The Learning Curve

Department of Psychology
Lady Shri Ram College for Women, University of Delhi, Lajpat Nagar IV, New Delhi- 110024
Editor Associate Editor
Dr. Kanika K. Ahuja Dr. Megha Dhillon
Professor, Assistant Professor,
Department of Psychology, Department of Psychology,
Lady Shri Ram College for Women, Lady Shri Ram College for Women,
University of Delhi University of Delhi
Editorial Assistants
Disha Mukherjee | Anurati Srivastava | Saloni Jaitly | Upasana
AIM & SCOPE: The Learning Curve encourages submissions of papers reporting experimental, theoretical and applied studies
using quantitative, qualitative and mixed-methods approaches. The journal also welcomes systematic reviews and meta-
analyses. It aims to provide a dynamic platform to researchers to present their research work that brings out a novel and
signi icant perspective of looking at important psychological issues. We hope that the articles in the journal will take the ield of
psychology in unexplored directions and unchartered terrains.

Principal Reviewers
Prof Suman Sharma Prof. Navin Kumar
Editorial Advisory board Professor, Department of Psychology,
Bhim Rao Ambedkar College
Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan
Former Professor and HOD Psychology and Prof. Garima Kumar
Applied Psychology Department, Professor, Department of Psychology,
University of Delhi and Emeritus Professor Mata Sundri College for Women
Psychology IGNOU, New Delhi, Dr. Gayatri Arunkumar
Dean Academics, Apeejay Stya University, Gurgaon Associate Professor, Department of Psychology,
Indraprastha College for Women
Prof. NK Chadha
Former Professor & Head, Dr. Veena Gupta
Department of Psychology, University of Delhi, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology,
Professor Emeritus, KR Mangalam University Indraprastha College for Women

Prof. Anand Prakash Dr. Gulgoona Jamal

Former Head of Department, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology,
Department of Psychology, University of Delhi Zakir Husain Delhi College

Prof. Nandita Babu Dr. Shivantika Sharad

Associate Professor, Department of
Professor, Department of Psychology,
Applied Psychology, Vivekanand College
University of Delhi
Prof. MVR Raju Dr. Shailja Rana
Professor, Head, Department of Psychology, Assistant Professor,
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Department of Psychology, University of Delhi

Prof. Mohammad Ghazi Shahnawaz Dr. Bhawana Devi

Professor, Department of Psychology, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology,
Jamia Millia Islamia University, New Delhi Lady Shri Ram College for Women
Dr. Suparna Jain
Prof. Navin Kumar Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology,
Professor, Department of Psychology,
Daulat Ram College
Bhim Rao Ambedkar College, New Delhi
Dr. Halley S Thokchom
Dr. Rashmi Singla Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology,
Associate Professor & International Coordinator in Psychology, Aryabhatta College
Department of People and Technology, Roskilde University, Denmark
Dr. Anisha Juneja
Prof. Ratika Gore Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology,
Assistant Professor, Organization & Leadership Studies, Aryabhatta College
Design Thinking and Critical Thinking; Dy Chairperson,
Post Graduate Programme in General Management, Dr. Nupur Gosain
S.P. Jain Institute of Management & Research, Mumbai Assistant Professor,
Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women
Disclaimer: The Publisher and Editors cannot be held responsible for errors or any consequences arising from the use of information contained in this
journal. The views and opinions expressed do not necessarily re lect those of the Publisher and Editors.
 Volume XII

Contents Page

EDITORIAL
1. Tapestries at work: Diversity and inclusion as the new norm 03-08
Prof. Kanika K. Ahuja, Professor, Department of Psychology, Lady Shri Ram College for Women, University of Delhi
Dr. Megha Dhillon, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Lady Shri Ram College for Women, University of Delhi

PERSPECTIVE
2. The third way: Indian psychology’s solution to the limitations of hedonism 09-13
Prof. Matthew Whoolery, PhD., Faculty, Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Idaho, USA
Hadley Grant, Undergraduate Student, Department of Psychology Brigham Young University-Idaho, USA
RESEARCH
3. Keep thy friends close: Maintenance behaviours, gender differences and 14-23
contingent self-esteem
Dhairya Mohla, Undergraduate Student, Department of Psychology, Aryabhatta College, University of Delhi
Sarthak Paliwal, Post graduate Student, Psychosocial Clinical Studies, Ambedkar University, University of Delhi
Dr. Anisha Juneja, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Aryabhatta College, University of Delhi
4. What makes you feel like an imposter?: An investigation of caste discrimination 24-35
and social support
Arushi Gupta & Neelanjana, Undergraduate students, Department of Psychology,
Lady Shri Ram College for Women, University of Delhi
Dr. Megha Dhillon, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology,
Lady Shri Ram College for Women, University of Delhi
5. Attaining peace? Exploring self-harm behaviour in religious 36-46
and non-religious contexts
Ms. Sanyukta Golaya, Assistant Professor, St. Xavier's College (Autonomous), Mumbai
Dhriti Jain, M.A. Psychology, University of Delhi
Dr. Surbhi Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Indraprastha College for Women, University of Delhi
6. To be or not to be: A comparative study of psychological well-being among users 47-54
and non-users of swipe-based dating apps and their frequency of use
Shweta Krishnamurthy, M.A. in Criminology with specialization in Forensic Psychology,
National Forensic Sciences University, Gujarat
Garima Shah, M.Sc. in Clinical Psychology, National Forensic Sciences University, Gujarat

