talk about,
but actually addresses these issues in the workplace (Jones, 2014). Mpumela-Kwaza (2019)
comments on this possibility and explains that the importance of pop culture as a common
language allows all voices to be heard under the umbrella of a shared mass media reference.

Mpumela-Kwaza (2019) maintains that since pop culture’s authority on the world has
everyone checking their devices for the latest trends, we should be leveraging its power to
create spaces for it in the workplace. He further reminds us that because we are human,
we should be engaged on a more personal level at work, and that this type of engagement
between employer and employee offers employees the freedom of choosing to bring all
aspects of themselves to work. It makes the work environment less formal and business-like,
which he says people want.

53
Mass media representations of different working environments can provide a framework for
how to run your business or model your own corporate culture after, or how not to, as we will
discuss next. There are many television shows and movies that are examples of unsuccessful
corporate culture that could be used for inspiration on what not to do. IE Exponential
Learning Blog (2019) cites Office Space as an example that is overflowing with ideas on what
not to do as a manager. Those behaviors include treating employees and team members as
though they are beneath you; not planning ahead for scheduling issues that could leave you
short-staffed; overworking your employees to the brink of burnout; parading your salary
around uncaringly in front of team members who cannot afford such luxuries, and not solving
important problems that should be a number one priority, like making sure your employees
are paid (Milton being ignored and subsequently relegated to the basement so his problem
of not being paid is out of sight). While this is a comedy and it is designed to make us laugh,
the sad truth is that it is funny because it is relatable. There are bosses out there like Bill
Lumbergh and this is an accurate representation of some corporate cultures. Office Space
is a good example of learning how these behaviors make team members resent their boss
and not feel like a part of the team. This does not make for a positive and supportive work
environment, the undervalued and overworked employees lose respect and motivation, and
it does not end well for the company in the movie.

Much of the same can be said for The Office. This is another example cited by IE Exponential
Learning Blog (2019). In the American version of the show, Branch Manager of Dunder
Mifflin, Michael Scott rarely lets a moment pass where he is not behaving wildly inappropri-
ately. These occurrences are often multiple times in a single episode. His problematic behavior
covers everything from racist jokes to homophobic comments to sexist actions, all in a vain
attempt to befriend his employees. What we can learn from this is that clear boundaries
should be set and respected and an understanding that this behavior is unacceptable. There
is a good reason rules and corporate policies are in place.

Popular culture has also been used in the workplace as a means of giving otherwise dull
information some personality. Steven Handmaker, Chief Marketing Officer of Assurance
(2019) says that the employment makeup of most businesses is a diverse group of people of
many different backgrounds, genders, generations, religions, and political beliefs that popular
culture is generally a shared understanding of the world between these groups. Because pop
culture spans many different areas of interest like sports, entertainment, fashion, etc. and are
widely covered in the mainstream, there is something for everyone. He further argues that
incorporating pop culture into your communications with the larger group will strengthen
the connection between various groups of people. With the something-for-everyone mix
of content to choose from, the possibilities for useful and interesting references are endless.
He offers three potential ways to pique the interest in employees: fun quotes, news stories,
and leadership blogs. While fun quotes and news stories are self-explanatory, it should be
noted that the content should be work-appropriate. The leadership blogs are meant to spot-
light members of the workplace’s leadership team so employees can get to know them, build
connections, and foster trusting relationships (Handmaker, 2019).

The Challenging Aspects of Popular Culture in the Workplace

Kronos Incorporated published a document on the negative effects of popular culture in the
workplace. The document concerns survey results from polls of employed Americans regarding
54
their plans for how they will manage their work schedules when big pop culture events take
place as well as their expectations for their productivity levels for the workday immediately
following the event. The results suggest productivity decreases and absenteeism increases
when major events such as presidential elections, sporting events, and television premieres
and finales are taking place. Disclaimer: the document is dated in January 2020, before the
onset of lock-downs and the rise in unemployment due to the Covid-19 pandemic; their
comments on the survey results are based on an expectation that the world of employment
would have been business as usual.

