Introduction

The French Revolution of 1789 marks a significant turning point in world history. It arose
from the oppressive political conditions in France, including the absolute monarchy, the
despotic rule of the Bourbon dynasty, administrative chaos, the ineffectiveness of King Louis
XVI, and the arrogance of Queen Marie Antoinette. The extreme social inequality in France
further fuelled discontent. Philosophers such as Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Voltaire
awakened the people to the injustices they faced and inspired the revolution.

Several key events unfolded during the revolution, which was driven by the National
Assembly from 1789 to 1791. Notable events included the fall of the Bastille, the
proclamation of human rights emphasizing liberty, equality, and fraternity, the
imprisonment and execution of the king and queen, and the eventual end of the Reign of
Terror under Robespierre.

The revolution dismantled the corrupt and despotic regime in France, replacing traditional,
rigid ideologies with more progressive ones. It rejected absolute monarchy and feudalism,
asserting that a king is not a divine representative but one chosen by the people. The
revolution sent a powerful message to the world: sovereignty resides with the people, not
with the monarchy. The idea that people, born free, can overthrow tyrannical rulers became
a lasting legacy of the revolution.

Causes of the French Revolution of 1789

The French Revolution was the result of multiple factors, including political, social, religious,
intellectual, and economic causes.

A) Political Causes

The political situation in France was dire due to several reasons:

1. Despotic Rule of the Bourbon Dynasty: From 1553, the Bourbon dynasty ruled
France under the belief in the divine right of kings, which held that monarchs were
God's representatives on earth and had absolute power. Since 1614, the Estates-
General (parliament) had not been called into session, centralizing all authority with
the monarch. While there were some achievements during the reigns of Henry IV,
Louis XIII, and Louis XIV, such as industrial, educational, and cultural development,
the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI were characterized by unchecked despotism.

2. Law and Judiciary: The legal system in France was deeply flawed, with the king
holding all judicial power. There was no uniform legal code; each province, feudal
lord, and clergy had its own set of laws, leading to confusion and inequality. Voltaire
famously remarked that while traveling through France, he encountered more legal

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 systems than the number of horses he changed. The judiciary was corrupt, with
judges appointed from the upper classes, and often rendering partial judgments.
Punishments were inhumane, and there was no system of appeals.

3. Divine Right Theory: The belief that the king ruled by divine right made the
monarchy unchallengeable. Disloyalty to the king was considered disloyalty to God,
which fostered unrest among the populace, who had no legal or political recourse
against the monarchy's abuses.

4. Aggressive Foreign Policy: The Bourbon rulers pursued an imperialistic foreign

policy, establishing colonies in Africa and Asia. The French East India Company was
part of this colonial expansion. However, France suffered significant economic losses
from wars with other European powers, particularly England. The Seven Years' War
(1756–1763) and the Anglo-French conflicts over India were disastrous for France,
leading to increased taxation on the common people to cover the costs of war, further
straining the economy.

5. Anarchy in Administration: The French administration was corrupt and inefficient.

There was no accountability, and officials sought only the favour of the king and royal
family. The country was divided into 40 provinces and 36 generalities, each
subdivided into districts and communes, with the upper class dominating the
administration. Higher posts were reserved for the aristocracy, creating a
disconnected and oppressive system that left the common people without
representation.

6. Marie Antoinette (1755–1793): The Austrian-born queen of France, Marie

Antoinette, was unpopular due to her extravagant lifestyle and perceived lack of
connection to the French people. Married to Louis XVI to strengthen ties between
Austria and France, she was more interested in luxurious living than governance. Her
extravagant spending earned her the nickname 'Madame Deficit,' and she was widely
blamed for the financial crisis facing France.

7. Louis XVI: Louis XVI, who ruled France at the time of the revolution, was weak and
uninterested in politics. His strange hobbies, such as lock-repairing and hunting,
distracted him from governing the nation effectively. Though the conditions for
revolution had been brewing for years, his inability to address the growing unrest
made the revolution inevitable. Instead of reforming the system, he followed the
oppressive policies of his predecessors, ignoring the needs of the people and
opposing any calls for change.

