Ecology

Ecology is a branch of science, including human science, population, community, ecosystem

and biosphere. Ecology is the study of organisms, the environment and how the organisms
interact with each other and their environment.
Components of Ecology

Biotic components
Biotic components are living factors of an ecosystem. A few examples of biotic components
include bacteria, animals, birds, fungi, plants, etc.

Abiotic components
Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors of an ecosystem. These
components could be acquired from the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. A few
examples of abiotic components include sunlight, soil, air, moisture minerals and more.
Classification of Ecology
a. Autecology: Autecology deals with the study of the individual organism or an
individual species and its population. Here, the focus on life-histories and behaviour,
as means of adaptation to the environment, is made. Autecology is also called
“species ecology.”
b. b. Synecology: Synecology deals with the study of groups of organisms which are
associated together as a unit. In other words it is study of communities, their
composition, their behavior and relation to the environment. Synecology is also
called “Ecology of communities.”

Objectives of Ecology:

1. Understanding Ecosystem Dynamics: Ecology aims to understand how

ecosystems function, including the flow of energy and nutrients, and how different
species interact within these systems.
2. Biodiversity Assessment: It seeks to identify and classify the diversity of life forms
in different habitats and understand the roles they play within ecosystems.
3. Population Studies: Ecologists study the dynamics of populations, including growth
rates, carrying capacities, and interactions such as predation and competition.
4. Ecosystem Services: Understanding how ecosystems provide essential services,
like pollination, water purification, and climate regulation.
5. Conservation Efforts: Ecology provides the scientific basis for conservation
strategies aimed at protecting endangered species and restoring damaged
ecosystems.
6. Human Impact: Assessing how human activities affect ecosystems and species, and
developing sustainable practices to mitigate negative impacts.
7. Predicting Environmental Changes: Ecologists model how ecosystems might
respond to changes such as climate change, habitat destruction, and pollution.

Importance of Ecology:

1. Environmental Management: Provides critical information for managing natural

resources and implementing conservation practices, helping to sustain ecosystems
and biodiversity.
 2. Public Health: Helps in understanding the spread of diseases, the impact of
pollution, and the health of ecosystems that are vital for clean air and water.
3. Economic Value: Ecosystems provide resources like timber, fish, and medicinal
plants, and their management is crucial for industries dependent on natural
resources.
4. Climate Change Mitigation: Insights from ecology help in understanding and
addressing the effects of climate change, including adaptation and mitigation
strategies.
5. Education and Awareness: Raises awareness about the importance of protecting
the environment and encourages sustainable living practices.
6. Cultural and Aesthetic Value: Many cultures value natural landscapes and wildlife,
and maintaining ecological health preserves these cultural and aesthetic values.
7. Scientific Research: Provides a foundation for research in other biological sciences
and helps in advancing our overall understanding of life on Earth.

ECOSYSTME

An ecosystem is a complex and dynamic system that includes all living organisms (plants,
animals, microorganisms) interacting with each other and their physical environment (air,
water, soil, climate) in a specific area. These interactions form a network of relationships that
sustain the flow of energy and the cycling of nutrients.

Key Components of an Ecosystem:

1. Biotic Factors: The living components, including:

o Producers: Organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis
(e.g., plants, algae).
o Consumers: Organisms that consume other organisms for energy. These
include:
▪ Herbivores: Primary consumers that eat plants.
▪ Carnivores: Secondary or tertiary consumers that eat other animals.
▪ Omnivores: Organisms that eat both plants and animals.
o Decomposers: Organisms that break down dead material and waste
products, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem (e.g., bacteria, fungi).
2. Abiotic Factors: The non-living components, including:
o Climate: Temperature, precipitation, and other weather-related factors.
o Soil: Composition, nutrient levels, and texture.
o Water: Availability, quality, and distribution.
o Sunlight: Amount and intensity, which affects photosynthesis and energy
availability.
3. Interactions: The various ways in which biotic and abiotic components interact, such
as:
o Predation: One organism eating another.
o Competition: Organisms competing for the same resources.
4. Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycling: Energy flows through an ecosystem in a
unidirectional manner, from producers to consumers to decomposers. Nutrients cycle
through the ecosystem in a closed loop, being reused and recycled by various
organisms.
Examples of Ecosystems:

● Forest: A complex ecosystem with trees, shrubs, animals, insects, and a variety of
microorganisms interacting with soil, water, and climate.
● Coral Reef: An underwater ecosystem characterized by coral structures, diverse
marine life, and interactions with the ocean environment.
● Desert: An arid ecosystem with adapted plants and animals, limited water, and
specific temperature conditions.
Classification of Ecosystem

 Terrestrial Ecosystems: Land-based ecosystems characterized by their climate,

vegetation, and soil types.