Their position is that the success of the business depends on productivity and the key to
that success is attendance. Their concern is that major pop culture events contribute to
absenteeism because people are taking a day off to attend or watch an event and they are also
taking the workday immediately following the event. In the employment industry, these
would be considered unplanned absences, but they are likely entirely planned by employees.
They also report lower productivity rates because their employees are either watching or
listening to the event/show while at work or because they are tired from being up late the
previous night watching the event. The document’s purpose is to help employers anticipate
and plan for what they call, “pop culture-related unplanned absences.” Based on the survey
data, they say that employee absenteeism because of a pop culture event is anticipated to be
48% for 2020 (review previously mentioned disclaimer).

What is the solution? One suggestion is to move big event days to coincide with a day before
a national holiday when businesses are typically closed. Another is to offer monetary rewards
or other incentives for employees to prioritize work and to implement absence management
plans and policies. Some employers will plan ahead and offer later start times or for employees
to work remotely (Kronos Incorporated, 2020).

Mantele et al. (2014) conducted a study aimed at gender inequality in the workplaces of
Japan and they analyzed the role pop culture plays to perpetuate this inequality. In 1985,
Japan passed the Equal Employment Opportunities Law (EEOL) in an attempt to promote
gender equality in the workplace. What EEOL resulted in, and is still in practice at the time
of the study was that it, “reinforces the pervasive belief that gender inequality is self-evidently
natural, and that gender segregation in the workplace is worthy and beneficial” (p. 477).
Specifically, the result is that men and women are encouraged to and are limited to being
on separate career paths. Men are encouraged to take the path to managerial positions,
and consequently, women are not applying for these jobs. They are steered in the direction
of clerical work or any other job that would be easy for them to step away from to fulfill
domestic pursuits and for the employers to fill the position again.

The pop culture Mantele et al. specifically looked at was manga (graphic novels/comics). The
authors make note that manga has uses outside of mainstream amusement such as being an
instrument for teaching and behavior, a source for political disputes, inspiration for crime
organizations, and as a means for government policy. Manga subject matter covers more
topics and issues than are looked at in this article, but for this study they explicitly reviewed
four contemporary manga depicting the working life of Japanese men and women.

Their observations were that the manga were published in a time when Japan saw significant

55
changes in the political-economic atmosphere, and when we would also expect the portrayal
of female characters to be aligned with the shifting societal views. They found that:

Mainstream manga aimed at working men and women presents a culturally exceptionalism
vision of and for Japan’s national political economy; one that intentionally defines itself in part
through depictions of gender inequality, and thereby contributes to the institutionalization
of gender norms in the workplace (p. 486).

Even the manga with a feminist representation portrayed their working women in a back-
wards and stereotypical manner, with the characters focusing their ambitions on getting
married and their positions within their employment were subordinate. Women are also
portrayed as the caretakers who seem to want nothing more than to find a husband, maintain
the home, and support their male partners in their careers, often giving up their own careers
for this position. Moreover, manga is endorsed by the Japanese government and elevates
their narratives as being the societal and cultural norm.

The questions remain is life imitating art, or are the manga an accurate reflection of what
is happening in Japan’s workplaces? Do the comics provide a tool for society to perpetually
model its ideals and behavior after or does the workplace’s resistance to gender equality
provide ample subject matter for manga to draw inspiration from?

The impact of popular culture on work environments is not a new phenomenon. Sangster
and Smith (2019) reviewed teen fiction, film, and advertising in Canada and the United
States over a period of 30 years to examine the changes in how female flight attendants were
represented. The time period they looked at was the 1940’s to 1970’s. What they noticed
was that in the post-war period, flight attendants were portrayed as “capable, independent,
and resilient worker(s)” and that the sexualized version of her appeared in the 1960 has and
continued into the 1970’s. They suggest that the “sexy stewardess” image was a response to
the demands of popular culture at the time. Furthermore, their more positive representa-
tions of the 1940’s to 1950’s paved the way for them to be able to stand up to discrimina-
tion, sexism, and inappropriate demands of how they should look from weight to makeup
to undergarments to age, and they fought against these standards, forming unions in the
1970’s to assist in their fight.