B) Social Causes

Social inequality was one of the most significant causes of the French Revolution. French
society was divided into three distinct estates, each with vastly different rights and
privileges.

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 1. Clergy (First Estate): The Roman Catholic Church was the national religion of France,
and the clergy held enormous influence over both the king and the people. The
Church owned one-fifth of the land in the nation, along with religious centers, and
like the nobility, they were exempt from taxes. Instead, they collected their own tax,
known as tithes, from the people. Many clergy members lived luxuriously and focused
more on maintaining the favour of the king and royal family than fulfilling their
religious duties. They were also guilty of exploiting the common people, much like
the feudal lords.

2. Feudal / Nobility ( Second Estate) : The nobility, or feudal lords, were wealthy
landowners who were exempt from paying taxes. They imposed their own taxes, such
as the taille, on the common people. The nobility occupied the highest positions in
both the civil and military sectors and lived in luxury. Despite making up less than
1% of the population, they controlled around 60% of the land. The common people,
often reduced to bonded labourers, worked the land while the nobility profited from
their toil. The philosopher Montesquieu described the feudal class as those with
connections to the king and ministers, benefiting from pensions, loans, and
hereditary privileges.

3. Common People (Third Estate): The third estate comprised the vast majority of the
population but lived under severe hardship. They were responsible for paying 80% of
all taxes, while the nobility and clergy were exempt. The peasants worked the land
like bonded labourers, barely surviving on the small portion of income or production
they were allowed to keep. The inequality was stark: while 90% of the population
faced starvation, the privileged 10% lived in luxury. The third estate included
professionals such as doctors, lawyers, professors, teachers, and journalists, as well
as farmers and workers. Despite being educated and contributing to society, they
were denied any role in the administration. This middle class, particularly those in
professions, became the leaders of the revolution, seizing the opportunity in 1789 to
challenge the deep inequalities that had long plagued French society.

C) Religious Causes

1. Luxurious Clergy: The clergy of France, numbering around 150,000, were part of the
upper class and lived in opulence. There were approximately 5,000 religious centers,
each housing 25,000 men and women. The moral decline among them was apparent.
The Catholic Church had a strong organizational hierarchy from the village priest to
the Pope in Rome. Roman Catholicism dominated France, and while the Protestant
Reformist minority was marginalized, they suffered significant persecution, as seen
in the massacre of Protestants during the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. The
clergy were wealthy, selfish, and detached from their religious duties, using their
influence for personal gain. There were internal divisions within the clergy, with lower-
ranking clergy being neglected by the upper clergy, creating unrest even within the
religious institution.
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 2. Injustice by Religious Institutions: The clergy were responsible for maintaining
social morality, but they often misused their influence. They were deeply involved in
the government and enjoyed privileges such as tax exemptions, land ownership, and
wealth. Their approval was even required for the king’s coronation. The common
people suffered under exploitative traditions imposed by these religious institutions,
leading to widespread dissatisfaction and unrest against both the clergy and religious
centers.

D) Intellectual Causes

1. Montesquieu (1689–1755): Born into a noble family, Montesquieu was a judge and
an influential political thinker. His work The Spirit of the Laws (1748) was highly
popular, with 18 editions published within a year and a half. Montesquieu criticized
monarchy and advocated for parliamentary democracy, which he considered ideal.
He distinguished three forms of government:

1. Monarchy: Power is centralized, but the presence of nobles and a council of

experienced advisors can help the king avoid becoming a dictator.

2. Dictatorship: In a dictatorship, all power is concentrated in one person, with

no checks or balances, leading to tyranny and fear.

3. Democracy: A government that cares for the people, where even ordinary
citizens can become leaders. Montesquieu emphasized the importance of
separating powers—legislative, executive, and judicial—to prevent injustice
and ensure democracy. His theory of the separation of powers profoundly
influenced the development of modern political systems and inspired the
French Revolution by urging people to challenge the monarchy.