● Forests: Includes tropical rainforests, temperate forests, and boreal forests (taiga).
● Grasslands: Includes savannas, prairies, steppes, and pampas.
● Deserts: Arid regions with sparse vegetation, such as hot deserts (Sahara) and cold
deserts (Gobi).
● Tundra: Cold regions with low temperatures and limited vegetation, such as Arctic
tundra and alpine tundra.

 Aquatic Ecosystems: Water-based ecosystems, which can be further divided into:

● Marine Ecosystems: Includes oceans, coral reefs, and mangroves.

● Freshwater Ecosystems: Includes rivers, lakes, ponds, and wetlands.
Artificial /Man-made Ecosystem:
An artificial ecosystem is a human-made or highly modified environment that is designed
to simulate or serve the functions of a natural ecosystem. For example, zoo, park, farm,
garden, agriculture, etc. A house is also an example of artificial ecosystem.
Major Ecosystem:
Terrestrial Ecosytem:
1. A forest ecosystem is a complex and dynamic environment characterized by a dense
collection of trees and a variety of other plant and animal species. Forests play a
 crucial role in maintaining ecological balance, supporting biodiversity, and providing
numerous ecosystem services.
● Biotic components
● Living things like plants, animals, and microbes:
o Producers: Trees, shrubs, herbs, and climbers that produce food
o Consumers: Herbivores and carnivores that eat the producers
o Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi that break down dead organisms and return
nutrients to the land
● Abiotic components
● Nonliving things like soil, water, air, and landforms:
o Landforms: Rock that makes up the land
o Atmosphere: Includes wind and atmospheric gases

2. Grassland Ecosystem:
The grassland ecosystem is characterized by vast open spaces dominated by
grasses and other herbaceous plants, with few trees. These ecosystems are found in
regions with moderate to low rainfall and can be categorized into different types
based on their climate, location, and vegetation.
Components of Grassland ecosystem
● Abiotic components
● These are non-living components that make up the majority of a grassland
ecosystem, such as carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
● Biotic components
● These are living components of a grassland ecosystem, including producers,
consumers, and decomposers:
o Producers: These are the primary producers of food in a grassland
ecosystem, such as grasses, herbs, and shrubs.
o Consumers: These are animals that eat the producers, and there are three
main types of consumers in a grassland ecosystem:
▪ Primary consumers: These are herbivores that eat grasses directly,
such as cows, buffaloes, goats, rabbits, mice, insects, termites, and
millipedes.
▪ Secondary consumers: These are carnivores that eat the primary
consumers, such as foxes, jackals, snakes, frogs, lizards, and birds.
▪ Tertiary consumers: These are predators that prey on the secondary
consumers, such as hawks.
o Decomposers: These include bacteria, molds, and fungi that break down
dead organic material and return minerals back to the soil for producers to
use again.
3. Desert Ecosystem:
A desert ecosystem is a type of biome characterized by extremely low precipitation,
typically receiving less than 250 mm (10 inches) of rainfall per year. Deserts are
known for their arid conditions, significant temperature variations between day and
night, and sparse vegetation. Despite their harsh environment, desert ecosystems
are home to a variety of specialized plants and animals adapted to survive in these
extreme conditions.
● Abiotic components
 ● These include sand, light, extreme temperature, and the lack of moisture and organic
matter. Humidity is also an important abiotic element that helps plants and animals
survive in the desert.
● Biotic Components
● Producers: Cacti, Joshua trees, and desert marigolds
● Consumers : Animals: Kangaroo rats, desert tortoises, scorpions, camels, rabbits,
skunks, grasshoppers, ants, lizards, snakes, burrowing owls, and California thrashers
● Decomposers: Microorganisms: Bacteria and fungi