7. Fear fuels workplace motivation: Exploring workplace FOMO and 55-67

masculinity contest culture in India
Vanshika Verma, Reva Garg, & Maanvi Nuniwal; Undergraduate students,
Department of Psychology, Lady Shri Ram College for Women, University of Delhi
8. Examining the psychological underpinnings of Chernobyl and after 68-86
Smriti Haridas, Undergraduate student, Department of Psychology, Indraprastha College for Women, University of Delhi
Dr. Surbhi Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Indraprastha College for Women, University of Delhi
9. Promoting psychological capital interventions towards alleviating adjustment problems 87-98
in adolescents perceiving inter-parental conflict
Shanta Kumari, Research Scholar, Discipline of Psychology, School of Social Sciences,
Indira Gandhi Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi
Dr. Smita Gupta, Assistant Professor, Discipline of Psychology, School of Social Sciences,
Indira Gandhi Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi
 The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 03-08

Editorial
Tapestries at work: Diversity and inclusion as the new norm
Dr. Kanika K. Ahuja1 & Dr. Megha Dhillon2
In a world replete with glaring inequities, questions of belief that ultimate reality is composed of more than
social justice, diversity and inclusion are becoming one substance or fundamental kind of entity. In the
increasingly significant. Socio-political forces such as social sense, pluralism refers to the existence of people
immigration, globalization, conflict-based having different religions, ethnic origins and cultural
displacement and the discourse around human rights backgrounds. It must be noted that while the idea of
have caused these concepts to gain prominence, leading diversity has recently come into vogue, plurality has
to several discussions on how we can foster greater been the natural order of the world for millennia. It is
acceptance for divergences. The ideas of diversity and also well-known that the land we now call India, has
inclusion tie in closely with the United Nation’s 2030 always been pluralistic. Plurality has characterized this
Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030 Agenda), nation not only in terms of ethnicity, religion or
which seeks ‘to realize the human rights of all.’ This language but also in terms of festivals, family systems,
agenda embraces the principles of equality and non- daily customs, traditions and spiritual practices. It can
discrimination, alongside a commitment to leaving no thus be assumed that many lessons with regard to
one behind and prioritizing the needs of the furthest diversity can be learned through the history of this land
behind. and its people.

Given that diversity and inclusion can have Diversity and Inclusion in institutions: Advantages &
different meanings for different people, it may be Challenges
beneficial to define both terms at the outset. Diversity
has been defined as acknowledging, understanding, Currently, the two most common contexts for
accepting, valuing, and celebrating differences among discussing inclusion are educational institutions and
people with respect to age, class, ethnicity, gender, work places. An analysis of labor statistics and other
physical and mental ability, race, sexual orientation, data show workforces to have become more
spiritual practice, and public assistance status (Esty et heterogeneous, presumably as an outcome of advances
al., 1995). Inclusion is understood as a process of in women’s and civil rights (Mor Barak & Travis, 2013).
responding to the different needs of all persons in order Over the last few decades, members of historically
to enable their participation in learning, employment, underrepresented groups have joined work spaces,
services, cultures and communities. Authentic earlier denied to them. Further, developments in
inclusion goes far beyond merely adding individuals economic policies, including India’s acceptance of the
who are ‘different’ with respect to race, ethnicity, New Economic Policy based on the principles of
gender or sexuality in a given setting or organization Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization in
(Gonzalez & DeNisi, 2009). Rather it incorporates 1991, led to the world’s economies becoming more
beliefs and perceptions that different individuals can inter-connected. Subsequent technological
make unique contributions and hence their full developments, including the spread of the world wide
participation must be encouraged (Mor Barak, 2015). web further augmented these inter-connections. With
the changing paradigm, came the need for
The idea of pluralism is central to the acceptance of organizations to understand differences in cultural
diversity and inclusion. The term itself has a number of norms and ways of being.
meanings, although running across them are the ideas
of variety and heterogeneity. According to the APA Similar trends have occurred in the education
dictionary, pluralism in the philosophical sense is the sector, where students of varying cultures (Gollnick &

1
Dr. Kanika K. Ahuja, Professor, Department of Psychology, Lady Shri Ram College for Women, University of Delhi
2
Dr. Megha Dhillon, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Lady Shri Ram College for Women, University of Delhi
Corresponding Author: Megha Dhillon, Email: [email protected]
Page -04 Editorial