2. Voltaire (1694–1778): A renowned poet, journalist, historian, and scholar, Voltaire’s

satirical writings criticized the Church and the monarchy. Although he believed in
God, he condemned the corruption and luxurious lifestyle of the clergy. He was jailed
in the Bastille for his biting critiques, and his famous book Candide dealt with the
corruption in religion and monarchy. Voltaire opposed mob rule in democracy and
favoured a limited monarchy, famously saying, "I would prefer to be ruled by one lion
than by a hundred rats." He attributed much of the exploitation to the French
monarchy, particularly the Bourbons, and called for their overthrow in favour of a
limited monarchy.

3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778): Rousseau was a political philosopher from a

modest background who became one of the most influential thinkers of the modern
era. His works, including The Social Contract and Émile, emphasized the idea that
"man is born free" but is bound by political, social, and religious institutions.
Rousseau advocated for a social contract in which the state exists for the welfare of
the people and promotes socio-economic and religious reforms. He supported limited

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 monarchy, people's sovereignty, and individual liberty. Napoleon Bonaparte famously
remarked that without Rousseau, the French Revolution would not have occurred.
Rousseau’s ideas were pivotal in shaping modern Europe.

4. Denis Diderot (1713–1784): Diderot was the editor of the Encyclopédie and used
his platform to expose societal inequalities, economic exploitation, and religious
anarchy. He called for reforms in governance and criticized the injustices faced by the
people. His writings greatly influenced the French middle class, although the
government imposed restrictions on the Encyclopédie.

5. François Quesnay: A French economist, Quesnay argued that national progress

depended on economic freedom, particularly in agriculture, trade, and business. He
believed that farmers should be freed from the control of the government and the
upper classes. His theory of economic liberty emphasized that total freedom in the
economic sphere was essential for national development.

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 Philosophers who influenced the French Revolution.

• Voltaire: His critiques of the Church and the French monarchy, expressed through
works like Candide, challenged the status quo and promoted secularism and
freedom of thought. Voltaire's wit and advocacy for civil liberties contributed to
revolutionary ideas.

• John Locke: Locke’s Two Treatises of Government argued against the divine right
of kings and in favour of a government based on consent and the protection of
natural rights. His ideas on governance and individual rights laid important
groundwork for revolutionary and democratic thinking.

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Rousseau’s The Social Contract proposed that legitimate

political authority comes from a social contract agreed upon by all citizens. His
concept of the general will and the sovereignty of the people greatly influenced
revolutionary ideologies and the drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man
and of the Citizen.

• Montesquieu: Montesquieu’s The Spirit of the Laws advocated for the separation
of powers within government to prevent tyranny. His theories on governance and
the importance of a balanced system of power influenced the structure of
revolutionary and later democratic governments.

• Diderot and Jean d’Alembert: Their work on the Encyclopédie was instrumental
in spreading Enlightenment ideas. The Encyclopédie aimed to compile and
disseminate knowledge, promoting reason, science, and criticism of established
doctrines, which supported revolutionary reforms.

These thinkers collectively challenged existing political and social structures and
promoted ideas that directly influenced the course and goals of the French Revolution.

E) Economic Causes

The economic causes behind the French Revolution:

1. Feudal Economy: France's economy was primarily agrarian, with a significant portion
of land controlled by the feudal lords (60%), the clergy (20%), and the common
people (20%). Serfs, numbering around 10 million, worked the lands of the feudal
lords. Farmers faced heavy taxation from the government, feudal lords, and clergy,
with little improvement in agricultural practices or support from these authorities.
This led to widespread discontent among the exploited peasantry.

2. Unsatisfied Merchants: Despite France’s rich mineral resources and advantageous

trade conditions (including navigable rivers, a long coastline, and busy ports), trade
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 was stifled by government neglect and exploitation by the upper classes. The French
East India Company existed to facilitate foreign trade, but the lack of support and
increasing exploitation led to the decline of French commerce.

3. Injustice in the Tax System: The tax system in pre-revolutionary France was deeply
inequitable. Common people bore the brunt of taxation, often paying up to 80% of
their income in taxes, while the nobility, clergy, and royal family enjoyed exemptions
and lower rates. Tax collection was harsh and unfair, contributing to widespread
frustration and resentment.

