Fundamentals of Aerodynamics

Lect. 1 Introduction
Lect. 2 Fundamental Principles and Equations
(basic concepts and definitions) FUNDAMENTALS
Lect.3 Inviscid, Incompressible Flow
(Potential flows)

Lect. 4 Incompressible Flow over Airfoils

APPLICATIONS
Lect. 5 Incompressible Flow over Finite Wings

1
 Review of the results of Potential flow theory
Assumptions: Properties:
• irotational • velocity field is governed by a
• inviscid linear equation (Laplace)
• incompressible • superposition of solutions
• steady • pressure follows from
Bernoulli
Results for a closed body placed in a uniform flow:
• Drag = 0 (paradox of d’Alembert)
• Lift only when there is circulation: L =  V  (Kutta-
Joukowski)
• Value of circulation  is not unique (Kutta condition)
• solution for  = 0 with source distribution on the contour
• solution for  0 with vortex distribution on the contour

2
 The concept of the airfoil (wing section)
Prandtl’s approach to the analysis of airplane wings:
(1) the study of the section of the wing (the airfoil)
(2) the modification of airfoil properties to account for the complete wing

z
What is an airfoil?
x
– an “infinite” wing in 2D flow
y
– the local section of a true wing

Airfoil section
Motivation for looking at airfoils: V
– the wing properties follow from the local airfoil properties
– a good model for slender wings (i.e. with large aspect ratio)

3
 Cordinate System Used

• Note that for describing the 2D f lo w around airfoils, we

u se t h e x - z c o o r d i na t e syst e m t o c o nfo r m w i t h
aeronautical convention
(instead of using x-y coordinates as in ‘normal’ 2D f lo w
theory)
z
z
x

y
V
Airfoil section x
V

4
 Airfoil Nomenclature
Mean camber line
thickness Trailing edge

Leading edge

Chord line

Chord c

5
 Historical development
of airfoil sections

• Early years (pre-WW I): very thin

airfoils
→ low drag but also very low max. lift

• during WW I (Fokker): thick airfoils

→ developed in Gottingen by Prandtl,
applied by Fokker
(aerodynamic and structural benefits!)

• 1930’s: NACA introduces a method to

generate standard “airfoil series”:

“laminar flow
airfoils”

6
Towards airfoil standardization: the NACA series

mean camber line z(x)

thickness distribution t(x)

• airfoil contour = mean camber line + thickness distribution

• standardized expressions for -

thickness distribution t(x)/tmax
- camber line shape z(x)/zmax

7
 Example: the NACA 4-digit series
maximum maximum camber
thickness

position of maximum camber

NACA 2412 an airfoil with camber

maximum thickness is 12% of the chord
position of maximum camber is at 40% of the chord
value of maximum camber is 2% of the chord

NACA 0012 an airfoil without camber

maximum thickness is 12% of the chord
this airfoil has no camber (symmetrical)

8
 Airfoil Characteristics

Attached flow:
cl ~ a
(inviscid) airfoil
theory

9
 Limitations of the (inviscid) airfoil theory
• Assumptions: - inviscid, irrotational flow
- incompressible

• What is correctly predicted: the pressure distribution over the airfoil

» lift and pitching moment

• What is absent: viscous effects: - boundary layer development

- friction forces
- flow separation
» no prediction of drag (D = 0!) or maximum lift

Conclusion: airfoil theory can reasonably predict lift and pitching

moment as long as the flow does not separate
Remark: To describe the viscous flow, a boundary layer correction or
a complete viscous flow theory (Navier-Stokes) is needed

10
Example: Results of the (thin) airfoil theory

for the NACA 2412 airfoil

• Lift
cl  2  (   0 )
  2 . 1 
0

( c l )  0  0 . 23

• Pitching moment

cm, c /4  constant

cm, c /4  0 . 053

11
 Theory: the vortex sheet
Basic idea: to reconstruct the lifting flow around a body (airfoil) by placing
many elementary vortices at convenient locations in the f low (airfoil: on the
contour, the camber line or the chord line)

point vortex

vortex sheet:
distributed vorticity along a line
with variable strength (s)