4. Tundra ecosystem:
The tundra ecosystem is a cold, treeless biome found in the Arctic regions and at
high altitudes in mountain ranges. It is characterized by its extreme cold
temperatures, short growing seasons, and limited vegetation. Despite these harsh
conditions, tundra ecosystems support a unique array of plant and animal life
adapted to the cold environment.
Components of Tundra Ecosystem
Abiotic factors
These are the non-living parts of the ecosystem, such as temperature, pressure, wind,
sunlight, and weather systems. The tundra has long, cold winters, short, hot summers, high
humidity, and less rainfall. Temperatures can drop below freezing at night, but during the day,
the temperature is still warm enough for plants to grow
● Biotic factors
Producers: These include mosses, grasses, low shrubs and lichens.
Consumer: Primary Consumer: Lemmings, Arctic hares and caribou
Secondary Consumer: Polar Bears, Wolves and Arctic Foxes.
Decomposers: Protozoa, Bacteria and Fungi.

5. Aquatic Ecosystem: An aquatic ecosystem is a type of ecosystem found in water

environments, characterized by the interactions between living organisms and their
water-based habitats. These ecosystems can be broadly categorized into freshwater,
marine, and estuarine systems, each with distinct characteristics and components.

 Abiotic Factors

● Water Chemistry: Includes factors such as salinity, pH, temperature, dissolved

oxygen, and nutrient levels. These factors influence the types of organisms that can
thrive in a given aquatic environment.
 ● Light: Sunlight penetration affects photosynthesis in aquatic plants and algae,
influencing primary productivity in the ecosystem.
● Temperature: Water temperature affects metabolic rates, oxygen levels, and species
distribution. It can vary based on depth, location, and seasonal changes.
● Substrate: The type of bottom material (e.g., sand, mud, rock) influences habitat
availability and the types of organisms that can inhabit the area.

●  organisms that can inhabit the area.

 Biotic Factors

● Producers: Aquatic plants, algae, and phytoplankton that perform photosynthesis

and serve as the base of the food web.
● Consumers:
o Primary Consumers: Herbivores that feed on producers, such as
zooplankton, fish, and aquatic insects.
o Secondary Consumers: Predators that feed on primary consumers, such as
larger fish, amphibians, and birds.
o Tertiary Consumers: Top predators that feed on other predators, such as
sharks, large marine mammals, and some birds of prey.
● Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi, and detritivores that break down dead organic matter,
recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.
FOOD CHAIN
A food chain is a linear sequence that shows how energy and nutrients flow through an
ecosystem from one organism to another. Each link in the chain represents a step in the
transfer of energy as organisms consume one another. The concept of a food chain helps to
illustrate the feeding relationships and energy flow within an ecosystem.

Components of a Food Chain

1. Producers (Autotrophs):
o Description: Organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis
(in plants and algae) or chemosynthesis (in certain bacteria). They form the
base of the food chain.
o Examples: Green plants, phytoplankton, and algae.
2. Primary Consumers (Herbivores):
o Description: Organisms that feed directly on producers. They are the second
link in the food chain.
o Examples: Insects (e.g., caterpillars), herbivorous mammals (e.g., deer,
rabbits), and grazing fish (e.g., zooplankton).
3. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores and Omnivores):
o Description: Organisms that feed on primary consumers. They are the third
link in the food chain.
o Examples: Predatory insects (e.g., spiders), small carnivorous mammals
(e.g., foxes), and fish that eat herbivorous fish.
4. Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators):
o Description: Organisms that feed on secondary consumers. They are at the
top of the food chain.
 Examples: Large carnivores (e.g., lions, sharks), and birds of prey (e.g.,
o
eagles).
5. Decomposers (Detritivores):
o Description: Organisms that break down dead plants and animals, recycling
nutrients back into the ecosystem. They are not typically shown in a linear
food chain but play a crucial role in nutrient cycling.
o Examples: Bacteria, fungi, and scavengers (e.g., vultures, dung beetles).

Example of a Food Chain

Terrestrial Food Chain:

1. Producer: Grass
2. Primary Consumer: Grasshopper (eats grass)
3. Secondary Consumer: Frog (eats grasshopper)
4. Tertiary Consumer: Snake (eats frog)
5. Decomposer: Bacteria and fungi (break down the dead snake)

Aquatic Food Chain:

1. Producer: Phytoplankton
2. Primary Consumer: Zooplankton (eats phytoplankton)
3. Secondary Consumer: Small fish (eats zooplankton)
4. Tertiary Consumer: Large fish (eats small fish)
5. Decomposer: Bacteria and fungi (break down the dead large fish)

CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD CHAIN

Terrestrial Food Chains

Characteristics:

● Found on land-based ecosystems like forests, grasslands, and deserts.