4. Bankruptcy of France: The financial strain on France was severe due to the
extravagant spending of the royal family and the costs associated with maintaining
the palace at Versailles. The government’s excessive expenditure, including a
staggering 30 million francs for the palace and a substantial annual budget for the
royal family, alongside ongoing loans and ineffective fiscal policies, led the country
to the brink of bankruptcy. Efforts to address the fiscal crisis, including attempts to
impose new taxes, only exacerbated public unrest and dissatisfaction.

F) Effect of the American War of Independence

During the American War of Independence (1776-1783), the thirteen American colonies
successfully fought against the British Empire and achieved independence. The conflict
began in 1776 when Britain declared war on America. Under the leadership of Marquis de
Lafayette, French troops were sent to support the American cause, leading to Britain's
defeat. The French military gained valuable experience and inspiration from this
involvement, fostering the belief that they could also challenge and overthrow their own
oppressive government. Lafayette himself played a crucial role in the French Revolution.

Immediate Causes
❖ The Assembly of Notables
The Assembly of Notables was a political body in France that played a significant role
during the late 18th century, particularly in the lead-up to the French Revolution.

o The Assembly of Notables was convened by King Louis XVI in 1787 as part of
his attempts to address the financial crisis facing France.
o It was composed of important figures from various social classes, including
nobles, clergy, and other influential individuals, who were chosen by the king.
o The primary goal was to discuss and propose reforms to the French taxation
system and to address the country's debt crisis.

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 o The assembly was not a legislative body but rather an advisory one, tasked
with reviewing and suggesting reforms.

• Assembly of Notables met at Versailles in February 1787 to discuss Calonne’s fiscal

proposals. These proposals were meant to reform the taxation system, but the
Notables rejected them, marking the beginning of a confrontation between the
monarchy and the aristocracy.

• The aristocracy was hostile to the growing power of the royal government, declaring
that they did not have the power to consent to new taxes.

• Brienne, who succeeded Calonne, attempted to push through a moderate reform

program, but faced opposition from the Parlement of Paris in 1787, which organized
forces against the government.

• Eventually, Necker, who replaced Brienne as the Controller-General, had no choice

but to recommend the calling of the Estates-General, the national representative
assembly, which set the stage for the beginning of the French Revolution.

The refusal of the aristocracy to agree to tax reforms, combined with growing public unrest,
led to the financial crisis deepening and forced the monarchy to convene the Estates-
General in 1789.

❖ The Calling of the Estates-General

The calling of the Estates-General in 1789 was a pivotal event that directly led to the
French Revolution.

1. Financial Crisis and the Need for Reform:

France was on the brink of bankruptcy due to excessive spending by the monarchy,
particularly under Louis XVI. The country was deeply in debt, and the existing taxation
system was heavily skewed in favour of the nobility and clergy (the First and Second
Estates), leaving the Third Estate (common people) to bear most of the financial burden.
Reforms were desperately needed, but attempts by ministers like Calonne and Brienne to
implement new taxes were repeatedly blocked by the Parlement of Paris and the Assembly
of Notables.

2. The Estates-General is Convened:

Faced with challenging opposition and the looming threat of bankruptcy, King Louis XVI
called for the Estates-General to convene on May 5, 1789. This was a rare event, as the
Estates-General had not been called since 1614, and it was seen as the last resort to solve
the nation’s financial crisis.

• The Estates-General was a traditional assembly representing the three estates:

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 1. The First Estate – The Clergy

2. The Second Estate – The Nobility

3. The Third Estate – The Commoners (which included the bourgeoisie, peasants,
and urban workers)

Each estate had a single vote, and this system heavily favoured the clergy and nobility, as
they could easily outvote the Third Estate despite the latter comprising the vast majority of
the French population.

3. Grievances and Demands of the Third Estate:

The Third Estate arrived at the Estates-General with a strong sense of dissatisfaction, as
they were being crushed by taxes while the wealthier estates enjoyed privileges. They
demanded more representation and fair taxation reforms. Their "Cahiers de Doléances"
(lists of grievances) included demands for fair taxation, an end to feudal privileges, and
the establishment of a constitutional government.