The authors also reviewed teen fiction, which is commonly known as formula fiction, or what
they call, “career girl stories.” A popular example of these books is the Nancy Drew series,
but there was one in particular that focused on a flight attendant, Vicki Barr. In these books,
Vicki was written as a strong-willed, smart, professional, and tenacious woman who also had
a nurturing side. She was ambitious in the professional world, obtaining her pilot’s license
(though she never uses it) and she had a knack for mystery solving, often solving the case
before anyone else could. She played a subservient role to the men she worked with, but unlike
the women in the manga we discussed from Japan, she never had any interest in marrying.

When Sangster and Smith (2019) reviewed the film industry, they found the flight attendant
characters faced an internal struggle between career and love. The first movie that centered
its plot on a flight attendant, Three Guys Named Mike, was released in 1951. Heroine Marcy
Lewis is in a constant battle of being free to use her own wits and constantly being rescued

56
by would-be love interests. She ultimately chooses one of the Mikes. This theme carried
through to another film released in 1963, Come Fly with Me. In the late 1960’s and early-mid
1970’s, the depiction of flight attendants took a turn to diminish any personality or character
development and focused on their sexual trysts, such as The Stewardess, Stewardess Report,
and The Naughty Stewardess.

In the case of advertisements featuring flight attendants, the authors noticed there was a
major difference in how they portrayed gender and race. Their observations were that until
the mid- 1960s people of color were not featured and when they finally were, they were
more likely to be in an international ad than a domestic one. They cite a specific example of
Breck shampoo where the marketers clearly promoted an image of “the wholesome (white)
girl-next-door.” When the airlines would target a market of female vacation-planners,
they often centered their ads on heterosexual romance and traditional family values. The
average female consumer was also assumed to be planning vacations for their husbands,
another subservient type of role pop culture dictated women fulfill. Flight attendants
illustrated these concepts in their depictions in the ads as well, shown to be taking care of
flying families. Not surprisingly, these ads were seen in the 1940’s-1950’s. Interestingly, at
the same time ads were seen with a message that promoted female independence, stressing
that it is acceptable and encouraged for women to travel alone and become career-driven.
At this time, becoming a flight attendant was a competitive process and it was considered a
promising and prestigious career. If you wanted to become a flight attendant, you not only
had to look the part, but you also had to be a nurturing individual.

These portrayals of flight attendants in mass media were aimed at different types of travelers
and flight attendants were expected to behave and look the way they are perceived by the
public as a result of the imagery. This was problematic for many flight attendants as it led to
discrimination based on many factors like race, weight, age, and gender. The unions were
able to fight on behalf of flight attendants to make changes for the better.

Conclusion

The numerous examples of how pop culture plays a role in the workplace in The United
States, Canada, and Japan provides insights on how we react to it and how work culture can
perpetuate certain themes in pop culture. We need to continually ask ourselves if this is a
chicken and egg situation and how we can stop cycles that support damaging themes. As
we learned, racism and issues with gender inequality can be easier to talk about when we
leverage the influence pop culture has at work. Furthermore, being aware of when certain
pop culture events take place can help mitigate damaging effects on a business’s bottom
line. Both the positive and negative impacts of pop culture on the work environment are
useful to consider when operating a business and aiming to provide a safe and comfortable
working space for all employees.

57
 10
Opposing viewpoints, controversy & public opinion

NOAH VARGHESE

T he concept of employment is pervasive throughout nations, and many would argue that
it is fundamental for our society. Employment rewards those who contribute to the
growth and development of their community through monetary compensation. However,
employment can be argued to be somewhat novel and maybe not accurately fundamental.
There have been many alternatives to conventional employment, most of which have been
unethical and abusive (such as slavery). However, to claim that what we have now for employ-
ment does not have its faults is not precisely accurate. The novel explored what is working,
its history, and the nature of employment across the globe, displaying the list of benefits of
establishing employment in civilization. In this chapter, we will explore opposing viewpoints
against the work industry and its drawbacks. This chapter will include the public opinion
on working and controversies, such as inequalities and violence that plague the workplace.