● Typically start with green plants (producers) that capture solar energy through
photosynthesis.

Example:
 ● Producer: Grass
● Primary Consumer: Grasshopper
● Secondary Consumer: Frog
● Tertiary Consumer: Snake

2. Aquatic Food Chains

Characteristics:

● Found in aquatic ecosystems such as oceans, rivers, lakes, and estuaries.

● Start with phytoplankton or algae as the primary producers, which are then
consumed by various aquatic organisms.

Example:

● Producer: Phytoplankton
● Primary Consumer: Zooplankton
● Secondary Consumer: Small Fish
● Tertiary Consumer: Large Fish

3. Detritus Food Chains

Characteristics:

● These chains are based on the consumption of decomposing organic matter

(detritus).
● Typically start with decomposing organic material (e.g., dead plants and animals) and
include detritivores and decomposers.

Example:

● Producer: Dead plant material (detritus)

● Primary Consumer: Earthworms (detritivores)
● Secondary Consumer: Beetles (feed on earthworms or detritus)
● Decomposer: Bacteria and fungi (break down dead organisms)

4. Grazing Food Chains

Characteristics:

● Begin with herbivores that directly consume green plants or algae.

● This type of food chain is common in both terrestrial and aquatic environments.

Example:

● Terrestrial Grazing Chain:

o Producer: Grass
o Primary Consumer: Deer
 o Secondary Consumer: Wolf
● Aquatic Grazing Chain:
o Producer: Phytoplankton
o Primary Consumer: Zooplankton
o Secondary Consumer: Small Fish
o Tertiary Consumer: Larger Fish

Food chains have several key characteristics that define how energy and nutrients flow
through an ecosystem. Understanding these characteristics helps to illustrate the structure
and function of ecosystems. Here’s a detailed look at the main characteristics of food chains:

1. Linear Sequence

● Description: A food chain represents a linear sequence of organisms, each serving

as a source of energy for the next. It starts with a producer and moves through
various levels of consumers.
● Example: In a terrestrial food chain: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake.

2. Trophic Levels

● Description: Each step in a food chain is called a trophic level. The levels include:
o Producers (Autotrophs): Organisms that produce their own food (e.g.,
plants and algae).
o Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Organisms that eat producers (e.g.,
insects, deer).
o Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): Organisms that eat primary
consumers (e.g., frogs, small carnivorous fish).
o Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators): Organisms that eat secondary
consumers (e.g., snakes, large fish).

3. Energy Flow

● Description: Energy flows from one trophic level to the next as organisms consume
one another. Energy is transferred through the food chain, but only about 10% of the
energy is passed to the next level; the rest is lost as heat through metabolic
processes.
● Example: If a plant contains 1000 kcal of energy, a herbivore that eats it might gain
about 100 kcal, and a predator consuming the herbivore might gain around 10 kcal.

4. Nutrient Cycling

● Description: While energy flows in one direction (from producers to consumers),

nutrients are recycled within the ecosystem. Decomposers break down dead
organisms and waste products, returning nutrients to the soil or water for reuse by
producers.
● Example: Dead plants and animals are decomposed by bacteria and fungi, releasing
nutrients back into the environment.
5. Directional Flow

● Description: Food chains have a unidirectional flow of energy. It starts with

producers and moves through various consumers. Energy does not flow backward in
the chain.
● Example: Energy flows from grass to grasshoppers to frogs to snakes, without
returning to the grass.

6. Interconnectedness

● Description: Food chains are interconnected within a food web. A single organism
can be part of multiple food chains and may have different predators and prey. This
complexity reflects the real feeding relationships in ecosystems.
● Example: A grasshopper may be eaten by a frog, but the same grasshopper could
also be consumed by a bird, and the frog could be eaten by a snake or a bird.

7. Pyramid of Energy

● Description: Food chains often form a pyramid of energy, where each successive
level has less available energy. This pyramid illustrates the decreasing amount of
energy available as one moves up the trophic levels.
● Example: In an energy pyramid, the base (producers) has the most energy, and
each subsequent level (consumers) has progressively less energy.

8. Feeding Relationships

● Description: Food chains highlight feeding relationships between organisms. They

demonstrate who eats whom and how different species are interconnected through
their diets.
● Example: A food chain shows that grass is consumed by grasshoppers, which are in
turn consumed by frogs, which are then consumed by snakes.