 A segment of length ds acts as a

point vortex with strength (s).ds

12
 Properties of the vortex sheet (1)
A segment of length ds acts as
a point vortex with strength:
(s).ds

Induced Velocity: (vectorial addition)

 ds
dV P 
2 r

Velocity Potential: (scalar addition)

 ds 1
b

d P 
2
 P  
2
  ( s)  ( s) ds
a

13
 Properties of the vortex sheet (2)

1. Circulation around the vortex sheet = b

total vortex strength    ds

a

2. Across the vortex sheet there is a

jump in the tangential
velocity that is equal to the
local vortex strength
Proof:
circulation around the vortex
sheet = vortex strength

  ds   V  ds  ( u 1
 u 2 ) ds  ( v1  v 2 ) dn
let now: dn 0   u u
1 2

14
 Properties of the vortex sheet (3)
3. There is a pressure difference across the
vortex sheet proportional to the local
vortex strength:
p  p 2  p1  V 
u1  u2
 p1   ( u 1  u 2   u 2 )  V  
2 2
(Bernoulli:) p2 1
2
) ( u1
2

4. This pressure difference generates lift on the vortex sheet:

dL '  p ds  V   ds
(=Kutta-Joukowski)
Total lift: L'  dL '  V   ds  V
  

15
Application of the vortex sheet to airfoil analysis
1. Arbitrary shape (thick airfoil)
:
vortex sheet on airfoil
- Task: determine vortex strength (s) such that airfoil surface
surface
becomes a streamline of the flow (numerical solution)
- The vorticity sheet can be seen to represent the (vorticity in
the) thin boundary layer
- The lift follows from: 
L '  V    V   ds
2. Approximation for thin airfoil: vortex sheet on the camber line

16
 The Kutta condition
Potential flow with lift is not
unique!
(Circulation  may have any
value)
Potential flow around a cylinder

The same happens for the

flow around an airfoil

Which flow occurs in reality?

The flow that leaves smoothly at the trailing

edge
The “Kutta condition”
17
 The Kutta condition
• Be aware that the Kutta condition is an artificial,
additional condition introduced to describe an effect
that is the result of viscosity
• This does not mean that the entire effect of viscosity
is included correctly, for example, there is still no drag
!

18
 Implementation of the Kutta condition

Consequences of
the Kutta
condition

No pressure loading at p  p2  p1  0
the trailing edge:

Velocity at the trailing V1 V2

edge:
Strength of the vortex
sheet at the trailing  TE  V  V  0
1 2
edge:

19
 The basic concept of the thin airfoil theory

• The airfoil is replaced by a vor tex sheet along the

camber line
• The (variable) strength of the vortex sheet is to be
determined, such that the camber line is a streamline of
the flow
(the flow tangency condition)
• The Kutta condition is imposed to f ix the value of the
circulation of the airfoil: TE = 0
20
 The flow-tangency condition (1)
The (variable) strength of the
vortex sheet is to be
determined, such that the
camber line is a streamline of
the flow
For the total velocity component
normal to the camber line:

V , n  w ' ( s)  0
normal induced velocity Camber line,
component of the of the vortex
freestream sheet
Simplification|:
For thin airfoil the effect of the
vortex can be calculated as if
the vortex sheet is along the
chord: FIGURE 4.22
w ' ( s)  w( x)

21
 The flow-tangency condition (2)
normal component of the
freestream

dz slope of
V , n  V  (  ) the
dx camber
line
velocity induced by the vortex
 sheet
( ) d 
dw  
2 ( x   )

c
 ( )
w   d
2 ( x   )
0 (x is fixed;  is running variable)

22
Resume: the basic equations of the thin airfoil
theory
1. The fundamental equation of the thin airfoil theory:
the flow-tangency condition
(making the camber line z(x) a streamline)

1
c
 ( ) dz
2

0
( x  )
d   V  ( 
dx
)

2. The relation that determines the circulation of the airfoil:

the Kutta condition
(making the flow smooth at the trailing edge)

