ADVANCED MACHINING

PROCESS AND OPERATION

ADDIS ABABA TEGBARED POLY TECHNOIC COLLEGE

SAMUEL ASRAT
MANUFACTURING
DEPARTMENT
MACHINING LEVEL IV

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Contents
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................ 1
PRECISION ENGINEERING ............................................................................................. 1
1.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Different Factors of Precision Engineering ..................................................... 1
1.3. Importance of Precision Engineering............................................................. 2
1.4. Application Areas for Precision Engineering ................................................. 3
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 4
CONVENTIONAL AND ADVANCED MACHINING ........................................................ 4
2.1. Introduction......................................................................................................... 4
2.2. Types Of Machining ........................................................................................... 4
2.3. Classification of Non-Traditional Machining .................................................... 5
2.4. Why Non-Traditional Machining........................................................................ 6
2.5. Pros And Cons of Non-Traditional Machining .................................................. 7
2.6. Difference Between Advanced and Traditional Machining ......................... 7
CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................. 8
ADVANCED MACHINE PROCESS AND OPERATION..................................................... 8
3.1. ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM) .................................................................... 8
3.1.1. Principle Of Operation ................................................................................. 8
3.1.2. Major Components of USM ......................................................................... 9
3.1.3. Importance Of USM .................................................................................... 10
3.1.4. Application of USM ..................................................................................... 10
3.1.5. Pros And Cons ............................................................................................. 10
3.1.6. Rotary Ultrasonic Machining (RUM) .......................................................... 11
3.2. WATER JET CUTTING (WJC) ................................................................................ 12
3.2.1. Principle Of Operation ............................................................................... 12
3.2.2. Parts And Components .............................................................................. 13

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 3.2.3. Operating Parameters ............................................................................... 14
3.2.4. Pros And Cons of WJC ............................................................................... 14
3.2.5. Application of Water Jet Machining ........................................................ 15
3.3. ABRASIVE WATER JET CUTTING (AWJC) ........................................................... 16
3.3.1. Principle Of Operation ............................................................................... 16
3.3.2. Parts And Components .............................................................................. 17
3.3.3. Application of AWJM ................................................................................. 18
3.3.4. Pros And Cons ............................................................................................. 18
3.3.5. Difference between WJM and AWJM ..................................................... 19
3.4. ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM) ........................................................ 20
3.4.1. Principle of Operation ................................................................................ 20
3.4.2. Parts and Components .............................................................................. 21
3.4.3. The Pros and Cons Of ECM ........................................................................ 22
3.4.4. Application Areas of ECM ......................................................................... 23
3.5. CHEMICAL MACHINING .................................................................................... 24
3.5.1. Principle Of Operation ............................................................................... 24
3.5.2. Masking Operation ..................................................................................... 25
3.5.3. Operating Parameters of CHM ................................................................. 26
3.5.4. Pros And Cons Of CHM .............................................................................. 27
3.5.5. Applications Areas of CHM ....................................................................... 27
3.6. ELECTRO-BEAM MACHINING (EBM) ................................................................. 29
3.6.1. Principle of Operation ................................................................................ 29
3.6.2. Parts and Components .............................................................................. 30
3.6.3. Pros and Cons of EBM ................................................................................ 30
3.6.4. Application of EBM ..................................................................................... 31
3.7. LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM)....................................................................... 31
3.7.1. Principle of Operation ................................................................................ 31
3.7.2. Parts and Components .............................................................................. 32

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 3.7.3. Difference between EBM and LBM........................................................... 32
3.7.4. Applications of LBM .................................................................................... 33
3.7.5. Pros and Cons of LBM................................................................................. 33
3.8. ELECTRO DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM) ....................................................... 34
3.8.1. Principle of Operation ................................................................................ 34
3.8.2. Major Components of EDM ....................................................................... 35
3.8.3. Pros and cons of EDM ................................................................................ 36
3.8.4. Application areas of EDM .......................................................................... 36
3.9. Wire EDM ............................................................................................................ 37
3.9.2. Principle of operation ................................................................................. 37
3.9.2. Major Components of Wire EDM .............................................................. 38
3.9.3. Difference Between Wire EDM AND EDM ................................................ 39
3.9.4. Pros and Cons of Wire EDM ....................................................................... 39
3.9.5. Application of Wire EDM ............................................................................ 40
3.10. PLASMA ARC CUTTING(PAC) ............................................................................ 40
3.10.1. Principle of Operation ............................................................................. 40
3.10.2. Major Components of PAC .................................................................... 41
3.10.3. Pros and Cons of PAC............................................................................. 42
3.10.4. Application of PAC ................................................................................. 42
References ................................................................................................................... 44

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CHAPTER ONE
PRECISION ENGINEERING
1.1. Introduction
Precision engineering is the design and production of parts with tolerances
measured in microns, that’s one thousandth of a millimetre. It is one of the
disciplines of engineering that was developed in parallel manner as with the
advancement in manufacturing. Precision engineering aims to achieve high
precision and accuracy by reducing error to produced parts with low tolerance
1.2. Different Factors of Precision Engineering
The four main focus areas of precision engineering are accuracy, precision,
predictability(repeatability) and control and quality.
Accuracy: is a measure of how close the result is to the actual value you were
trying to achieve. In other words, it’s how closely you hit what you’re aiming
for. It’s the value of the deviation of the parts from actual true, produced and
measured value.
Precision: is a measure that is described in multiple products rather than to one
particular part. It’s the measure of how close each measurement of your
results is to one another. While accuracy can be used in one instance,
precision will be measured over time. This is because precision requires
repeatability to determine the degree of closeness between each set of
measurements.

High precision is when your results are similar to each other, while low precision
is when the similarity is far apart. Measuring precision is helpful in two scenarios:
• When you’re trying to avoid making the same mistake
• When you’re achieving successful results and want to establish a
process for reproducibility
The concept of precision and accuracy can be described by the bow and
arrow example as in below

A B C D

Figure 1.1 Precision and Accuracy

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 Table 1.1 Description of Precision and Accuracy

Precise but not accurate because they are far away from
A the centre (low accuracy) but closer to each other (high
precision)
B Low accuracy and low precision
Not accurate and precise. They are far from the centre and
C
from each other
Highly accurate and precise. They are at the centre and
D
close to each other.

Predictability and Control: predictability is the term that describes the

precision of parts. If the parts are produced with the same tool, same
procedure and process, the parts will have high precision, therefore
predictable. This allows us to know precisely what is dimension of the next part
is going to be. Precision is the factors that determine predictability.