9. Ecological Impact

● Description: Changes in one part of a food chain can affect other parts of the chain
and the overall ecosystem. For example, a decrease in primary producers can impact
all higher trophic levels.
● Example: If a disease kills off a large number of herbivores, the carnivores that feed
on them may also suffer from a lack of food.

10. Simplicity vs. Complexity

● Description: Food chains can be simple, with only a few steps, or complex, with
many interconnected chains forming a food web. Simple food chains illustrate
straightforward relationships, while food webs provide a more comprehensive view of
ecosystem interactions.
 ● Example: A simple food chain might involve just three steps, while a food web might
include multiple overlapping chains involving various producers, herbivores, and
predators.

FOOD WEB

A food web is a complex network of interconnected food chains that illustrates the various
feeding relationships and energy transfers within an ecosystem. Unlike a simple food chain,
which shows a single linear sequence of energy flow, a food web provides a more realistic
and comprehensive picture of how organisms are interrelated in their feeding habits.

Ecological Pyramid and its types

Ecological pyramids are graphical representations that illustrate the distribution of energy,
biomass, or numbers of organisms across different trophic levels in an ecosystem. They
provide a visual way to understand the structure and function of ecosystems, highlighting
how energy and resources flow through the food web.

Types of Ecological Pyramids

1. Pyramid of Energy
o Description: Represents the amount
of energy available at each trophic
level. Energy pyramids show the flow
of energy through an ecosystem and
demonstrate that energy decreases as
you move up the trophic levels.
o Characteristics:
▪ Base: Producers (e.g., plants,
algae) with the highest energy
content.
▪ Middle Levels: Primary consumers (herbivores) with less energy than
producers.
▪ Higher Levels: Secondary consumers (carnivores) and tertiary
consumers (top predators) with progressively less energy.
o Key Point: Typically, only about 10% of the energy is transferred from one
trophic level to the next, with the rest lost as heat due to metabolic processes.

Example: In a terrestrial ecosystem:

oProducers (1000 kcal) → Primary consumers (100 kcal) → Secondary

consumers (10 kcal) → Tertiary consumers (1 kcal).
2. Pyramid of Biomass
o Description: Represents the total biomass (mass of living organisms) at each
trophic level. Biomass pyramids illustrate the total mass of organisms at each
level, which can vary depending on the type of ecosystem.
 o Characteristics:
▪ Base: Producers with the highest biomass.
▪ Middle Levels: Primary consumers with less biomass compared to
producers.
▪ Higher Levels: Secondary and tertiary consumers with progressively
less biomass.
o Key Point: Biomass pyramids can sometimes be inverted in aquatic
ecosystems, where the biomass of primary consumers (e.g., zooplankton)
can exceed that of producers (e.g., phytoplankton) due to their rapid turnover
rates.

Example: In a forest ecosystem:

o Producers (large biomass of trees and plants) → Primary consumers (smaller

biomass of herbivores) → Secondary consumers (even smaller biomass of
carnivores).
3. Pyramid of Numbers
o Description: Represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic
level. This pyramid shows how the number of organisms decreases as you
move up the food chain.
o Characteristics:
▪ Base: Producers with the highest number of individuals.
▪ Middle Levels: Primary consumers with fewer individuals compared
to producers.
▪ Higher Levels: Secondary and tertiary consumers with progressively
fewer individuals.
o Key Point: The pyramid of numbers can be inverted in some ecosystems,
such as parasitic food chains, where a single producer might support many
consumers.

Example: In a grassland ecosystem:

o Producers (numerous grass plants) → Primary consumers (many insects and

herbivores) → Secondary consumers (fewer predators, such as birds) →
Tertiary consumers (even fewer top predators, such as carnivorous
mammals).

Key Concepts Related to Ecological Pyramids

1. Energy Transfer Efficiency:

o Energy pyramids illustrate the inefficiency of energy transfer between trophic
levels, with a typical loss of about 90% of energy at each step.
2. Biomass Accumulation:
o Biomass pyramids show how biomass accumulates at each trophic level, with
primary producers generally having the most biomass.
3. Population Dynamics:
o Pyramids of numbers reflect the population dynamics and how the number of
organisms at each trophic level can vary depending on the ecosystem.
 4. Ecosystem Structure:
o Ecological pyramids help in understanding the structure of ecosystems,
including the distribution of energy, biomass, and the number of organisms,
which are critical for studying ecosystem health and function.
5. Inverted Pyramids:
o Biomass: In aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass can be inverted
due to the high turnover rate of primary producers.
o Numbers: In certain ecosystems, such as parasitic food chains, the pyramid
of numbers can be inverted due to the large number of parasites supported
by a few hosts.