Chinn, 2002) inhabit modern classrooms. Although the attractiveness of organizations to potential business
there is little official data available on the topic, partners, future employees, and society at large
classrooms in the country now house students who (Robinson & Dechant, 2017). Diversity also increases
speak different languages, belong to different religions t h e ava i l a b l e t a l e n t p o o l , j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n ,
and regions, and represent different class and caste organizational commitment and retention rates (Shore
dynamics. This has largely been the result of et al., 2011), along with decreasing conflict, the
educational policies and practises (such as the Right to intention to leave, stress, job withdrawal, and
Education Act, Sar va Siksha Abhiyaan, and organizational turnover (Hopkins et al., 2010).
implementation of the EWS quota) embraced by the “Diversity Matters” (2015), a report by McKinsey &
Indian state in the last 15 years and changing economic Company dwells at length on how diversity within
trends such as the growth of the country’s middle-class. workplaces places corporations at an advantage. Their
The Rights of Persons with Disability Act (2016) and research looks at the relationship between the level of
the National Education Policy (2020) are also heavily diversity (defined as a greater share of women and a
inclined in favour of inclusion. more mixed ethnic/racial composition in the
leadership of large companies) and company financial
While the acceptance of inclusion both as a performance. The research was based on data collected
phenomenon and as a practise has been growing, there from hundreds of organizations in the United States,
has also been a great deal of scepticism due to the Canada, United Kingdom, and Latin America. The
complexities involved in managing diverse spaces. It is analysis revealed a statistically significant connection
indeed difficult to accomplish genuinely inclusive between diversity and financial performance. The
processes in practice. Diverse workspaces and the companies in the top quartile for gender diversity and
desire to make them inclusive, creates at the very least racial/ethnic diversity were 15 percent and 35 percent
the challenges of ensuring that company leaders more likely to have financial returns above their
understand the meaning of inclusion, training national industry median respectively. To ascertain
managers holding them accountable to show that causation, the researchers consulted additional
inclusivity is a core competency and providing workers evidence, and identified the most important factors
with safe spaces to voice their concerns. Creating driving better performance by companies with diverse
inclusive classrooms necessitates teachers to employ executive teams and boards. These were found to be
teaching methods that are not only theoretically sound advantages in recruiting the best talent, increased
but also culturally sensitive. Teachers need to be employee satisfaction, improved decision making and
equipped with skills to create learning spaces within stronger customer orientation.
which each student feels supported and is provided the
best opportunity to learn (Richards, Brown & Forde, Similar advantages have been witnessed, in the
2007). None of this is possible without adequate educational sector. In an analysis of co-teaching
infrastructure and resources being provided to practises at the secondary level, general and special
organizations and schools. In schools for instance, education teachers who co-taught in inclusive
without additional resources, the nudge towards classrooms spoke of several benefits. For instance,
inclusion contains the risk of it being reduced to merely improving feelings of belonging on campus improved
shifting special educational practices into the the course grades of historically marginalized students
classroom (McLeskey & Waldron, 2007). Diversity, (Walton & Cohen, 2007). In a more recent study
unless channelized positively also carries the threat of (Murrar et al., 2020), students who felt that their peers
prejudice, discrimination and stereotyping. Without treated them more inclusively performed better
the wide-spread acceptance of diversity, there is always academically and reported an increased sense of
a risk of inter-personal and inter-group conflicts. belonging. Benefits for students with disabilities
include elimination of the stigma of being in special
While diversity poses the above-mentioned education while students without disabilities receive
challenges, the benefits that it offers are several and thus enhanced individualized help through the
worth consideration. Workplace diversity can increase collaboration between the special and general
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 05

education teachers. Other research has indicated poorer families and perform worse in school. On an
significant improvements in the area of average, the teacher trainees gave the Ashkenazic essays
communication for students with disabilities who Bs and the Sephardic essays Ds. However, when the
experience full-time placement in inclusive settings teachers were told that they would have to discuss their
(Carter & Maxwell, 1998). grades with their peers, these differences vanished. The
possibility of justifying their grades made the teachers
Preparing organizations and people for diverse evaluate the essays on its merits. Similarly, simply
settings having a diversity manager who could ask questions
from managers would prompt them to step back and
Given that fostering inclusion can pose challenges and consider everyone who is qualified instead of hiring or
elicit resistance, psychologists have attempted to promoting the first people who come to mind. Forcing
understand how to best prepare people for functioning people and organizations to reflect on their own
in diverse settings. A strategy that perhaps works is perspectives and diversity practices may help them
contact with dissimilar others, keeping in mind all the become more aware of available alternatives and
conditions necessary to reduce prejudice: equal status, uncover unspoken assumptions and biases that guide
common goals, cooperation, and institutional support their practices and theories. And finally, some research
(Allport, 1954). The jigsaw classroom, developed by is pointing towards the role of empathy. While those
Aronson in the 1970s is an example of a cooperative with high empathy are sensitive towards the needs of
learning technique that has successfully reduced racial diverse populations and thus internally motivated to
conflict and increased positive educational outcomes respond without prejudice toward them, low empathy
such as improved test performance, reduced individuals may especially require diversity training to
absenteeism, and greater liking for school (Aronson, promote motivation and ultimately reduce prejudice
2002). The use of self-managed teams in corporates, (Lindsey et al., 2015).
which allow people in different roles and functions to
work together on projects as equals, can yield similar Diversity training programs: Drivers for change
results. This may be explained by the optimal
distinctiveness theory (Brewer, 1991), which believes Diversity training (DT), currently a popular concept,
that individuals strive for a balance between feelings of may be defined as any program intended to promote
similarity among group members on one hand, and positive inter-group contact, reduce prejudice and
recognition of their unique characteristics as discrimination, and generally teach people from
individuals on the other. Inclusion can therefore be different backgrounds how to collaborate effectively
fostered by achieving a balance between belonging to a (Bezrukova et al., 2012). Three common methods used
group and being appreciated for idiosyncratic to carry out DT are perspective taking, goal setting, and
characteristics of individuals. As people feel that they stereotype discrediting (Lindsey et al., 2015). The
are important members of the organization and that perspective taking strategy encourages individuals to
their unique talents are recognized and appreciated, imagine what it’s like to be a member of a different
feelings of inclusion increase (Shore et al., 2011). group as a way of understanding how those experiences
Hiring Diversity and Inclusion managers, too, can may be different from their own. Goal setting implores
boost inclusion by creating social accountability. Their individuals to set personal goals that aim to improve
role should not only be to advise leadership and diversity values and inter-group relations within their
employees on best practices to foster a diverse, organization, for example to use more inclusive
welcoming, and inclusive work environment, but also language. Finally, stereotype discrediting aims to
ask questions. In an experiment conducted in Israel reduce prejudice by confronting participants with their
(reported by Dobbin & Kalev, 2016), teachers in commonly held stereotypes towards marginalized
training graded identical compositions supposedly groups.
written by Jewish students with Ashkenazic names
(European heritage) or with Sephardic names (African According to one estimate (Dobbin & Kalev, 2016),
or Asian heritage). The latter typically come from nearly half of midsize companies use DT, as do nearly
Page 06 Editorial