Predictability also determines another important factor called traceability,

meaning given the part is precise, accurate and predictable, a defect can
easily be traced with in the parts. Traceability is the determine the
Quality: quality is defined as a lack of defects in parts. Parts with low tolerance
and built with high precision and accuracy will have higher quality.
1.3. Importance of Precision Engineering
• Create a highly precise movement.
• Reduce the dispersion of the product's or part's function.
• Eliminate fitting and promote assembly, especially automatic
assembly.
• Reduce the initial cost.
• Reduce the running cost.
• Extend the life span.
• Enable the design safety factor to be lowered.
• Improve interchangeability of components so that corresponding parts
made by other factories or firms can be used in their place.
• Improve quality control through higher machine accuracy capabilities
and hence reduce scrap, rework, and conventional inspection.
• Achieve a greater wear/fatigue life of components.
• Make functions independent of one another.
• Achieve greater miniaturization and packing densities.
• Achieve further advances in technology and the underlying sciences

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1.4. Application Areas for Precision Engineering
• Computer and electronics industry
• Aerospace industry
• Medical industry
• Oils and gas industry
• Marine industry
• Military and defence industry

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CHAPTER TWO
CONVENTIONAL AND ADVANCED MACHINING
2.1. Introduction
The wonders of the advances in technology of the present day have been
brought about by the great technological marvel that begins in the Industrial
Revolution, some three hundred years ago. The industrial Revolution was brought
to fruition because of the new machining technique that supplanted the old one.
One of the most influential machines to be discovered that elevated every
industry available at that time into a revolution was the Lathe Machine. This earns
it the nick name “the father of all machine”.
In the year 1718, a Russian engineer Andrey Nartov, developed one of the first
lathes, which was a cutting tool with carriage support and a set of gears. The
lathe machine was the first-ever machine tool, which started the utilization of
equipment in industries. As the supply of different metals were high in the
European countries during the time of the industrial revolution, a machine was
required for the workers, which can decrease the workload and increase the
speed of metal cutting and processing. Therefore, the high-speed lathe machine
was invented. The engine lathe machine not only helped in the fast production
but was also beneficial for the accurate shaping of the metals for steam engines
and other inventions during the industrial revolution.
Throughout the 20th century, there has been a great transformation in technology.
New design and discoveries in advanced material has necessitated the need for
utilizing them. This meant that in order to materialize the newly designed feature
in technology a new means of manufacturing has to be invented. This led to the
subsequent evolution of machining up until this day.

2.2. Types Of Machining

Machining is a manufacturing process where a desired shape or part is created
using the controlled removal of material (subtractive manufacturing) or
additional of parts (additive manufacturing) most often metal, from a larger
piece of raw material called the workpiece to form the desired shape and
geometry.
Machining is a broad field that can be briefly categorized into two very broad
means of machining. These are
1. Conventional (traditional) machining
2. Advanced (non-traditional) machining
Conventional (Traditional) Machining: Conventional(traditional) machining is
cutting processes which remove the material from the various surface of a work
piece by specialized cutting tools and producing chips. The machine tools, such

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as lathes, milling machines, drill presses, or others, are used with a various cutting
tool to remove material to achieve a desired geometry. Conventional machining
operation includes turning, boring, threading, knurling, drilling, milling, broaching,
sawing and so much many more. The traditional means of machining has its pros
and cons.
The pros
• Lower initial investment
• Flexibility for small batch production
• Easier to change or adjust
• Suitable for simple parts not mass production
• Advanced level of skill and experience from operator
The cons
• Lower precision and repeatability
• Higher potential for human error
• Slower production rate and efficiency
Non-Traditional (Advanced) Machining: Non-traditional machining, also known
as the Advanced Machining Process, is a machining method that uses energy
such as electricity, heat, light, chemical, sound, electromechanical or the
combination of the energies to remove, deform, change properties of the
material.
2.3. Classification of Non-Traditional Machining

The nontraditional processes are often classified according to principal form of

energy used to effect material removal. By this classification, there are four types:

1. Mechanical. Mechanical energy in some form other than the action of a

conventional cutting tool is used in these nontraditional processes. Erosion of the
work material by a high velocity stream of abrasives or fluid (or both) is a typical
form of mechanical action in these processes. The machining process included in
this stream are

• Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

• Water Jet Machining (WJM)
• Abrasive Water Jet Cutting (AWJC)
• Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
• Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM)

2. Electrical and Electrochemical. These nontraditional processes use

electrochemical energy to remove material; the mechanism is the reverse of
electroplating.

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 • Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
• Electro Chemical Deburring (ECD)
• Electrochemical deburring and grinding

3. Thermal. These processes use thermal energy to cut or shape the work part. The
thermal energy is generally applied to a very small portion of the work surface,
causing that portion to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization. The thermal
energy is generated by the conversion of electrical energy.

• Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

• Electric Discharge Wire Cutting (EDWC)
• Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
• Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
• Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC)
• Oxyfuel Cutting Process (OCP)

4. Chemical. Most materials (metals particularly) are susceptible to chemical

attack by certain acids or other etchants. In chemical machining, chemicals
selectively remove material from portions of the work part, while other portions of
the surface are protected by a mask.

• Chemical Machining (CHM)

2.4. Why Non-Traditional Machining

The nontraditional processes have been developed since World War II largely in
response to new and unusual machining requirements that could not be satisfied
by conventional methods. These requirements, and the resulting commercial and
technological importance of the nontraditional processes, include:

• The need to machine newly developed materials that often have special
properties (e.g., high strength, high hardness, high toughness) that make
them difficult or impossible to machine by conventional methods.
• The need for unusual and/or complex part geometries that cannot easily
be accomplished and in some cases are impossible to achieve by
conventional machining.
• The need to avoid surface damage that often accompanies the stresses
created by conventional machining.
• To machine soft, hard, brittle material including polymers.

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2.5. Pros And Cons of Non-Traditional Machining
The pros
• Machining hard and brittle material
• Machine intricate parts with high precision and detail
• Parts produced are highly reproducible
• Minimal heat and stress affected zone
• Soft material can be machined
• Minimal tool wear and longer tool life
• Capable of micro machining and small hole drilling
• Usually there is no need for further treatment of material
The cons
• Initial investment is expensive
• Material Removal Rate (MRR) is low compared to conventional machining
• Unwanted erosion and over cutting of material can occur
• Great safety issues to deal with the operator and the environment as they
involve dealing with dangerous chemical and electrical energies or the
combination of both.

2.6. Difference Between Advanced and Traditional Machining

Table 1.2 Conventional Vs Non-Conventional Machining

Conventional Vs Non-Conventional Machining

Tools are non-conventional technique
Direct contact of tools and workpiece like laser beam, electric arc, abrasive,
chemicals,
Cutting tool is always harder than Tool may not be harder and it may
workpiece not be physical presence
Short tool life due to high wear Longer tool life
Generally macroscopic chip Material removal can occur with or
formation without chip formation
It uses different energy like electrical,
Material removal takes place due to
thermos-chemical, etc to provide
application of cutting force
machining
Not suitable for all material Suitable for almost all material
It cannot be used to make prototype It can be used to produce prototype
parts very effectively parts very effectively

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CHAPTER THREE
ADVANCED MACHINE PROCESS AND OPERATION

3.1. ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

Figure 3.1. USM machine

3.1.1. Principle Of Operation

USM is a nontraditional machining process in which abrasives contained in a slurry
are driven at high velocity against the workpiece by a tool vibrating at low
amplitude and at high ultrasonic frequencies between 18–25kHz. The tool
oscillates in a direction perpendicular to the work surface, and is fed slowly into
the work, so that the shape of the tool is formed in the part.