The Cruel and Competitive Nature of Job Hunting

Employment and capitalism go together since everybody’s goal is to make the most money,
or lose the least amount of cash, while also getting a higher quality service. The competitive
nature of the job market is gradually becoming more of a problem in many developed nations,
given that cost of living is rising while the minimum wage is not. The loss of jobs in the last
decade in many industrialized nations is not helping the already competitive job market.
Job loss results from how many industrialized nations are transitioning toward a more
automated, information technology-based society. Additionally, there is also competition
within the nation since many jobs are accessible to few people, reinforcing many inequalities.

Jobs going Global

This shift created some jobs associated with similar fields, like those found in Silicon Valley.
However, at the same time, it pushed away many other jobs to other nations that are not
experiencing this post-industrial shift. This transition is causing two phenomena to take
place: capital flight and outsourcing. Capital flight refers to how manufacturing plants from
developed nations mobilize to developing nations to take advantage of low wages. Capital
flight led to the loss of 5.5 million manufacturing jobs in 2003 in the US, and it is only getting
worse. Additionally, other conventionally labeled developing nations, like Bangladesh, are
already experiencing capital flight. However, this is from political instability, more so than to

59
exploit foreigners. A similar problem or phenomenon to capital flight is outsourcing, which
involves employing foreigners. Like that of capital flight, due to differences in international
and national policies, large corporations for the benefit of profit can violate the human rights
of foreigners. In 2012, outsourcing was responsible for the loss of 3.4 million jobs in the U.S.
Outsourcing has only increased with more nations relying on outsourcing, especially with
the pandemic encouraging many companies to rely on digital services.

It would not be fair to mention the cons of said system, especially since it is already negatively
viewed in a popular light. In most cases, outsourcing and capital flight take advantage of
a weakened economy and citizens in developing nations. However, there are many cases
where this is not the case. For example, some companies take the initiative to give healthcare
and other benefits to foreigners even when it might be costly given the rampant diseases in
the areas. For instance, the Firestone Rubber Company, a rubber plantation company with
ties to the US, provided free healthcare to 8,500 citizens during the 2014 Ebola outbreak
in Liberia. Moreover, the company hosted parties and celebrated individuals who took
measures to heal from the infection, effectively eliminating the stigma associated with the
disease. Their Ebola plan successfully reintegrated previously sick workers and provided
better healthcare that was not even available in local hospitals. The company’s efforts also
helped educate the populace and the local community on practices to prevent Ebola and
other infectious illnesses. Nevertheless, these altruistic actions are rare amongst interna-
tional organizations and are often only temporary. Therefore, jobs might seem like a method
of bringing income to lower socioeconomic populations when it is exploitive by using the
sense of competition and policy loopholes. Limiting an economy to be entirely job-based
and capitalistic can lead to these immoral actions by powerful corporations that often seem
to be outside the law’s reach.

Inequalities and how they Propagate in the Job Market

Many entrepreneurs and other successful people have mentioned the two main reasons they
are successful: their tenacity and hardworking nature, or luck. For a system established to
replace monarchies and other stratified social systems, the current US economy rewards
those who are already wealthy. In other words, many wealthy individuals accumulate
wealth far easier than those in lower socioeconomic status accumulate and are lucky to be
born in wealthy positions. Theoretically, working in a job will allow families from lower
socioeconomic statuses to climb up the ladder and become better off, which is definitively
the case. Nevertheless, given the job market competition, those who are wealthy or at least
from reputable backgrounds are prioritized over those who are not. Additionally, when
considering that wealthy families have access to more resources, such as education aid, they
divide certain groups. Nevertheless, the idea that anybody can work their way to the top is
ignorant to the struggles posed to those in poverty.