all the Fortune 500. We see a similar trend in the other hand, colleges often rely on voluntary
educational institutions as well. Numerous universities training, evoking the opposite response (“I chose to
across the globe implement some form of diversity and come, so I must be pro-diversity”). Newly introduced
inclusion programs, such as courses on ethnic studies value-added courses under the New Education Policy
(Greens, 2000), women studies (Case & Stewart, 2010), (2020) in India on emotional intelligence may prove to
human sexuality (e.g., Mansoori-Rostam & Tate, be effective at empathy building. Recent evidence (Cox,
2017), panel presentations (McDermott et al., 2018), 2023) indicates that bias habit-breaking programs are
education and contact intervention (Ahuja et al., 2017); successful in enabling people to act as change agents
role playing (Hillman & Martin 2002), and community and reduce bias, foster inclusion, and advance equity,
events that celebrate diverse cultures (Klak & Martin, both within themselves and their social contexts. The
2003). Yet, research supporting the benefits of DT is authors are optimistic and hopeful that these are steps
mixed, at best (e.g., Cox, 2023; Green & Hagiwara, in the right direction for meaningful lasting change.
2020; Paluck et al., 2021). While most trainees do
believe that their skills for interacting with diverse References
populations have improved after training, there is no
overwhelming evidence that DT exercises actually Ahuja, K.A., Dhillon, M., Juneja, A., Deepak, S. &
Srivastava, G. (2019). Subver ting
improve behaviours toward stigmatized groups (Kulik
heteronormativity: An intervention to foster
& Roberson, 2008). Psychology, anyways is replete
positive attitudes toward homosexuality among
with examples of attitude-behaviour inconsistency Indian college students. Journal of Homosexuality,
(Ahuja & Dhillon, 2018; LaPierre, 1934). Furthermore, 66(6), 746-768. DOI: 10.1080/0091836 9.2018 .
the positive effects of diversity training rarely last 1484230.
beyond a day or two, and a number of studies suggest
that it may even be counterproductive (Dobbin & Ahuja, K.K. & Dhillon, M. (2018). Whose
Kaley, 2016; Dover et al., 2020). Unfortunately, environment is it anyway? A study of environme-
programs on DT may often be a knee jerk reaction to ntal attitudes and behaviour among Indian
highly publicized instances of bias. One such case was female college students. IAHRW International
that of Starbucks, which closed down stores in 8000 Journal of Social Sciences Review,6(1), 67-72.
locations to conduct a four-hour antibias training for
Ahuja, K.K., Dhillon, M., Juneja, A. & Sharma, B.
175,000 employees after an outrage following the arrest
(2017). Breaking barriers: An education cum
of its two Black customers allegedly loitering while contact intervention to reduce mental illness
waiting for an associate to arrive (Stewart, 2018). s t i g m a a m o n g I n d i a n c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s.
Psychosocial Intervention, Vol. 26(2), 103-109.
Interestingly and encouragingly, the benefits of DOI:10.1016/j.psi.2016.11.003
diversity education courses in educational institutions
have been reported to be effective (e.g., Ahuja et al., Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice.
2019; Rudman et al., 2001), perhaps more so than in Cambridge, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
workplaces. The question that assumes significance
then is what is it that educational institutions are doing Aronson, E. (2002). Building empathy, compassion,
where HR is failing? While there is no single best way, and achievement in the jigsaw classroom. In E.
an appropriate and effective approach towards Aronson (Ed.). Improving academic achievement
(pp. 209-225). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
inclusion will depend on the degree of pressure for
diversity, the type of diversity in question, and attitudes Bezrukova, K., Jehn, K., & Spell, C.S. (2012).
of the leadership. Firms that use DT for more Reviewing diversity training: Where we have been
representative recruitment and better grievance and where we should go. The Academy of
handling are designed to preempt lawsuits by policing Management Learning & Education, 11(2), 207-227.
managers’ thoughts and actions, not effecting real DOI:10.5465/amle.2008.0090
change. Often DT courses are compulsory to attend for
employees, resulting in annoyance and resistance. On
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 07

Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the Greens, E. (2000). Most colleges require diversity
same and different at the same time. Personality & education. The Chronicle of Higher Education,
Social Psychology Bulletin, 17(5), 475–482. 47(10), A 16.

Carter, M., & Maxwell, K. (1998). Promoting Hillman, J., & Martin, R. A. (2002). Lessons about
interaction with children using augmentative gay and lesbian lives: A spaceship exercise.
c o m mu n i c a t i o n t h r o u g h a p e e r ‐ d i r e c t e d Teaching of P s y c h o l o g y , 2 9 ( 4 ) , 3 0 8 - 3 1 1 .
intervention. International Journal of Disability https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328023T OP2904_12
Development and Education, 45, 75-96.
Hopkins, K., Cohen-Callow, A., Kim, H.J., & Hwang,
Case, K. A., & Stewart, B. (2010). Changes in J. (2010). Beyond intent to leave: Using multiple
diversity course student prejudice and attitudes outcome measures for assessing turnover in child
toward heterosexual privilege and gay marriage. welfare. Children & Youth Services Review, 32(10),
Teaching of Psychology, 37(3), 172-177. https:/ 1380-1387. OI:10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.06.006.
/doi.org /10.1080 /00986283.2010.488555.
Klak, T., & Martin, P. (2003). Do university-
Cox, W.T.L. (2023). Developing scientifically validated sponsored international cultural events help
bias and diversity trainings that work: Empowering students to appreciate “difference”?. International
agents of change to reduce bias, create inclusion, Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27(4), 445-465.
and promote equity. Management Decision, 61(4), https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(03)00033-6
1038- 1061. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-06-
2021-0839 Kulik, C. T., & Roberson, L. (2008). Diversity
initiative effectiveness: What organizations can
Dennis, V.H., Layton, D., & Prince, S. (2015). (and cannot) expect from diversity recruitment,
Diver sity Matter s. McKinsey & Company. diversity training, and for mal mentoring
programs. In A. P. Brief (Ed.), Diversity at work
Dobbin, F.R., & Kalev, A. (2016). Why diversity (pp. 265–317). Cambridge University Press.
programs fail. Harvard Business Review, 94, 14. https://doi.org/10. 1017/ BO9780511753725.010