The cutting of the material is performed by the action of the abrasives, impinging
against the work piece surface and cause chipping/extraction of the particle
that results in the cutting of the material. The cutting action in USM operates on
the tool as well as the work. As the abrasive particles erode the work surface, they
also erode the tool, thus affecting its shape. It is therefore important to know the
relative volumes of work material and tool material removed during the process—
similar to the grinding ratio.

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 Figure 2.2. USM operation

The workpiece is immersed in a slurry. The slurry is a mixture of water and abrasive
grains particles with a grit number of 100 – 800. The water concentration ranges
from 20% to 60%. The main function of the slurry in this process is to
• It washes away chips and worn grits created by the cutting process.
• It cools the workpiece with in the working temperature

The abrasive material used in USM are boron nitride, boron carbide(B4C),
aluminium oxide (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC) and diamond. The slurry has to be
continuously circulated within the system. The main operating parameter for USM
are its operating frequency, amplitude of oscillation, and grit size.

3.1.2. Major Components of USM

AC Power supply: USM generally needs an AC power source between 50 -60Hz
Generator: it converts the AC power supplied to high frequency electrical energy.
A frequency of 20 to 40KHz is generated and then supplied to the elctro-
mechanical transducer.
Transducer: the transducer is used to convert the high frequency generated by
generator into mechanical vibration.
Sonotrude(Horn): is an ultrasonic amplitude transformer(horn)amplify the vibration
amplitude for machining and also focus and guide the vibration toward the tool
tip.
Tool holder: is a jaw for holding the tool
Tool: The tool is usually the same shape as the cavity that needs to machine. It is
made of strong, tough and brittle material which does not fail under brittle
fracture.

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Table: structure the holds and supports the workpiece, the jigs and fixtures, and
also as column support for the transducer and horn.
Fixture: is a component that holds workpiece tightly onto the table
Slurry reservoir: it’s a storage tank for a mixture of water and abrasive material
that is injected between the workpiece and tool.
Pump: it is used for the slurry at high pressure to the nozzle.
Nozzle: the nozzle is used to deliver the slurry to the workpiece in a jet stream at
high pressure to apply the cutting for the slurry:
Orifice: is a tiny opening located at the tip of the nozzle to create a jet stream of
slurry.
Control Unit: The control unit consists of an electronic oscillator which produces
an alternating current at high frequency. The frequency produced is usually in
between 18 kHz to 40 kHz in ultrasonic range.

3.1.3. Importance Of USM

1. To machine hard and brittle material such as ceramics, glass and
carbides.
2. To precisely machine hard and tough material such as stainless steel and
titanium with high precision.
3. To obtain non-round holes, holes along a curved axis, and coining
operations, in which an image pattern on the tool is imparted to a flat
work surface.

3.1.4. Application of USM

- Drilling round holes of any shape
- Step drilling
- Grinding the brittle material
- Engraving
- Slicing and broaching hard material
- Machining glasses and ceramics

3.1.5. Pros And Cons

Pros
• absence of any harmful effect on the metallic structure of the workpiece
material.
• Can machine hard, brittle, tough, strong material with high precision
• Produce less heat so the material is not no exposed to high heat stress.
Material that are sensitive to thermal fluctuation can safely be machined
in USM
• For drilling of non-circular holes in materials like glass
• Threading on hard materials
• Various hole cut shape due to the vibratory motion of the tool
Cons

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 • Low MRR
• The process is limited to the machined surface of small size
• High tool wear resulting in short tool life
• Low depth of hole
• Large grain size will cause material defect

3.1.6. Rotary Ultrasonic Machining (RUM)

In order to elevate the problem of low MRR of USM, a new method of USM has
been devised called the Rotary Ultrasonic Machining (RUM). The RUM utilizes a
tool that rotates up to 8000RPM that has metal bonded diamond abrasive
particles. It combines the ultrasonic impacts (hammering, extraction, abrasion) of
USM and the grinding action of the diamond abrasive bonded on the tool.

Figure 3.3. Rotary USM

The RUM is more preferable that USM for the following main reasons
• High depths of cuts and aspect-ratios can be achieved in RUM as
compared to USM
• Lower tool wear rate in RUM as compared to USM
• Very high dimensional accuracy in RUM as compared to USM
• USM can produce more complicated shapes as compared to RUM.

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3.2. WATER JET CUTTING (WJC)

Figure 3.4. WJC cutting operation

3.2.1. Principle Of Operation

WJC uses a fine, high-pressure, high velocity stream of water directed at the work
surface to cause cutting of the work. To obtain the fine stream of water a small
nozzle opening of diameter 0.1 to 0.4 mm (0.004–0.016 in) is used. To provide the
stream with sufficient energy for cutting, pressures up to 400 MPa (60,000 lb./in2)
are used, and the jet reaches velocities up to 900 m/s (3000 ft/sec). WJC can
machine different kinds of material including aluminum, steel, cast-iron, concrete,
stones, granite, metal alloys. ceramics, plastics, rubber, glass composites… and
more.

Figure 3.4 Principle of operation of WJC

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3.2.2. Parts And Components

Figure 3.5. Components of WJC

Water Reservoir: store the water in reservoir for use as jet

Hydraulic Pump: takes water from the reservoir and generates a low pressure of
5bar and deliver it to the intensifier. A booster is commonly used to increase the
pressure to 11bar.
Hydraulic Intensifier: it is used to amplify the pressure of the water that leaves the
hydraulic pump. It increases the pressure from 5bar to 3000-4000bar.
Accumulator: Water is temporarily stored in the accumulator. By keeping the flow
of high-pressure water continuous, it eliminates pressure fluctuations.
Control Valve: The control valve controls both the direction and pressure of the
water and directs the water to the flow regulator.
Flow Regulator: it regulates the amount and flow of the water and delivers it to
the nozzle.
Jet Nozzle: the nozzle directs the highly pressurized jet stream into the workpiece
and deliver the high pressure
Orifice: is a tiny opening on the tip of the nozzle where the water jet is squirted out
in highly pressurized jet stream. The orifice is made of sapphire or diamond that
can create the shape and high pressure of the stream.
Cutting Table: this is the platform to hold and supports the workpiece in place
during the cutting.
Catcher tank: is a tank filled with water and placed directly below the cutting
table. It collects the streams of water after it cuts the material absorbing the
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remaining energy in the tank to prevents it from causing damage to floor or other
equipment.
Water Recycling System: this mechanism is cycling system for the water after it has
served the purpose of cutting the material. The water is collected in the catcher
tank, pumped out into the water filter then pumped back in to nozzle.
Control Mechanism and Software: the control mechanism allows the operator to
control and set the parameters for the machine. This allows to
- To control operating parameters such as standoff distance, water
pressure, cutting feed rate
- To move the working table in the in the X and Y direction
- To control the machine timing,
- To automate the working process