 (c)  0

23
 The symmetrical airfoil
1
c
 ( ) dz
Symmetrical airfoil: z ( x )  0 ,
dz
dx
 0,
2

0
( x  )
d   V  ( 
dx
)

c c c
Coordinate  (1  cos  ) x  (1  cos  0 ) d  sin  d
transformation: 2 2 2

0   c 
0   1  ( ) sin 
2

0
(cos   cos  0
)
d  V 

1  cos 
Solution is given by:  ( )  2V 
sin 

24
 verification
 1  cos 
1  ( ) sin  is the solution  ( )  2V 
2

0
(cos   cos  0
)
d  V 
? sin 

 
1  ( ) sin  1 1  cos  sin 
2

0
(cos   cos  0
)
d 
2

0
2 V 
sin  (cos   cos  0
)
d


1 1  cos 
 V 
  (cos   cos 
0 0
)
d

1
 V   ( 0  1) 
 Standard integrals
:
 V  (n=0,1,2…)

25
From vortex distribution to lift and pitching moment
vortex 1  cos 
 ( )  2V 
distribution sin 
↓
lift distribution dL  V    d 

Integration allows the calculation of aerodynamic loads:

c c
• the total lift L'  ( dL )  V   ( ) d 
0

0

• the pitching moment about the leading edge:

c

M ' LE     ( dL )   V     (  ) d 
0

26
 The symmetrical airfoil: lift

Calculation of the lift:

c c 
 1  cos   c 
L'  ( dL )
0
 V    (  ) d   V    2V 
0 0 
 sin  d  
sin   2 

 V   c  (1  cos  )d    c V 
2 2

=π

Lift coefficient: Lift slope:

L' dc l
cl   2   2
1
2
V  c  (1)
2
d

27
 The symmetrical airfoil: pitching moment
dL  V  d 
Calculation of the pitching
moment about the leading
edge: c

M ' LE     ( dL )   V     (  ) d 
0


c   1  cos    c 
  V    (1  cos  ) 
  2  V    sin  d  
0 
2  

sin    2 

V   c
2 2
1 
  (1  cos  )( 1  cos  )d    V 
2 2
c
2 0
2 2

= π – π/2 (standard
integrals)
Moment coefficient M ' LE 
c m , LE  
about leading edge: 1
2
V  2 2
c .( 1) 2

28
 Reminder: center of pressure vs. aerodynamic
center
The center of pressure (C.P.) c m , CP 0
- by definition, pitching moment around C.P. is zero
- C.P. is likely to change with
- C.P. is the (variable) point where the resulting (total) lift force
acts

cm, A C  const
The aerodynamic center (A.C.)
- by definition, pitching moment around A.C. is independent of
- A.C. is a fixed point
- the A.C. is the point where lift change acts when changes

29
The symmetrical airfoil: the center of pressure and the
aerodynamic center
Lift coefficient: Moment coefficient about leading
edge:

L'
 2 
M ' LE 
cl c m , LE   
1
2
V  c  (1)
2
1
2
V  c  (1)
2 2
2

L M ' LE   L ' x CP
Center x CP c m , LE 1
 
LE
of c cl 4
pressure
xCP x :

Moment coefficient
about quarter-chord point
cm, c /4 0
:
quarter-chord point is also the aerodynamic center:
cm, c /4 is independent of
!

30
 The symmetrical airfoil: summary

Vorticity distribution 1  cos  c x

 ( )  2V   2V 
(=lift sin  x
distribution)
L'
Lift coefficient cl   2
:
1
2
V  2
c .( 1)

dc l
Lift slope:  2
d
Moment coefficient cl
about quarter-chord point:
cm, c /4  c m , LE  0
4

cm, c /4  0
quarter-chord point is both the center of pressure:
and the aerodynamic center: c m , c / 4 is independent of 

31
 Cambered Airfoil
• Given :

• Then by coordinate transformation we have:

• A solution which satisfies the thin airfoil theory is given as:

• We obtain:

32
 Cambered Airfoil
• Using Glauert’s integrals:

• Hence we have:

33
 PROOF

dz w 1  ( ) sin   ( )
dx
 
V
 
2 V 

0
(cos   cos  0
)
d

 1  cos  

1
 2V   A 0
 sin 
  A n sin n    sin


   d
n 1

2 V  0
(cos   cos  0
)

  
1 1  cos 

sin   sin n  
    A0  d   An  d
 0 cos   cos  0 n 1 cos   cos  
 0 0



 1


    A 0    A n (  cos n  0 ) 
 n 1  dz 
   A 0   A n cos n  0
dx n 1

34
 Ao an An
• Given that a Fourier series is given:

• From Fourier analysis, coefficients B0 and Bn can be expressed as:

35
The cambered airfoil: finding the coefficients An


The solution can be interpreted dz
as a Fourier expansion of the
dx
 (  A 0 )  A n
cos n 
function dz/dx n 1


1 dz
This Fourier series can be
A0   
  dx d 
0
inverted to find the explicit
relations for the individual 
2 dz
coefficients An An 
  dx cos n  d 
0

We can use these expressions in two ways:

1. Analysis: determine the coefficients An for a given camber line
z(x)
2. Design: determine camber line z(x) for given coefficients An

36
From vortex distribution to lift and pitching moment
vortex
distribution
↓
lift distribution dL  V    d 

Integration allows the calculation of aerodynamic loads:

c c
• the total lift L'  ( dL )  V   ( ) d 
0

0

• the pitching moment about the leading edge:

c

M ' LE     ( dL )   V     (  ) d 
0

37
Lift and Moment- Cambered Airfoil

38
 Lift and Moment –Cambered Airfoil
• Total circulation becomes:

• Lift per unit span:

• Lift coefficient then becomes:

• Inserting values for the coefficients A0 and A1 gives

39
The cambered airfoil: the aerodynamic coefficients
(1)
c
The lift coefficient L' 2
:
cl 
1
V  2
c .( 1)

V c

0
 ( ) d   (...)   ( 2 A 0  A1 )
2

Note: for the lift   

1 dz
coefficient only A0 and A1 cl  2    ( cos   1) d 
required!
  0 dx 
 

Independent of 
dc l
Lift slope:  2 for every (thin) airfoil!
d


1 dz
Zero-lift angle: L   
0
  dx ( cos   1) d 
0

40
 The cambered airfoil: the aerodynamic coefficients
(2)
The moment c
M ' LE 2  A2
coefficient
about the LE:
c m , LE 
1
V  2 2
c .( 1)

V c
2   ( ) d   (...) 
2
( A0  A1 
2
)
2 0

Note: for the moment coefficient only A0, A1 and A2 required!

moment about the cl 

quarter-chord point: cm, c /4  c m , LE   ( A2  A1 )
4 4
Independent of !
For every (thin) airfoil the aerodynamic
center is located at the quarter-chord point

The quarter-chord point is (in general) not

the center of pressure:
x CP c m , LE 1 cm, c /4
c m , CP 0 c

cl

4

cl

41
 The cambered airfoil: summary
Vorticity distribution
 1  cos  

(=lift distribution)  ( )  2V   A 0
 sin 
 A
n 1
n
sin n 

c
x  (1  cos  )
2
Relation with the camber line shape 
1 dz
z(x)

A0   
  dx d 
dz
A
0

 (  A 0 )  n
cos n 
2

dz
dx n 1 An 
  dx cos n  d 
0

Aerodynamic cl   ( 2 A 0  A1 )  2 (   L 0 )
coefficients:

cm, c /4  ( A2  A1 )
4
x CP 1 cm, c /4 1   A1
A2 
   
1  

c 4 cl 4  2 A 0  A1 

42
Airfoil design
Airfoil shape:
• camber
• thickness

In relation to performance:
• high lift
• low drag
• stability
• stall behaviour

Key element:
• pressure distribution

43
 The Design Condition of an Airfoil
What is the reason for applying cambered airfoils?

cd
airfoil without airfoil with camber
camber
 = 0°  = 0.5°
Cl = 0 Cl = 0.51
Cm,AC = 0 design condition Cm,AC = -0.106
cl
Application of a positive camber results in:
• lower drag: the minimum drag occurs at positive lift
• increase in the maximum lift
• negative Cm,AC

44