Dover, T.L., Kaiser, C.R., & Major, B. (2020). Mixed LaPiere, R.T. (1934). Attitudes vs. actions. Social
signals: The unintended effects of diversity Forces, 13(2), 230–237, https://doi. org/10
initiatives. Social Issues & Policy Review, 14(1), 152- .2307/2570339.
181. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12059.
Lindsey, A., King, E., Hebl, M., & Levine, N. (2014).
Esty, K., Griffin, R., & Hirsch, M. S. (1995). A The impact of method, motivation, and empathy
manager’s guide to solving problems and turning diversity on diversity training effectiveness. Journal of
into a competitive advantage: Workplace diversity. B u s i n e s s a n d P s y c h o l o g y, 3 0 ( 3 ) , 6 0 5 - 6 1 7 .
Boston: Adams Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-014-9384-3

Gollnick, D. M., & Chinn, P. C. (2002). Multicultural Mansoori-Rostam, S. M., & Tate, C. C. (2017). Peering
education in a pluralistic society (6th ed.). Merrill into the “black box” of education interventions and
Prentice Hall attitude change: Audience characteristics moderate
the effectiveness… and then only toward specific
Gonzalez, J. A., & Denisi, A. S. (2009). Cross-level targets. The Journal of Social Psychology, 157(1), 1-15.
effects of demography and diversity climate on https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2016.1152211
organizational attachment and firm effectiveness.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(1), 21–40. McDermott, D. T., Brooks, A. S., Rohleder, P., Blair,
https://doi. org/10.1002/job.498 K., Hoskin, R. A., & McDonagh, L. K. (2018).
Ameliorating transnegativity: Assessing the
Green T. L., & Hagiwara N. (2020, August 28). The immediate and extended efficacy of a pedagogic
problem with implicit bias training. Scientific prejudice reduction intervention. Psychology &
American. https://www.scientificamerican.com S e x u a l i t y, 9 ( 1 ) , 6 9 - 8 5 . 1 0 . 1 0 8 0 / 1 9 4 1 9 8
/article/the-problem-with-implicit-bias-training 99.2018.1429487.
Page 08 Editorial

McLeskey, J., & Waldron, N. L. (2007). Making and model for further research. Journal of
differences ordinary in inclusive classrooms. Management, 37(4), 1262-1289. doi:10.1177/01492
Intervention in School and Clinic, 42(3), 162-168. 06310385943.

Mor Barak (2015). Inclusion is the key to diversity Stewart, E. (19 May 2018). Starbucks says everyone's a
management, but what is inclusion? Human Service customer after Philadelphia bias incident. Vox.com,
O r g a n i z a t i o n s M a n a ge m e n t , 3 9 ( 2 ) , 8 3 - 8 8 . Vox Media.www.vox.com/identities/2018/5/
DOI:10.1080/23303131.2015.1035599 19/17372164/starbucks-incident-bias-bathroom-
policy-philadelphia.
Mor Barak, M. E., & Travis, D. J. (2013).
Socioeconomic trends: Broadening the diversity UN Agenda 2030 - Directorate of Programme Co-ordination
ecosystem. In The Oxford handbook of diversity and - www.coe.int. (n.d.). Directorate of Programme
work (p. 393). Oxford University Press. Co-ordination. Retrieved from https://www.coe.
int/en/web/programmes/un-2030agenda#:~:
Murrar, S., Campbell, M. R., & Brauer, M. (2020). text=The%202030%agenda#:~:text=The%2020
Exposure to peers’ pro-diversity attitudes increases 30%
inclusion and reduces the achievement gap. Nature
Human Behaviour, 4(9), 889–897. https://doi.org/ Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2007). A question of
10.1038/s41562-020-0899-5 belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
Paluck, E.L., Porat, R., Clark, C.S., & Green, D.P. 92(1), 82–96. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-
(2021). Prejudice reduction: Progress and 3514.92.1.82
challenges.Annual Review of Psychology, 72,
533–560. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-071620-
030619.

Richards, H. V., Brown, A. F., & Forde, T. B. (2007).

Addressing diversity in schools: Culturally
responsive pedagogy. Teaching Exceptional Children,
39(3), 64-68.

Robinson, G. & Dechant, K. (1997). Building a

business case for diversity. The Academy of
Management Executive, 11(3), 21-31.
https://doi.org/10.5465/AME.1997
.9709231661.

Robinson, G. & Dechant, K. (1997). Building a

business case for diversity. The Academy of
Management Executive, 11(3), 21-31.https://doi.org
/10.5465/AME.1997.9709231661.

Rudman L. A., Greenwald A. G., McGhee D. E.