3.2.3. Operating Parameters

Standoff Distance is the separation between the nozzle opening and the work
surface. It is generally desirable for this distance to be small to minimize dispersion
of the fluid stream before it strikes the surface.
Nozzle Opening Diameter is the opening of the orifices of the nozzle. This directly
affects the cuts of the material. Small opening is used for finer cuts on thinner
materials.
Water Pressure – the water discharge pressure at the tip of the nozzle. This pressure
affects the thickness of the material to be cut. For cutting thick material the jet
stream should have high pressure and thick stream of water.
Cutting Feed Rate is the velocity at which the WJC nozzle is traversed along the
cutting path.

Table 2 Operating parameter of WJC

Operating Parameter of WJC

Standoff distance 3.2 mm (0.125 in)
nozzle opening diameter 0.1 to 0.4 mm (0.004–0.016 in)
water pressure at nozzle 400 MPa (60,000 lb/in2)
cutting feed rate 5 mm/s (12 in/min) to more than 500
mm/s (1200 in/min)
Jet stream velocity 900 s (3000 ft/sec)

3.2.4. Pros And Cons of WJC

Pros
• Capable of producing intricate shape and cuts
• The cutting area in the material remain clean and dust free
• Low operating and maintenance cost
• No thermal damage to the material

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 • It can cut softer material like plastic textile, foam, stone glass, polymer,
rubber, leather, sheet metals…. as well as hard one with the addition of
abrasive
• Its environmentally friendly as it produces no toxic waste
• High level precision with in the order of 0.005in can be achieved easily.
Cons
• the process is not suitable for cutting brittle materials (e.g., glass) because
of their tendency to crack during cutting.
• Cuts thicker material less accurately
• The orifice failure risk
• The initial cost of the machine is high but the operation cost in minimum

3.2.5. Application of Water Jet Machining

- Manufacturing aerospace components
- Engine components manufacturing
- Usually to machine soft and brittle material
- Machining thick steel, aluminium sheets etc
- In food industry to cut highly frozen meat, fish….
- Drilling and cutting operation
- In the mining industry to cut heavy, hard and tough minerals.

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3.3. ABRASIVE WATER JET CUTTING (AWJC)

Figure 3.6 AWJC operation

3.3.1. Principle Of Operation

AWJC is a jet cutting process that uses high-pressure water jet mixed with an
abrasive particle, such as, garnet, silicon carbide, aluminium oxide, sand, or other
material, to cut through hard and thick material. The abrasive particle is added
to the water stream in the nozzle of waterjet cutting machine, and its abrasive
particle that does the cutting.
When WJC is used on metallic work parts, abrasive particles must usually be
added to the jet stream in a mixing chamber to facilitate cutting. This process is
therefore called abrasive water jet cutting (AWJC). Among the additional
parameters are abrasive type, grit size, and flow rate. Aluminium oxide, silicon
dioxide, and garnet (a silicate mineral) are typical abrasive materials, at grit sizes
ranging between 60 and 120. The abrasive particles are added to the water
stream at approximately 0.25 kg/min (0.5 lb/min) after it has exited the WJC
nozzle.

16
3.3.2. Parts And Components
The main difference between the AWJM and WJM is the addition of abrasive
material in to the cutting process that complicates the layout of the machine.
AWJM is different is the addition of mixing chamber, reservoir for the abrasives
and an optional abrasive reservoir system, the rest of the component is the
same as that of the WJC.

Figure 3.7. Components of AWJC

Water Reservoir: store the water in reservoir for use as jet

Abrasive Reservoir: storage tank for the abrasive.
Hydraulic pump: takes water from the reservoir and generates a low pressure of
5bar and deliver it to the intensifier. A booster is commonly used to increase the
pressure to 11bar.
Hydraulic Intensifier: it is used to amplify the pressure of the water that leaves the
hydraulic pump. It increases the pressure from 5bar to 3000-4000bar.
Accumulator: Water is temporarily stored in the accumulator. By keeping the flow
of high-pressure water continuous, it eliminates pressure fluctuations.
Control Valve: The control valve controls both the direction and pressure of the
water and directs the water to the flow regulator.
Flow Regulator: it regulates the amount and flow of the water and delivers it to
the nozzle.
Mixing Chamber: this is where the abrasive and water jet are mixed before they
are pumped out of the nozzle. In most cases the mixing chamber is an integral
part of the nozzle.
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Jet nozzle: the nozzle directs the highly pressurized jet stream into the workpiece
and deliver the high pressure of jet stream.
Orifice: is a tiny opening on the tip of the nozzle where the water jet is squirted out
in highly pressurized jet stream. The orifice is made of sapphire or diamond that
can create the shape and high pressure of the stream. Its made of very hard
diamond or sapphire so that it does not erode under the action of the water.
Cutting Table: this is the platform to hold and supports the workpiece in place
during the cutting.
Catcher Tank: is a tank filled with water and placed directly below the cutting
table. It collects the streams of water after it cuts the material absorbing the
remaining energy in the tank to prevents it from causing damage to floor or other
equipment.
Water Recycling System: this mechanism is cycling system for the water after it has
served the purpose of cutting the material. The water is collected in the catcher
tank, pumped out into the water filter then pumped back in to nozzle.
Control Mechanism and Software: the control mechanism allows the operator to
control and set the parameters for the machine. This allows to
- To control operating parameters such as standoff distance, water
pressure, cutting feed rate
- To move the working table in the in the X and Y direction
- To control the machine timing,
- To automate the working process

3.3.3. Application of AWJM

- Ti/Ni alloys for aerospace applications (e.g. casings)
- Biologic (bones) compatible materials (NiTi) for medical applications (e.g.
implants).
- Engineered ceramics (SiC, Al2O3) for parts with chemical inertness and/or
high wear resistance.
- Ultra-hard materials (e.g. diamond) for tooling fabrication.
- Engineering composites for aerospace, automotive applications.
- Turning and dressing of grinding wheels.
- Coating removal in aerospace and nuclear industries.
- Machining of large and/or complex shape parts by mounting the cutting
head on a robotic arm

3.3.4. Pros And Cons

Pros
- It can cut any kind of material with smooth operation
- Environmentally friendly
- Machining of difficult to cut material (ti/ni alloys, ceramics)
- Low specific cutting forces which cause no deflection of the workpiece