4. Formation of the National Assembly:

The voting system of the Estates-General became a quarrelsome issue. The Third Estate
insisted on voting by head rather than by estate, which would give them more influence.
When the king and the First and Second Estates refused, the Third Estate took a radical
step.

• On June 17, 1789, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, claiming
to represent the people of France. This was a direct challenge to the authority of the
king and the traditional structure of the Estates-General.

5. The Tennis Court Oath:

After the declaration of the National Assembly, the king attempted to prevent its meetings
by locking the meeting hall. In response, the members of the National Assembly gathered
at a nearby tennis court on June 20, 1789, where they took the famous Tennis Court
Oath, vowing not to disband until a new constitution for France had been created. This
marked a crucial moment in the revolutionary process, as it demonstrated the resolve of
the Third Estate to fight for a constitutional government.

6. Support for the National Assembly:

Over the following weeks, the National Assembly gained support from some clergy and
nobles who sympathized with their cause. Meanwhile, public unrest was growing,
particularly in Paris, where food shortages and rising bread prices were pushing the
population to the brink of revolt.

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7. The Storming of the Bastille:

The situation in Paris reached a tipping point when rumours spread that King Louis XVI
was planning to use force to dissolve the National Assembly. On July 14, 1789, a mob in
Paris stormed the Bastille, a symbol of royal tyranny, to seize arms and ammunition. The
storming of the Bastille became a symbol of the revolution and marked the beginning of
widespread insurrection against the monarchy.

8. The Revolution Begins:

The storming of the Bastille led to the collapse of royal authority in Paris, and revolutionary
fervour spread across France. By August 1789, the National Assembly passed the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, asserting the principles of liberty,
equality, and fraternity, which would become the foundation of the revolution.

In conclusion, the calling of the Estates-General marked the beginning of a revolutionary

process that would overthrow the monarchy and transform French society. The
stubbornness of the king and the privileged estates, combined with the demands of the
Third Estate for representation and justice, unleashed forces that led to the French
Revolution.

Course of the Revolution

The French Revolution, spanning from 1789 to 1799, is generally divided into three
distinct phases:

1. Liberal Reform Phase (1789–1791): This phase began with the formation of the
National Assembly and sought to establish constitutional reforms, curbing
monarchical power and enacting liberal changes like the Declaration of the Rights
of Man.

2. Radical Phase (1792–1794): Marked by escalating violence, this period saw the
fall of the monarchy, the rise of the Jacobins, and the Reign of Terror, during which
radical reforms were pursued through extreme measures, including mass
executions.

3. Thermidorian Reaction/Directory Phase (1795–1799): This final phase involved

a backlash against the radicalism of the Terror, leading to the establishment of the
Directory, a more moderate and unstable government that ultimately paved the
way for Napoleon's rise to power.

Each phase reflects the changing dynamics of power, ideology, and governance during
the revolution.

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The French Revolution, which began in 1789 and lasted until 1799, can be divided into three
major phases: the National Assembly phase, the Reign of Terror, and the Directory and
Consulate phase. Each phase represents a distinct period in the revolution’s development,
marked by different political, social, and economic changes.

Meeting of the Estates-General

The first significant event in the course of the French Revolution was the meeting of the
Estates-General. King Louis XVI, in an attempt to improve the nation’s economic situation,
sought the help of finance ministers like Turgot, Necker, and Calonne, but his efforts
failed. To raise new taxes, he called for a meeting of the Estates-General in early 1789,
marking the first such assembly in 178 years. Held at the Palace of Versailles, this meeting
aimed to seek consent for new taxes and loans.

Traditionally, the clergy and nobility met in separate chambers from the common people
(the Third Estate). However, this time, the representatives of the common people demanded
that all estates work together in a single assembly. The upper classes rejected this idea,
leading to growing tensions. King Louis XVI sided with the upper classes, further
intensifying the clashes, which ultimately sparked the Revolution of 1789.