(2001). Implicit self-concept and evaluative implicit
gender stereotypes: Self and ingroup share
desirable traits. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin,27(9),1164–1178.10.1177/0146167201
279009

Shore, L.M., Randel, A.E., Chung, B.G., Dean,

M.A., & Ehrhart, K.H., & Singh, G. (2011).
Inclusion and diversity in work groups: A review
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 09-13

The third way: Indian psychology’s solution to

the limitations of hedonism
MatthewWhoolery1 and Hadley Grant2
Corresponding Author: Matthew Whoolery, Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Western psychology dominates the research, theory, and published works in modern psychology.
Therefore, its theoretical limitations become limitations for the field as a whole. Hedonism is one of these
restricting parameters which disallows certain research, theoretical, and therapeutic considerations. Here it is
suggested that there are many more theories outside the realm of Western psychology that can be employed to
approach psychology and the understanding of people. To create truly meaningful progress in research and
psychology, researchers must be aware of other approaches and perspectives. Indian Psychology, with the three
gunas, allows for a broader understanding of human beings. Understanding the sattvic guna allows and encourages
research, theory and therapeutic systems that explore the importance of love, compassion, and self-transcendence.
Key Words: Indian psychology, gunas, hedonism, altruism, sattva

Psychology has long been dominated by the West. psychology (Whoolery & Wiggins, 2002). For
Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan (2010) point out that example, Rule (1997) argues that hedonism “offers the
this dominance by Western nations means that “96% best–-and perhaps only–hope for meaningful progress
of psychological samples come from countries with in social science” (p. 79). Even behavior that appears
only 12% of the world’s population” (p. 61). This to benefit others is interpreted as hedonistically
dominance in published research and theoretical motivated in most psychological theories, including
psychology means that modern psychology is dominant theorists like Sigmund Freud and Carl
dominated by a very particular set of ideas, values, and Rogers (Beyers & Peterson, 2000). This hedonistic
research findings (Nisbett, 2003). To remedy this assumption can be separated into naïve and
problem, we need to do more than just increase the sophisticated hedonism. Misra (2014) argues that
amount of research conducted by non-Westerners. We Western Psychology draws on both forms of
need to seek out ideas from the psychologies of other hedonism. Naïve hedonism involves the simpler
areas in the world. calculation of seeking immediate pleasure or avoiding
immediate suffering for the individual. The more
In this paper, we address the predominance of the sophisticated form of hedonism, referred to by Misra
Western value of hedonism and how it limits our (2014) as eudaimonic, involves the striving for
understanding of human beings (Gantt, 2000; Reber, perfection, self-enhancement, and fulfillment of one’s
2000). Indian Psychology is one of the most potential. In the end, both are forms of hedonism
systematically developed non-Western psychologies because the ultimate end is the benefit of the
and its view of the three gunas offers an alternative to individual self.
the commonly embraced hedonistic limitation and
allows for a broader understanding of mental health Hedonism can be viewed as limiting because it is
and human motivation. exclusive, not allowing for any other motivation.
Behavior that may be seen by most as loving,
The Limit of Hedonism sacrificing, or even heroic must be re-interpreted as
hedonistically motivated. Even rationality itself is
Hedonism, the seeking of pleasure and avoiding pain, interpreted as based on hedonic calculation (Gantt,
is one of the most dominant ideas in modern
1
Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University-Idaho
2
Undergraduate Student, Brigham Young University-Idaho
Page 10 MatthewWhoolery and Hadley Grant

2000). These ideas mean that love, self-sacrifice, and personality” (Easwaran, 1985, p. 46).
compassion are at best irrational if not entirely
impossible. This may be why Western psychology In his commentary on the Gita, Sri Aurobindo
teaches courses in sexuality and romantic love (1992) describes the three gunas: “Tamas is the
(assumed to be biologically and hedonistically principle and power of inertia; Rajas is the principle of
motivated), but not courses in compassion or familial kinesis, passion, endeavor, equilibrium and harmony
love. It may be surprising for most people because close, (ārambha); Sattwa the principle of assimilation,
loving (non-hedonistic) relationships and belonging equilibrium and harmony” (p. 57). Tamas, the lowest
form an important basis for life. Indeed, in the only of the three gunas, is characterized by laziness, self-
longitudinal study of its kind, the Harvard study found destructiveness, and vanity. The tamasic way of being is
that close, loving relationships were the most important self-seeking, though in the most basic way. An
predictor of good physical and mental health (Vaillant, avoidance of effort is combined with the self-oriented
2012). focus on self-benefit. The second guna, Rajas, is
characterized by energy and desire. This is the way of
The limiting nature of ideas like hedonism often being that leads us to act based on the desire for
show themselves in how our unquestioning personal gain or benefit. The rajasic seeks enjoyments
commitment to the idea leads us to manipulate theories and possessions gained through effort. It seeks self-
and ideas that are based in non-hedonistic systems. For benefit, whether for gain, admiration, or even a belief in
example, much of modern psychology and therapy has eternal blessing. All action is done for a purpose to
embraced mindfulness as a method of self- benefit the self. Sattva, the final guna, is characterized
improvement. These ideas surrounding mindfulness by peacefulness, cheerfulness, and unity. The sattvic
originate in a non-hedonistic system of thought from acts, not for the sake of self-benefit, but for the sake of
Indian and Buddhist roots. The original goals of others and for the work itself.
mindfulness focus on letting go of the individual self,
not enhancing it (Gunaratana, 2011). Indeed, the As we can see, the first of the two gunas, tamas and
whole philosophy at the root of mindfulness rajas belong to what Indian psychology considers the
meditation is loving-kindness toward others and a lower nature where we focus on doing “according to
recognition that all we have comes from the kindness of our desires” (Aurobindo, 1992, p. 522). The rajasic
others–not our own effort (Tegchok, 2006). nature is higher than the tamasic. A society often
benefits from people who seek self-benefit, recognition,
The Three Gunas and wealth. Modern medicine and other technologies
are most often driven by the rajasic, desire-driven
Indian psychology, while accounting for both naïve behavior of people motivated to develop knowledge
and sophisticated forms of hedonism, also has a third and skills. Rajasic energy, then, can provide benefits to
way that allows us to think and analyze outside the both the self and to others. “But in all, whatever law it
hedonistic box. Originating in the Sankya school of may seem to admit, it follows really only the law of the
thought, there are three gunas that characterize human lower self and ego, the restless, untired, self-devouring,
experience (Easwaran, 1985). These gunas are and all-devouring mind” (Aurobindo, 1995, p. 573).
variously referred to as qualities, attributes, ways of Both of these gunas are forms of hedonism, ways of
being, or even types of faith (Aurobindo, 1992; being that don’t allow for genuine compassion,
Easwaran, 1985). The three gunas are: tamas, rajas, affection, or love. They align with the basic assumption
and sattva (also spelled sattwa). The Bhagavad Gita, of hedonism found in Western psychology. However,
originally written somewhere in the range of 400 BCE this is not the end with Indian psychology–there is a
to 200 CE, lays out the basic qualities of each way of third way, the sattvic
being, focusing on how they influence how human
beings act, how they understand the world, even the The Third Way: Sattva
kinds of foods they eat. The gunas are all present in a
person at all times, though they vary in which The sattvic guna, characterized by a sense of harmony
predominates. “Their interplay is the dynamics of and interconnection with other human beings and the
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 11