18
 - Low cutting temperature that reduces heat stress of the material and allows
to machine heat sensitive material such as Ni/Ti shape memory alloys
- Uses a universal cutting too with no tool wear
- The equipment easy to use and operate
- MRR is high
Cons
- After the machining the abrasive gets embedded on the target surface
reducing the strength of the target surface and can act as a crack
propagation points during the loading of the target.
- It’s very difficult to control the geometry of the parts and it relies heavily on
human intervention and skill
- High initial cost
- The quality of the surface finish is low as compared to other non-
conventional machining processes e.g. the development of striation marks
on the cut face, uneven edges and surfaces.
- The high-pressure stream of water used in the process can be dangerous if
it comes into contact with the skin

3.3.5. Difference between WJM and AWJM

Table 3 Difference between WJM and AWJM

WJM AWJM
A high velocity jet of pure water A high velocity of water-abrasive
(sometimes mixed with stabilizer) is mixture is used
used to erode material
Material removal from the workpiece Material removal happen due to the
takes place only due to the erosive micro cutting of the abrasive and the
action of water jet water
No mixing chamber is need as A mixing chamber is required in order
abrasive is not mixed with water to mix the abrasive and the water jet
The jet water does not posses’ high It posses’ high power to cute metal
power to cut metals, alloy and with high thickness
ceramics
Free from risk of abrasive embedment Abrasive can be embedded in the
in finished work final part.

19
3.4. ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)

Figure 3.8 ECM machine

3.4.1. Principle of Operation

ECM removes metal from an electrically conductive workpiece by anodic

electrode connected to a positive terminal and cathode electrode of the
negative terminal are immersed in a current carrier electrolyte dissolution, in
which the shape of the workpiece is obtained by a formed electrode tool in close
proximity to, but separated from, the work by a rapidly flowing electrolyte.

An electrolyte acts as current carrier and the high rate of electrolyte movement
in the tool washes metal ions away from the workpiece (anode) before they have
a chance to plate onto the tool (cathode). The following chemical reaction takes
place with in the process

ECM is basically a depleting operation. The workpiece is the anode, and the tool
is the cathode. The principle underlying the process is that material is depleted
from the anode (the positive pole) and deposited onto the cathode (the
negative pole) in the presence of an electrolyte bath (Section 4.5). The difference
in ECM is that the electrolyte bath flows rapidly between the two poles to carry
off the depleted material, so that it does not become plated onto the tool, hence

20
this makes it the reverse process of electroplating, galvanizing, or deposition
process.

At cathode the hydrogen ions take electrons and gets converted into hydrogen
gas

2H+ + 2e- ---- H2

In the same way the iron atoms come out from the anode(workpiece) as Fe++ ions

Fe --- Fe++ +2e-

With in the electrolyte, the sodium ion combines with Hydroxyl ions and form
Sodium Hydroxide and ferrous ion combine with chloride ions and forms ferrous
chloride. Also, iron ions combine with hydroxyl ions and form iron hydroxide

Na+ + OH- ---- NaOH

Fe2+ + 2Cl- --- FeCl2 (removed)

Figure 3.9 Working Principle Of ECM

3.4.2. Parts and Components

Power Supply: it requires a DC power supply source for its operation. Usually, the
machine is equipped with AC to DC converter.
Electrolyte: is a solution of water with some electrolyte chemical (NaCl. The
electrolyte has three main purposes.
• It serves as a current carrier between tool and workpiece
• Removes the material form the internal electrode gap
• Removes the heat produced due to passage of current

21
Tool: the tool is usually a cathode electrode with negative ion that is exact replica
of the shape that is to be imparted on the workpiece.
Workpiece: is the positive anodic electrode
Tank: hold the electrolyte in which the tool and workpiece are immersed.
Table: holds and support the workpiece in place
Pressure Gauge: it shows the pressure of the electrolyte supplied to the tool
Flow Meter: it shows the rate of flow the electrolyte to the machining area
Flow Control Valve: it controls the direction and the rate of flow of the electrolyte
Pressure Relief Valve: it releases excess pressure in the system and by pass it to the
tank.
Pump: it pumps and keep circulating the electrolyte in the system.
Filter: it filters the electrolyte that may choke the supply line as the electrolyte is
highly concentrated salt.
Centrifuge: it helps in separating the slugs from the electrolyte
Slug Container: it helps to control the slug or the waste of the process in a
container

3.4.3. The Pros and Cons Of ECM

The pros

- Little surface damage to the work part

- No burrs as in conventional machining
- Low tool wear (the only tool wear results from the flowing electrolyte), and
- Relatively high metal removal rates for hard and difficult to-machine metals
- Complex and intricate parts can be machined
- Since the material removal takes place at an atomic level so a mirror like
surface finish is acquired
- No stress or residual forces is produced because there is no contact with
workpiece and tool

The Cons

- Significant cost of electrical power to drive the operation

- Problems of disposing of the electrolyte sludge
- The risk of corrosion for tool, workpiece and equipment increases in the
case of saline and acidic electrolyte.
- Cannot machine non-conductive material
- High specific energy consumption

22
 - It cannot machine soft material as they can easily melt

3.4.4. Application Areas of ECM

- Machining complex cavities and shape in high strength and toughness

material
- Mass production of turbine blade, nozzle, jet engine parts and nozzle
- Drilling small diameter deep holes (high aspect ratio)
- Deburring process for mirror like surface finish and burr free
- Bio medical equipment and implants
- Rifling barrel
- Micromachine of strong material
- Die sinking operation
- Drilling, grinding, trepanning, micro machining
- Machining stream turbine, gas turbine blades

Figure 3.10 Parts Produced By ECM

23
3.5. CHEMICAL MACHINING
3.5.1. Principle Of Operation

Chemical machining (CHM) is a subtractive nontraditional machining in which

excess material is removed by chemicals attacking metals with corrosive liquid
and etching them by using chemical solutions.

the material to be machined is first masked. Masking is a process of covering the

area that is not to be machined so that the area to be machined is easily exposed
to the chemical. The area to be machined is then submerged in a tank of
chemical or sprayed by a corrosive liquid to remove the material. Strong acid or
alkaline solution is used to dissolve materials selectively. An etchant resistant mask,
made typically of rubber or plastic is used to protect those regions of the
component from which no material is to be removed. CHM has four steps in
chemical machining are as follows:

Cleaning. The first step is a cleaning operation to ensure that material will be
removed uniformly from the surfaces to be etched.
Masking. A protective coating called a maskant is applied to certain portions of
the part surface. This maskant is made of a material that is chemically resistant to
the etchant (the term resist is used for this masking material). It is therefore applied
to those portions of the work surface that are not to be etched.
Etching. This is the material removal step. The part is immersed in an etchant that
chemically attacks those portions of the part surface that are not masked. The
usual method of attack is to convert the work material (e.g., a metal) into a salt
that dissolves in the etchant and is thereby removed from the surface. When the
desired amount of material has been removed, the part is withdrawn from the
etchant and washed to stop the process.
Demasking. The maskant is removed from the part