Formation of the National Assembly

On June 17, 1789, the representatives of the common people declared themselves the
"National Assembly" and began drafting a constitution. Despite the growing tension
between the king and the assembly, the latter continued its efforts. On June 20, after being
barred from their meeting place, the members gathered at a nearby tennis court and took
the famous "Tennis Court Oath," vowing to remain united until a liberal constitution was
established. Leaders like Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès played key roles, and some members
of the nobility joined the assembly. Eventually, King Louis XVI conceded to the demand for
joint meetings of all estates.

The Fall of the Bastille – July 14, 1789

The situation escalated on July 14, 1789, when revolutionaries stormed the Bastille, a
symbol of royal despotism. This violent confrontation led to the death of soldiers and the
release of prisoners. The fall of the Bastille became a turning point, celebrated annually as
"Bastille Day." This victory bolstered the revolutionary spirit across France.

The Revolution of August 4

The fall of the Bastille inspired widespread revolutionary fervour throughout the country,
particularly against the feudal class. Many feudal estates were destroyed, and records of
feudal rights were burned. On August 4, 1789, some members of the nobility, like the
nobleman Noailles, voluntarily surrendered their feudal privileges, and other nobles and
clergy followed suit. This meeting marked the end of feudalism in France and represented
a social revolution. Despite these significant changes, King Louis XVI and Queen Marie

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Antoinette continued to resist the revolution, leading to their eventual arrest and house
arrest in Paris.

The Work of the National Assembly

On August 27, 1789, the National Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and
of the Citizen, heavily influenced by the ideas of Rousseau. This declaration outlined several
key principles:

• Liberty and Human Rights: Every person is born free and equal, with the right to
freedom of speech, defence, and protection from injustice.

• Equality: The declaration abolished the privileges of the nobility and clergy, ensuring
equal opportunities for all.

• Voting Rights: Voting was no longer tied to wealth, and suffrage was expanded.

• Law and Justice: The declaration guaranteed equal treatment under the law, the
development of welfare laws, and protections against arbitrary arrest.

• Property Rights: The right to private property was affirmed, and land was
redistributed among the needy.

This declaration laid the foundation for the French Constitution and brought significant
changes to the social, economic, and political landscape of France and Europe, promoting
democratic governance.

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 Declaration of human rights

Assembly declared human rights on 27th August 1789. It had influence of Rousseau's
thoughts.
• Liberty and human rights
1) Man is born free, all have equal rights.
2) Everybody will have freedom of speech, write and defence.
3) Everybody has right to be protected.
4) King is not a part of God.

• Equality
1) Abolish inequality and establish equality in France.
2) All special rights of feudal and clergies, abolished.
3) Difference like upper, lower will be no more.
4) Everybody will get opportunity in govt. and public sector.

• Right of Vote
1) It will not related to economic condition.
2) Right of vote will be expanded.

• Law-judiciary-punishment
1) All are equal before law.
2) Laws of welfare will be prepared
3) One and similar code for nation.
4) Direct or indirectly people will participate in it.
5) No arrest without inquiry.

• Right of private property

1) Everybody has right of legal property.
2) Right of property, liberty, self protection and oppose to injustice.
3) Land will be distributed, among needy people, equal portion of production.

The Constitution of 1791

The National Assembly drafted the Constitution of 1791, France’s first written
constitution, transforming the country into a constitutional monarchy.

Key features included:

• Limited Monarchy: The king’s powers were restricted, and he could be dismissed by
the legislature. His military protection was placed under parliamentary control.

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 • Unicameral Parliament: A single-chamber parliament, elected every two years, was
responsible for passing laws, with the king's consent required for their approval.

• Judiciary Reform: A uniform legal code was established, ensuring equality before
the law and eliminating corruption in the judiciary.

Administrative and Other Reforms

The nation was reorganized into 83 provinces, each subdivided into districts, with officials
appointed to maintain order and manage public administration. Local governance
structures, such as magistrates and mayors, were established at various levels.

Religious and Economic Reforms

Significant religious reforms were enacted by the National Assembly, including the
nationalization of church lands, which were distributed among farmers. This redistribution
improved the economic situation of the common people. The number of clergy members
was also limited, and many traditional practices were abolished.