divine, is the third possibility that takes us beyond the disinterested. In his commentary on the Gita, Sri
hedonic limit we find in Western psychology. The Aurobindo (1992) states that “this new movement is of
sattvic way of being is free from attachment to the the nature of a powerful adventure into the unknown
outcome of their actions, basing their decisions not on or partly known, a daring development and a new
what will benefit or harm the self, but what is right. The conquest” (p. 520). The Bhagavad Gita itself teaches
rajasic person makes decisions between what to do or this through a metaphor, saying that the rajasic self-
not to do, but not rightly. Unlike the sattvic, the rajasic seeking seems like the best way to have the best life.
makes decisions on what will benefit and harm the self, The abandoning of one’s own interest seems, on its
not on what is right. For the sattvic, it is important to face, to be a recipe for loss and unhappiness. However,
understand that what might benefit or harm the self the Gita teaches in 18:37-38 “That which seems like
might not be what matters when we look at the whole. poison at first, but tastes like nectar in the end–this is
Therefore, to know what is right, we must look beyond the joy of sattva, born of a mind at peace with itself.
self-interest. “Truth is not merely whatever our own Pleasure from the senses seems like nectar at the first
personality is or creates…Beyond that personality but it is bitter as poison in the end. This is the kind of
there is, first, a universal being as well as a universal happiness that comes from the rajasic” (Easwaran,
becoming of which ours is a little movement” 1985, p. 260). Letting go of self-interest seems like
(Aurobindo, 1992, p. 524). All actions must be poison, like we are being asked to abandon all of our
understood in the larger web of being, of which ours is desires and wants. However, this bitter-looking
but a little movement. The web includes the needs of all asceticism turns to the nectar we experience when we
other beings, including our close relations, our have harmony, peace of mind, and a sense of
communities, and the world of all beings including in belonging and oneness. The seeming-nectar of the self-
nature. Our needs and considerations are not seeking rajas turns to poison when we find ourselves
unimportant, but in the sattvic way of being we see isolated, lonely, and disconnected. Tragically, these
them for what they are, a little part of a much larger a r e c o m m o n s y m p t o m s t h a t u n d e r l ay t h e
whole. One might contrast this self-decentering with psychological struggles of many Westerners (Hari,
the typical self-centering encouraged in most Western 2019).
psychologies (see Rogers, 1947).
What are the characteristics that we would expect
This self-transcendent aspect of the sattvic guna is of the person who develops and strengthens the sattvic
also expressed by some non-mainstream Western way of being in themselves? Sri Aurobindo describes
psychologists like Viktor Frankl (1992). He argues that the sattvic person as having “high purity of the reason
“being human always points, and is directed, to and will, an equal soul, a deep peace and calm, a wide
something, or someone, other than oneself…What is sympathy and preparation of oneness, a reflection of
called self-actualization is not an attainable aim at all, the inner soul’s divine gladness in the mind, life, and
for the simple reason that the more one would strive for body” (1992, p. 532). The calculating nature we find in
it, the more he would miss it. In other words, self- the tamasic and rajasic mind is reduced and “all the
actualization is possible only as a side-effect of self- action of the perfected soul will be even such a
transcendence” (p. 115). Frankl argues here that the constant divine giving of itself and its powers, an
purpose of the self is always directed outward, toward outflowing of the knowledge, light, strength, love, joy,
a work and to people outside oneself. Since human helpful Shakti which it possesses in the Divine” (p.
beings are not their own purpose, the only way to fulfill 534). The Bhagavad Gita describes the sattvic person
one’s purpose is to seek the purposes of others. as one who is “giving simply because it is right to give,
without thought of return” (Easwaran, 1985, p. 248).
To the Western mind, this self-transcendence and Notice that all of these attributes describe a person
minimization of the individual may seem unpleasant who is out-flowing, giving, cheerful, and at peace.
and even counterproductive or counter-factual. Indian These kinds of characteristics are literally impossible
psychology does not minimize the challenge required in most of the theories in Western psychology, but are
of us to put away the selfish and become self- a genuine and desired way to be in the Indian tradition.
Page 12 MatthewWhoolery and Hadley Grant