Figure 3.11 CHM Process

24
3.5.2. Masking Operation
Masking is the most important in CHM. It can be accomplished by the following
methods
- Cut and peel masks
- Photo resist masks
- Screen resist masks
Cut and peel masks
The maskant is applied over the entire part by dipping, painting, or spraying.
(resulting thickness of the maskant is 0.025 to 0.125 mm) After the maskant has
hardened, it is cut using a scribing knife and peeled away in the areas of the work
surface that are to be etched. The maskant cutting operation is performed by
hand, usually guiding the knife with a template. This method cannot hold
tolerances tighter than 0.125 mm except with extreme care
The cut and peel method is generally used for
- large workpieces,
- low production quantities,
- and where accuracy is not a critical factor.
Photo resist masks
As the name suggests, the photographic resist method (called the photoresist
method for short) uses photographic techniques to perform the masking step. The
masking materials contain photosensitive chemicals. They are applied to the work
surface and exposed to light through a negative image of the desired areas to
be etched. These areas of the maskant can then be removed from the surface
using photographic developing techniques.
This procedure leaves the desired surfaces of the part protected by the maskant
and the remaining areas unprotected, vulnerable to chemical etching.
Photoresist masking techniques are normally applied where small parts are
produced in high quantities, and close tolerances are required. Tolerances closer
than ±0.0125 mm can be held.
Screen resist masks
The screen resist method applies the maskant by means of screening methods. In
these methods, the maskant is painted onto the work part surface through a silk
or stainless-steel mesh. Embedded in the mesh is a stencil that protects those
areas to be etched from being painted. The maskant is thus painted onto the
work areas that are not to be etched through the screen. The screen resist
method is generally used in applications that are between the other two masking
methods in terms of accuracy, part size, and production quantities. Tolerances of
±0.075 mm can be achieved with this masking method.

25
Undercut
Along with the penetration into the work, etching also occurs sideways under the
maskant, this effect is referred to as the undercut. Undercuts may be developed
because etchant attacks both in horizontal and vertical direction.
It must be accounted for in the design of the mask for the resulting cut to have
the specified dimensions. For a given work material, the undercut is directly
related to the depth of cut. The constant of proportionality for the material is
called the etch factor, defined as
𝑑
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 , 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑡
𝑢

Figure 3.11 undercut in CHM

3.5.3. Operating Parameters of CHM

Chemical machining process parameters include:
Reagent/Etching Solution Type: this is the etching chemical used for the process
and it affects the depth of cut, undercut and the depth factor. The depth
factor(d/T) is the ratio of the diameter of the part to its thickness.
Solution Concentration and Properties: the concentration of the solution will
determine the etching and machine rate. As the solution is more concentrated
the machining rate will be higher.
Mixing And Circulation: production tolerance
Operating Temperature: the operating temperature will directly affect the surface
finish of the part. As with the increase in temperature the surface finish will be
higher.

Etchant Application and Characteristics

Preferred Etch Concentration
Metal Etch factor
etchant rate(mm/min)
Aluminium FeCL3 0.025 1.7:1 45grams
Copper FeCL3 0.050 2.7:1 45grams
Nickel alloys FeCL3 0.018 2.0:1 45grams
Phosphorous Chromic 10 grams
0.013 2.0:1
Bronze Acid

26
Silver FeNO3 0.020 1.5:1 10grams
Titanium HF 0.025 2.0:1 8-10grams
Tool steel HNO3 0.018 1.5:1 10grams

3.5.4. Pros And Cons Of CHM

Pros
• Removing speed of material is independent of hardness and toughness
• Surfaces with complicated shape with high accuracy and quality
• No heat and mechanically (stress) affected zone,
• Large areas – more economical than milling
• Eliminates cost of hard tooling
• Stress and burr free components
• Complex components can be easily machined
• Easy weight reduction
• Low capital cost of equipment
• Easy and quick design changes
• Requirement of less skilled worker
• Using decorative part production
Cons
• Difficult to get sharp corner
• Difficult to chemically machine thick material
• Scribing accuracy is very limited, causes less dimensional accuracy
• Etchants are very dangerous for workers
• Etchant disposals are very expensive
• Environmental laws have important effects when chemical machining is
used

3.5.5. Applications Areas of CHM

• Computer & Telecommunications
• Electronics/micro electronics
• Medical & instrumentation
• In aerospace industry for missile, aircraft skin panel to reduce weight and
maintain stiffness
• Engraving coins, medals …
• Micro fluidics
• Ornaments & jewelries
• Elimination of the recast layer from parts machined by EDM
• Chemical milling, chemical blanking, chemical engraving,
photochemical machining

27
Figure 3.12 Parts made by CHM

28
3.6. ELECTRO-BEAM MACHINING (EBM)

Figure 3.15 EBM machine

3.6.1. Principle of Operation

In EBM the kinetic energy of the electron from an electron beam is converted in
to heat energy by impinging the fast-moving electrons on the workpiece surface.
This heat energy evaporates the workpiece surface. This process is carried out in
vacuum so that the electron does not collide with the particle in air and reduce
their energy.
When a high voltage supply is applied to the cathode filament it generates the
electrons. This electron moves toward the anode at very high velocity. After
passing though the anode, the beams of the electrons are made to pass through
magnetic lenses where diverging and low energy electrons are absorbed and
only converging beam of electrons is made to pass through it. This beam passes
through the electromagnetic lens and deflecting coil which focuses the high
beam on workpiece and cause the material to evaporate.

29
3.6.2. Parts and Components

Figure 3.16 EBM process

Power Supply: it utilizes voltage in the range of 50 to 200kV to accelerate the

electron to 50% to 80% of the speed of light, which is about 200,000km/s.
Electron Gun: it is a cathode ray tube that accelerates them at a very high speed
and focuses them on the required spot on the work piece. The cathode filament
is made up of tungsten, which is heated at about 2500oc which accelerates the
electron emission by thermionic reaction.
Anode: anode is connected bias
Magnetic Lenses: the beams are both convergent and divergent. The magnetic
lenses reduce the divergence of the beam and allows only convergent beam to
pass to the next stage so that a highly focused beam is created.
Deflecting Coil: the deflection coil does not permit the beam to deflect thus
obtaining a highly focused beam.
Workpiece Holding Device: it holds and supports the workpiece and moves it in
all three directions of X, Y and Z. axes.