The King's Escape Attempt

While under house arrest at the Tuileries Palace, King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette
attempted to flee with the help of Marie Antoinette’s brother, Emperor Leopold II of Austria.
However, they were recognized by a postmaster named Drouet and captured near the
village of Varennes. Despite this failed escape, the king was still recognized as the head of
the constitutional monarchy, and the constitution was finalized in 1791.

Legislative Assembly (1791–1792)

In October 1791, a new Legislative Assembly was formed, but none of the members of the
dissolved National Assembly were included. The Assembly was divided between two major
factions: the moderate Girondins and the radical Jacobins. While the Girondins supported
a limited monarchy, the Jacobins advocated for a republic. The internal conflicts, combined
with war against Austria and Prussia, weakened the monarchy. King Louis XVI’s secret
communications with foreign powers and his support for military action against France
further angered the people.

National Convention (1792–1795) and the Reign of Terror

On September 20, 1792, the National Convention came to power, abolishing the monarchy
and declaring France a republic. A new constitution was drafted, creating a bicameral
legislature and a Directory of five members. The Convention also confiscated the lands of
nobles and clergy who had fled the country and redistributed them among the people.

From 1793 to 1794, the Jacobins, led by figures such as Robespierre, Danton, and Carnot,
implemented the Reign of Terror. Revolutionary Tribunals were established to eliminate
counter-revolutionaries, leading to the execution of thousands, including King Louis XVI

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and Queen Marie Antoinette. The guillotine became a symbol of this period. The Reign of
Terror ended in July 1794 with the execution of Robespierre.

The Law of Maximum, enacted during the Radical Phase of the French Revolution in
1793, was a set of economic regulations introduced to control the prices of essential
goods such as food, fuel, and clothing. It was part of the broader policies of the
Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, aimed at addressing widespread
shortages and inflation caused by the war and the revolution’s disruption of the economy.

Key aspects of the Law of Maximum include:

1. Price Controls: The law imposed maximum prices on staple goods to make them
affordable for the general population.

2. Penalties for Hoarding: Severe punishments, including the death penalty, were
introduced for hoarding or overcharging, as such actions were viewed as counter-
revolutionary.

3. Wage Controls: Wages were also regulated to prevent inflationary pressures from
affecting labor costs.

Though well-intentioned, the law had mixed results. While it temporarily curbed inflation
and helped the urban poor, it also led to shortages as producers and merchants often
found it unprofitable to sell at fixed prices. The law was ultimately repealed after the fall
of the Jacobins.

The Committee of Public Safety, formed in 1793 during the French Revolution, was
created to protect the republic from internal and external threats. Led by figures like
Maximilien Robespierre, it had near-dictatorial powers, overseeing military operations,
foreign policy, and domestic law enforcement. It became infamous for its role in the
Reign of Terror, during which thousands of suspected counter-revolutionaries were
executed. The Committee’s influence waned after Robespierre’s fall in 1794. It is
remembered for both defending the revolution and overseeing its most repressive phase.

The First Coalition against France was a coalition of European powers formed in 1793
during the French Revolutionary Wars. It consisted of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Spain,
the Dutch Republic, and several other states. The coalition aimed to contain the spread of
revolutionary ideals and to restore the French monarchy. The alliance formed in response
to the radical changes in France and the threat posed by revolutionary France to the
established monarchies in Europe.

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The First Coalition was initially successful in various military engagements, putting pressure
on France and threatening its revolutionary government. However, the French Republic
managed to recover and eventually turned the tide of the war, leading to the weakening of
the coalition and the eventual signing of peace treaties with several of its members.

The Battle of Fleurus took place on June 26, 1794, during the French Revolutionary Wars.
It was a decisive battle fought near the village of Fleurus in what is now Belgium. The
French Revolutionary Army, commanded by General Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, defeated the
Austrian forces led by the Archduke Charles.

The Reign of Terror ended in July 1794 with the arrest and execution of Maximilien
Robespierre and his allies. As public discontent and political opposition grew, the National
Convention moved against Robespierre. His fall marked the end of the Reign of Terror and
led to a more moderate phase in the French Revolution known as the Thermidorian
Reaction.

The key events leading to its end were:

1. Increasing Discontent: The extreme measures and widespread executions created

fear and dissatisfaction among both the public and political leaders.