One well-known inequality is racial inequality, but there is not much progress in addressing
racial inequality. With the Black Lives Matter protests in 2020 to 2021, the world acknowl-
edges that many individuals who identify as black or African are disproportionately in
inhumane conditions. Therefore, the job market is probably the best chance for any minority
to climb the socioeconomic ladder theoretically, but even this has many barriers. It has been
studied repeatedly that black Americans tend to be the most unemployed minority in the

60
US even if they are qualified for the position. Other studies revealed that even resumes with
“black names’’ were rejected far more than other individuals with “white names.” This is
not limited to African Americans as LatinX also arguably faces similar problems. Other
minorities experience these unemployment effects, albeit to a lower extent. The job market
and its competitive nature act as a barrier for minorities to attain jobs that can lift them out
of socio economic problems. Instead, the job market serves as another tool to attain income
for those who do not necessarily need it as badly. Jobs do not serve as a ladder, but they act
as a gate and remain a tool to prevent socioeconomic mobility upwards. In other words, it
propagates the divide and inequality seen amongst minorities. In response to public outcry,
many corporations have taken affirmative action when hiring new employees. However,
given that this affirmative action is only taken at the behest of the public, it can be questioned
whether this hiring process is genuine. Therefore, it is still unknown whether discrimination
is only temporarily or partially absent from the work environment. For example, although
a company might publicly be open to hiring more minorities, the workplace environment
might remain hostile to said minorities. Additionally, companies can still withhold individ-
uals from promotions and other career opportunities. It can even be as unethical as paying
individuals of color lower salaries can even when they have the same qualifications and
make the same contributions like everyone else. Therefore, the few employed individuals
belonging to a minority often face conditions and receive less pay than their co-workers
receive. These conditions can lead to distrust, abuse, and a list of other psychological issues
that will be discussed later in this chapter.

There are many inequalities within society, but the work environment or job market propa-
gates said inequalities. Minorities view employment as the only opportunity to escape from
a poor socioeconomic status. However, the said escape is often barred or made impossible
to enter due to discrimination. Additionally, the power dynamic between employees from
poor socioeconomic backgrounds and wealthy corporate heads exacerbates the inequality
between the wealthy and the poor. Different groups can face discrimination and a hostile
work environment, preventing workers from having access to opportunities to move up in
their organization.

Unsafe Work Environments

As mentioned, the workplace can be home to new kinds of relationships and a different
environment with different power dynamics. Although many work environments are friendly
and regulated by professionals or even a specific department, like Human Resources, it
provides opportunities for abuse of power. It is generally understood that several types of
abuse and violence can occur in the workplace. However, the most recognized and prevalent
crimes discussed in this chapter are the following: employee theft, robbery, violence from
disgruntled workers, and sexual abuse.

Employee theft is the most common type of crime done in the workplace and tends to refer
to simple theft where small items are stolen, such as pens, by employees. Forgetfulness
can be responsible for the theft, but employees often steal to spite their employers in most
cases. Although a minor theft of corporations does not seem bad, it highlights two negative
aspects of the work environment. The first prominent aspect is that this theft reflects the
power dynamic and how employees view themselves in unfavorable situations. The second

61
less obvious aspect of this is that since this crime often goes unreported and is ignored, it
contributes to a considerable loss of money, specifically 19.5 billion dollars. Another kind
of employee theft is professional fraud, where the employee steals from the client/customer.
Professional fraud is most common in the field of medicine and law, where doctors and
attorneys have fake add-on costs to make an extra buck. Doctors, for example, will lie to
patients by claiming to perform a “necessary” surgery on them and charge you for it when
they did not. The implications of this are drastic and most applicable to the US, given that it
relies on private health care, and it can affect the trust that exists between patients and their
doctors. Especially in law and medicine, trust is paramount for the success of the justice
system and health systems, yet professional fraud destroys this.