3.6.3. Pros and Cons of EBM

Pros
- Very hard and heat-resistant material can be machined
- Close dimensional tolerance
- Good surface finish
- Heat affected zone is minimum

30
 - No physical contact between tool and workpiece therefore there is no tool
wear
Cons
- MRR is low
- Vacuum requirements limit the size of the workpiece
- It can be used for small cuts only
- High equipment cost

3.6.4. Application of EBM

- Micro matching operation on thin material including drilling, perforating,
slotting, scribing…
- To machine material with low thermal conductivity and high melting point
- For making fine gas orifices, in space nuclear reactor and gas turbine
blade.
- Flow orifices in wired drawing dies
- Suitable for producing very small diameter holes of about 0.002mm

3.7. LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM)

Figure 3.18 LBM Operation

3.7.1. Principle of Operation

In LBM the material is removed from the workpiece by heat generated from a
LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). A laser is
produced when the atoms and electrons of some special solid crystals are

31
energized using electric current generally. The most common is a specific type of
garnet called NDYAG (Niyodiyam Doped with Yttrium Aluminium Garnet). This
excited electron emits photons (particles of light) forms a concentrated beam of
light which is a laser. As in EBM, this laser beam is focused on the material with high
intensity causing the material to evaporate.

3.7.2. Parts and Components

Power Supply: it requires a power supply of 1 – 10Kw.
Flash Lamp (Tube): is used to charge the electrons of the atoms in the crystals
which is also called a pumping medium
Capacitor: is used for operating the laser beam machine in pulses.
Pumping Medium: which is a pumping crystals which has a large number of atoms
which when it absorbs the energy their electrons use photons
Reflective mirror: located on the upper and lower parts of the pumping medium
it is used to concentrated all the generated photons through a semi reflective
mirror
Magnetic lens: focuses the large energy beam into the material

3.7.3. Difference between EBM and LBM

EBM LBM
A high beam of focused electron is a high beam of laser(photons) is used
used for material removal for material removal
always carried out in a vacuum Can be operated in open air but
sometimes a shielding gas can be
applied in machining zone to avoid
high temperature oxidation of
machined surfaces.
Suitable for small components as the Workpiece does not cause any
workpiece has to be kept with in the restriction
vacuum chamber
Time consuming Time efficient
X-ray is generated causing some No X-rays is generated
health concern for operator
Only applicable to electrically Can machine both conductive and
conductive material as the workpiece non-conductive material as well
is serving as a ground

32
Optical properties of material surface Highly affected by optical properties
(such as reflectivity, absorptivity, etc) such as reflectivity
don’t affect the process

3.7.4. Applications of LBM

• Engraving
• Laser Beam Welding
• Surface treatment
• Cutting
• Drilling
• Ship building, automobile, aerospace,
• Electrical industry
• Medical industries

3.7.5. Pros and Cons of LBM

The Pros
• No direct contact between tool and workpiece
• Can machine both conductive and non- conductive material
• It can be focused to a very small diameter thus extremely small
diameter holes can be machined in the workpiece and higher
machining accuracy are possible
• Best suited for machining brittle materials with low cost with low
conductivity but can be used on almost all material.
• There is not tool wear
• Complex shape of any size can be machined as it can be moved in
different direction
The cons
• High energy consumption
• Low MRR
• The life span of the lamp is short

33
3.8. ELECTRO DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)

Figure 3.19 EDM Machine

3.8.1. Principle of Operation

EDM is a non-traditional machining in which process is based on the erosion of
metal by spark discharge. It consists of an electrode and the workpiece,
connected to a DC power supply and placed in a dielectric fluid. When two
current-conducting wires with high potential difference (voltage)are allowed to
touch each other, an Arc is produced that generates a temperature of 8000° to
12000°C. At the point of contact between the two wires, a small portion of the
metal eroded away and leave a small crater. Electric discharge processes
remove metal by a series of discrete electrical discharges (sparks) that cause
localized temperatures high enough to melt or vaporize the metal in the
immediate vicinity of the discharge. The fluid creates a path for each discharge
as the fluid becomes ionized in the gap. There are many dielectric fluids used for
this the most common being hydro carbon, oil minerals, ionized water, silicon oil,
and glycol. The fluid is delivered at the contact area between the workpiece and
tool in the form of a jet. The main functions of the dielectric fluids are to:

34
 • Act as an insulator until the potential is sufficiently high
• Provide a cooling medium
• Act as a flushing medium and carry away the debris in the gap
EDM process is also called Spark eroding, spark machining, wire erosion, wire
burning. This process Is only suitable for metallic for conductive workpiece.
Generally, a working gap of 0.005mm is maintained between the workpiece and
the tool. The tool has to be same shape as the part to be produced.

Figure 3.20 EDM process

3.8.2. Major Components of EDM

Figure 3.21 EDM Components

35
Power Supply: a high-power supply is required with AC to DC converter.
Tool: tool is the replica of the workpiece that is to be made. It Is made of
consumable electrode or graphite
Servo motor: it controls the feed of the tool as the gap between tool and the work
is critical.
Spark generator: it supplies sufficient voltage for spark generation and maintains
its discharge

3.8.3. Pros and cons of EDM

Pros
• materials of any hardness can be machined
• Tolerance of 0.005 can be achieved
• Good surface finish
• No physical contact between work and tool
• One of the main advantages of this process is that thin and fragile
components can be machined without distortion;
• Complex internal shapes can be machined
• No burrs are left in machined surface;
Cons
• This process can only be employed in electrically conductive materials
• MRR is low compared to conventional machining processes
• Unwanted erosion and overcut of material can occur
• High tool wear
• Rough surface finish when at high rates of material removal.
• lead time is needed to produce specific, consumable electrode shapes
• The chance of flash fire in the dielectric fluid if the level falls too low
• Smoke can be irritating to the eyes and lungs and but can be controlled
with exhaust and smoke-eating devices
• High power consumption

3.8.4. Application areas of EDM

• Machining of dies and Molds
• Micromachining
• Drilling micromoles or slots
• Small thread cutting
• Engraving on hard material

36
 Figure 3.22 Parts produced by EDM

3.9. Wire EDM

Figure 3.23 Wire EDM

3.9.2. Principle of operation

Electric discharge wire cutting (EDWC), commonly called Wire EDM, is a special
form of electric discharge machining that uses a small diameter wire as the
electrode to cut a narrow kerf in the work. The cutting action in wire EDM is
achieved by thermal energy from electric discharges between the electrode wire

37
and the workpiece. The workpiece is fed past the wire to achieve the desired
cutting path, somewhat in the manner of a bandsaw operation.
As it cuts, the wire is slowly and continuously advanced between a supply spool
and a take-up spool to present a fresh electrode of constant diameter to the
work. This helps to maintain a constant kerf width during cutting. As in EDM, wire
EDM must be carried out in the presence of a dielectric. This is applied by nozzles
directed at the tool–work interface or the work part is submerged in a dielectric
bath. Wire diameters range from 0.076 to 0.30 mm (0.003–0.012 in), depending on
required kerf width. Materials used for the wire include brass, copper, tungsten,
and molybdenum. Dielectric fluids include deionized water or oil.