2. Internal Opposition: As the Reign of Terror intensified, even some members of the
Committee of Public Safety began to oppose Robespierre’s methods. Notable
figures like Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins criticized the excesses of the
terror.

3. Fall of Robespierre: On July 27, 1794 (9 Thermidor Year II), Robespierre was
arrested by the National Convention along with his allies. They were accused of
tyrannical rule and leading the country into chaos.

4. Execution of Robespierre: On July 28, 1794 (10 Thermidor Year II), Robespierre
and his associates were executed by guillotine. This marked the end of the Reign
of Terror and led to the restoration of more moderate governance.

Revolutionary France signed the Treaty of Basel.

The Treaty of Basel was a series of treaties signed between France and several European
powers, marking the end of hostilities in the French Revolutionary Wars. The most
significant of these treaties were signed on April 5, 1795, between France and Prussia, and
on July 22, 1795, between France and Spain.

pg. 16 Dr. Annapoorna L R

The Treaty of Basel, signed in 1795, was significant for several reasons. It ended the
hostilities between France and Prussia, as well as France and Spain, thereby allowing France
to consolidate its revolutionary gains and stabilize its internal situation. The treaty
recognized the French Republic's legitimacy, which was crucial for the new government’s
international standing. Additionally, it resulted in France securing important territories,
including parts of the Rhineland from Prussia and colonies from Spain, which enhanced its
strategic and economic position. The treaty also contributed to the stabilization of France's
borders, reducing external threats and promoting internal stability during a tumultuous
period. Lastly, it set a precedent for diplomatic negotiations, influencing future treaties and
international relations.

The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon

The Constitution of 1795 established the Directory, a five-member executive council that
governed from October 1795 to November 1799. However, the Directory struggled with
internal disorder, neglecting key sectors such as education and trade, and faced revolts
from political factions.

The Council of 500 and the Council of Ancients were key components of the French
government under the Constitution of the Year III, established in 1795. This constitution
was a response to the excesses of the Reign of Terror and aimed to create a more balanced
and moderate government structure.

1. Council of 500: This was the lower house of the bicameral legislature. It consisted
of 500 members who were elected by direct vote. The Council of 500 was responsible
for initiating legislation and proposing laws. It played a crucial role in the legislative
process by drafting and debating bills, which would then be sent to the Council of
Ancients for further consideration.

2. Council of Ancients: This was the upper house of the legislature, comprising 250
members, who were chosen by the Council of 500 from a list of candidates. The
Council of Ancients reviewed and approved or rejected the legislation proposed by
the Council of 500. It had the power to veto bills, making it an important check on
the legislative process.

Together, these two councils were designed to balance power and ensure that legislation
was carefully considered and debated before becoming law. This system aimed to provide
stability and prevent the abuses that had characterized previous revolutionary
governments.

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The establishment of the Consulate was a pivotal moment in French history that marked
the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of Napoleon Bonaparte's rise to power.

In 1799, the French Revolutionary government, known as the Directory, was facing severe
internal and external challenges. The regime was marked by political instability, economic
difficulties, and corruption. Amidst this turmoil, Napoleon Bonaparte, a popular military
leader, capitalized on the discontent and dissatisfaction with the Directory.

On November 9, 1799 (18th Brumaire in the Revolutionary calendar), Napoleon, with the
support of his loyal troops, staged a coup d'état. He seized control of the government,
dissolving the Directory. In its place, he established a new form of government known
as the Consulate.

The Consulate was a three-member executive body, consisting of Napoleon as First Consul,
along with two other consuls, who were Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès and Charles-
François Lebrun. Although it was presented as a more stable and effective government
compared to the Directory, the Consulate concentrated significant power in Napoleon’s
hands. The new government maintained some of the Revolutionary ideals but also began
the process of restoring order and centralizing authority.

Napoleon's rise to First Consul marked the transition from revolutionary chaos to a more
autocratic regime, setting the stage for his eventual proclamation as Emperor of France in
1804. The Consulate thus represents a critical phase in the evolution of French government
from revolutionary ideals to Napoleonic rule.

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