NUTRIENT CYCLES

Nutrient cycles are the natural processes through which essential nutrients are recycled
within ecosystems. These cycles are crucial for maintaining ecosystem health and function,
as they ensure the continuous availability of nutrients required by organisms for growth,
reproduction, and survival. Here are the key nutrient cycles:

1. Carbon Cycle

Description: The carbon cycle describes the movement of carbon through the atmosphere,
biosphere, oceans, and lithosphere. Carbon is a fundamental building block of life, found in
organic molecules like carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

Key Processes:

● Photosynthesis: Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria capture carbon dioxide (CO₂)

from the atmosphere and convert it into organic matter.
● Respiration: Organisms release CO₂ back into the atmosphere through respiration,
a process that converts organic matter into energy.
● Decomposition: Decomposers break down dead organisms and waste, releasing
carbon into the soil and atmosphere.
● Combustion: Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) releases stored carbon
into the atmosphere as CO₂.
 ● Ocean Exchange: The oceans absorb and release CO₂, and marine organisms
contribute to the carbon cycle through processes like shell formation and respiration.

Example:

● Plants absorb CO₂ during photosynthesis and convert it into glucose. Herbivores eat
the plants, incorporating carbon into their bodies. When they die, decomposers break
down their bodies, returning carbon to the soil and atmosphere.

2. Nitrogen Cycle

Description: The nitrogen cycle involves the movement of nitrogen through the atmosphere,
soil, and living organisms. Nitrogen is essential for protein synthesis and DNA.

Key Processes:

● Nitrogen Fixation: Certain bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium) convert atmospheric nitrogen

(N₂) into ammonia (NH₃) or related compounds that plants can use.
● Nitrification: Ammonia is converted into nitrites (NO₂⁻) and then nitrates (NO₃⁻) by
nitrifying bacteria. Nitrates are readily absorbed by plants.
● Assimilation: Plants take up nitrates from the soil and incorporate them into proteins
and nucleic acids.
● Ammonification: Decomposers convert organic nitrogen from dead organisms and
waste into ammonia.
● Denitrification: Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates back into atmospheric nitrogen
(N₂), completing the cycle.

Example:

● Plants absorb nitrates from the soil and use them to build proteins. Herbivores
consume plants and incorporate nitrogen into their bodies. When they die,
decomposers release nitrogen back into the soil as ammonia, which is then
transformed into nitrates again.
4. Water Cycle

Description: The water cycle, or hydrological cycle, describes the continuous movement of
water within the Earth and atmosphere. Water is essential for all living organisms.

Key Processes:

● Evaporation: Water is converted from liquid to vapor and rises into the atmosphere
from oceans, lakes, and other bodies of water.
● Condensation: Water vapor cools and condenses to form clouds.
● Precipitation: Water falls back to the Earth's surface as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
● Infiltration and Percolation: Water soaks into the ground and moves through soil
layers, replenishing groundwater.
● Runoff: Water flows over land surfaces and returns to oceans, lakes, and rivers.

Example:

● Water evaporates from the ocean, forms clouds through condensation, and falls as
precipitation. Some water infiltrates into the soil, replenishing groundwater, while the
rest runs off into rivers and streams, eventually returning to the ocean.

5. Sulfur Cycle

Description: The sulfur cycle describes the movement of sulfur through the atmosphere,
lithosphere, and biosphere. Sulfur is an essential component of amino acids and proteins.

Key Processes:

● Mineralization: Microorganisms convert sulfur-containing compounds in organic

matter into inorganic sulfides.
● Oxidation: Sulfides are oxidized to form sulfates (SO₄²⁻) in the soil and water.
● Absorption: Plants take up sulfate from the soil and use it to build proteins.
● Consumption: Herbivores consume plants and incorporate sulfur into their bodies.
Carnivores obtain sulfur from herbivores.
● Decomposition: Decomposers break down dead organisms and return sulfur to the
soil as sulfides