Figure 5 3.24 Wire EDM operation

3.9.2. Major Components of Wire EDM

Power Supply: sends pulses between 100v and 300V to the wire electrode and
then the workpiece.
Electrode: the wire is the cathode that along and between the workpiece. The
thickness and shape of the workpiece influence the diameter of the wire
electrode. The main types of wire in Wire EDM are
• Brass wire
• Zinc coated wire
• Copper wire
• Wire with diffusion annealing
• Molybdenum wire
• Steel core wire
• Tungsten wire
Servo Motor: controls the wire and makes sure they never touch the workpiece
System For Running Wire: it’s a wire guidance system that controls its tension,
movement, direction (back and forth movement), and ensure that the wire coils
onto the drum properly without overlapping.

38
Working Table: securely holds and supports the workpiece along with the X and Y
movement of the table.
Dielectric Fluid: a fluid contained in a tank for such fluids that serves the same
purpose as the dielectric fluid in EDM.
Recycling System: the deionized water is pumped from the tank goes through the
filter and then brough back in to the tank for reuse.

3.9.3. Difference Between Wire EDM AND EDM

Wire EDM EDM
Employ a conductive cutting wire for A die made of conductive metal is
cutting used as electrode for cutting
The wire always has the same simple The part can be given a complex 3D
geometry so it is not suitable for part and still can be produced with
producing 3D contours. Its preferred EDM
for 2D cutting only
It can produce blind features such as Can not create any blind features
hole or cavities that are open at the
bottom end
The machining can start at any Starting point for cutting has to be
location on the workpiece specified usually from the edges.

3.9.4. Pros and Cons of Wire EDM

The Pros
• Machine simple and complicated shapes and geometry
• High dimensional accuracy for close fitting parts with low tolerance
• It has a minimum amounts of burr
• Custom tooling is generally not needed
• No physical contact between the tool and work
The Cons
• High power consumption
• Low MRR
• Long machining time
• Reproduction of sharp corner is limited
• Excessive tool wear and even breakage of wire
• Thermal stress is produced
• High oxide layer formation
• Rough surface finish
• Limited suitability for certain materials
• Limited cutting diameter and depth
• Can only cut conductive material

39
3.9.5. Application of Wire EDM
• Automotive industry
• Aerospace industry
• Medical devices
• Die tooling
• Electronics

3.10. PLASMA ARC CUTTING(PAC)

Figure 63.25 PAC machine

3.10.1. Principle of Operation

A plasma is a superheated, electrically ionized gas. Plasma arc cutting (PAC) uses
a plasma stream operating at temperatures in the range 10,000°C to 14,000°C
(18,000°F–25,000°F) to cut metal by melting, as shown in Figure 25.15. The cutting
action operates by directing the high-velocity plasma stream at the work, thus
melting it and blowing the molten metal through the kerf. The plasma arc is
generated between an electrode inside the torch and the anode workpiece. The
plasma flows through a water-cooled nozzle that constricts and directs the stream
to the desired location on the work. The resulting plasma jet is a high-velocity, well-
collimated stream with extremely high temperatures at its centre, hot enough to
cut through metal in some cases 150 mm (6 in) thick.

40
 Figure 3.26 PAC operation

Gases used to create the plasma in PAC include nitrogen, argon, hydrogen, or
mixtures of these gases. These are referred to as the primary gases in the process.
Secondary gases or water are often directed to surround the plasma jet to help
confine the arc and clean the kerf of molten metal as it forms

3.10.2. Major Components of PAC

Plasma Torch: the primary component that creates the plasma arc. It contains an
electrode that maintains the plasma arc and allows for the introduction of
secondary gases and fluids to control the arc.
Electrode: a consumable part that creates and sustains the plasm arc. It can be
water cooled and designed for specific material and cutting application
Swirl Ring: the components that helps to mix the plasma the plasma gas and
shield gas, improving arc stability and quality.
Nozzle: a component the focuses the plasma arc and directs the it onto the
workpiece
Inner and Outer Retaining Cup: components that holds the plasma torch
assembly together
Power Source: a high voltage DC power source (typically 50-60V) that sustains the
plasma arc.
Gas Supply System: a system that supplies the necessary plasma gas such as
argon, nitrogen, or hydrogen and shield gas such as argon, nitrogen and carbon
dioxide for the cutting process.
Workpiece Holding System: a system that secures the workpiece in place during
the cutting process, such as a table or a fixture.

41
3.10.3. Pros and Cons of PAC
The pros
• This type of machining can work easily with hard and brittle metals, making
it applicable to a wide range of metal materials.
• Plasma arc machining has a wide range of uses since it can be applied to
almost any type of metal.
• A key advantage is the capacity to attain high cutting speeds,
guaranteeing amplified productivity and effectiveness.
• PAM is ideal for precise and complicated work, excellent at machining
small cavities, and delivers high dimensional accuracy.
• Plasma arc machining is an easy technology to use, and its effectiveness
helps to speed manufacturing processes.
• Its usefulness in vital areas like aerospace and aviation is shown by its major
role in the automatic repair of jet engine blades.
• Able to cut all conductive material
• Great quality of thickness for up to 50mm
• Comparatively cheaper method of cutting
• Does not lead warping as the fast speed significantly reduces heat
transfer
The cons
• PAM use needs a huge initial investment due to the need for a variety of
specialized equipment, which can be costly.
• The procedure uses a lot of inert gases, such as nitrogen or argon, which
raises the expense of operation.
• PAM can result in narrow, unneeded surfaces, which may not be desired in
some applications.
• One disadvantage is that the workpiece may have surface variations,
necessitating further finishing or post-processing procedures.
• PAM has strong light emissions that could damage human eyes.
• Heavy heat affected zone in parts
• Can not cut thickness higher than 150mm
• Only cuts conductive materials
• Causes wider kurf than LBM
• Has lower quality of finish for thinner sheets of metals

3.10.4. Application of PAC

• Cutting of flat metal sheets and plates in most industries including the
aerospace sector

42
• Hole piercing and cutting along a defined path.

Figure 3.27 PAC operation

43
References
2013, Mikell P Groover, Fundamental of Modern Manufacturing, Materials, Processes and
Systems, 5th edition, Wiley
2009, H.N. Gupta, R.C. Gupta, Arrun Mittal, Manufacturing Process, 2nd edition, New Age
International PLC Publisher
2004, Vijay K. Jain, Advanced Machining Process,2nd edition, Allied Publishers PVT LImited
Precision Engineering, the Journal of the International Societies for Precision Engineering
and Nanotechnology
https://www.metallographic.com/Metallographic-Etchants/Metallography-
EtchantsWhat Is Chemical Machining? - Working, And Process
(theengineeringchoice.com)
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