Robberies are the primary source of homicides in the U.S. Although it might seem some-
thing unavoidable in any environment, that is not true. In most instances, robberies occur
when the work environment is not designed to keep the workers or the product/money safe
from dangerous customers. Additionally, when a violent incident occurs, employees are
compelled to put themselves in danger to save as much money for employers out of the fear
of being fired. Many employers fail to teach that the safety of employees is prioritized over
merchandise, leading employees to “be the hero.” A lack of barriers between an employee
and customer, minimal security cameras, and poor lighting are all features that can prevent
robberies but also cost money. On topic with robberies and poor environments, another
problem that persists is a workplace injury, which is almost always a consequence of a poorly
managed workplace environment. These environments force employees to put themselves in
uncomfortable situations and work harder than they can; otherwise, they risk being fired. In
2019, 5,333 fatal work-related injuries in the US and 2.8% of all workers experienced some
injury. Additionally, even after an employee retires, other chronic illnesses can develop,
the most common being repetitive stress injuries, affecting 1.8 million workers per year.
Although robberies and injuries might seem unavoidable, many of them can be attributed
to the employer’s negligence and the competitive job market.

Disgruntled worker violence is one of the rarest types of violence experienced in the work-
place. However, most people see the one in the media. It involves when the employee does
violent actions in the workplace, often involving attempting homicides. These homicides are
a consequence of multiple factors. However, the main reason seen in many homicides is that
workers blame specific co-workers or employers for their current treatment and unhappiness.
The source of unhappiness can emerge from something simple, such as another co-worker
being promoted instead of the employee. Regardless, homicides are often a reflection of
current working conditions, and therefore endanger everybody, including the customers and
those uninvolved. Work-related homicides are prevalent given that it is the third leading
cause of fatal injury in the workplace. However, this statistic is misleading because it accounts
for homicides involved with robberies (which accounts for 65% of all workplace homicides).
Related to disgruntled worker violence are psychological issues and domestic issues that
can arise from poor working conditions. Although a worker might not be disgruntled,
enough to endanger their co-worker’s many workers might go home stressed and take out
their feelings elsewhere. Disgruntled or unemployed parents most affected children due to
the absence of familial stability. A lack of reliable income hampers parental dependability
while also making parents more reserved and concerned about employment rather than their
family. Additionally, conflict and anger from the workplace can be misdirected to children

62
and potentially lead to abuse. Therefore, disgruntled workers not only can endanger the
workplace environment, but it can also endanger or at least disturb other parts of their lives.

Earlier in this chapter, it was explored that many minorities have trouble entering the job
market and can face subtle discrimination and even hostility. Another group that experiences
this in some regard is women. They might not experience poverty to the extent as many
minorities but face another kind of problem: sexual abuse. With the MeToo Movement
and other feminist movements exposing sexual assault in many industries, most notably
Hollywood, it is still rampant in other industries. Although men and women both experience
sexual assault (and many other types of harassment), many studies revealed that women
encounter these unwanted behaviors significantly more than men do. This is not limited
to just sexual assault, since women experienced roughly 3% more verbal abuse, 1% more
physical violence, 4% more unwanted sexual attention/harassment, and 6% more workplace
harassment in general than males, according to a 2016 Canadian survey.

Additionally, just like with minorities, females have been observed to not get as many promo-
tions as male counterparts even with the same qualifications. For instance, a study on gender
bias amongst physicians confirms that there are more academic rewards and opportunities
for male physicians than female physicians. Therefore, the workplace might seem like an
opportunity for everyone to make money and work in a desirable position. However, like
with minorities, it prevents growth and serves as a tool of propagating biases and sexism.

Conclusion:

A common theme in the chapter is that problems that exist within the workplace exist
outside of the workplace. However, the problem is that employment was supposed to
be an opportunity for anybody, regardless of prior history, race, and gender, to attain
a position only based on his or her qualifications. The current job market betrays these
tenets and propagates these inequalities by distributing power to only certain groups
of people. The power dynamic between corporations and employees goes further when
employees are forced to work in unsafe conditions to be competitive in the job market.
Job loss is only increasing, while the divide between poverty and the rich is growing
larger. The fault lies in large-scale corporations and the government for encouraging
poorly managed employment and in large-scale corporations and lack of government aid

63
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