This perspective allows for Indian psychologists to theories of therapy and mental health are dominated
study human characteristics like compassion, love, and by hedonistic values. In fact, in the author’s research
non-hedonistic altr uism. It also allows on current evaluations of mental health, not a single
psychotherapists to evaluate and encourage such measure of mental health used in a therapeutic context
virtues. included even one question evaluating a non-
hedonistic characteristic. Items focused on decreasing
What Indian Psychology Can Offer the West negative personal symptoms and increasing personal
positive emotions were instead dominant. If we can
As mentioned above, the limitations of a psychology incorporate sattvic values, we can look directly at how
restrained by a limited set of values is not just a altruism, kindness, love, and belonging influence our
question of the accuracy of its data. It also means that mental well-being. Some Indian psychologists directly
the ideas of that psychology limit the possibilities of address whether their patients are loving and kind to
how we understand human beings. The domination of others or not. Varma (2014) directly addresses the
hedonism in Western psychology can only be sattvic values in a therapeutic context, arguing that the
overcome by addressing the values that we find in other goals of therapy of Indian psychology go beyond ego
psychologies. Indian psychology, in this case, can open strength and toward love. “Love has an extraordinary
possibilities in research, theory, and practice that are transformative power which can heal all breaches and
not available in a psychology limited to the tamasic and wounds in our consciousness, and eventually liberate
rajasic gunas. us from fear, guilt, and egoism” (p. 203).
How can the sattvic possibility open up new Conclusion
research opportunities? Since hedonism has long been
assumed, Western psychologists do not look for, or Since Western psychology dominates the research,
even allow for, evaluation of altruism and self-sacrifice. theory, and published works in modern psychology, its
Researchers might study how altr uistic and theoretical limitations become limitations for the field
compassionate motivations and behaviors develop in as a whole. Hedonism is one of these restricting
childhood. They may study how the sattvic qualities parameters which disallows certain research,
influence a sense of belonging and interconnection theoretical, and therapeutic considerations. Indian
with others. Since the sattvic way of being is now Psychology, with the three gunas, allows for a broader
allowed as a possibility, researchers might study how understanding of human beings. The sattvic guna
those with higher levels of self-forgetfulness, loving- allows for non-hedonistic conceptions of human
kindness, and unity-consciousness fare in their mental beings. Understanding the sattvic way of being allows
health compared to those with a more tamasic or and encourages research, theory and therapeutic
rajasic way of being. systems that explore the importance of love,
compassion, and self-transcendence.
An acceptance of this third way from Indian
psychology opens up new theoretical directions. While References
there are some genuine exceptions to hedonism-
dominant theories (see Adler, 1964; Frankl, 1992), Adler, A. (1964). Social interest: A challenge to mankind.
most ignore or reject the sattvic ways of being that are New York: Capricorn Books.
an important way of understanding human beings in
Indian psychology. We might find personality theories Aurobindo, S. (1992). The Bhagavad Gita: With text,
and theoretical understandings of human beings that translation, and commentary in the words of Sr
Aurobindo. Sri Aurobindo Divine Life Trust.
allow for, and even encourage, sattvic traits.
Aurobindo, S. (1995). Essays on the Gita. Lotus Press.
Another place in which this third way can
influence what we do in Western psychology is in the
Beyers, M. S. & Peterson, M.J. (2000). A contradiction
field of psychotherapy. Western and American
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 13

in terms: Hedonistic altruism. The General Varma, S. (2014). Integral psychology: A new science
Psychologist, 35, 78-80. of self, personality, and psychology. In R.M.M.
Cornelissen, G. Misra & S. Varma (Eds.).
Easwaran, E. (1985). The Bhagavad Gita: Introduced and Foundations and Applications of Indian Psychology
translated by Eknath Easwaran. Nilgiri Press. (pp. 183-204). New Delhi: Pearson Education.

Frankl, V. E. (1992). Man’s search for meaning. Beacon Whoolery, M. & Wiggins, B. (2002). Hedonism and its
Press. hold on education. Presented at the annual
conference of the American Association of
Gantt, E. (2000). Cognitive psychology, rationality, Behavioral and Social Sciences
and the assumption of hedonism. The General
Psychologist, 35, 82-86.

Gunaratana, B. H. (2011). Mindfulness in plain English.

Wisdom Publications.

Hari, J. (2019). Lost connections: Why you’re depressed and

how to find hope (Reprint). Bloomsbury Publishing.

Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The

weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain
Sciences, 33, 61–135.https://doi.org/10.1017/
s0140525x0999152x

Misra, G. (2014). Psychology of emotions: Some

cultural perspectives. In R.M.M. Cornelissen, G.
Misra & S. Varma (Eds.). Foundations and
Applications of Indian Psychology (pp. 205-222). New
Delhi: Pearson Education.

Nisbett, R. E. (2003). The geography of thought: How

Asians and Westerners think differently…and why.
New York: Free Press.

Reber, J. (2000). Privileging hedonism: Confounds and

consequences. The General Psychologist, 35, 80-82.

Rogers, C. R. (1947). Some observations on the

o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y. A m e r i c a n
Psychologist, 2, 358-368.

Rule, J. B. (1997). Theory and progress in social

science. Cambridge University Press.

Tegchok, G. J. (2006). The Kindness of Others: A

Commentary on the Seven-Point mind Training. Lama
Yeshe Wisdom Archive.

Vaillant, G. E. (2012). Surprising findings. In triumphs

of experience: The men of the Harvard grant
study (pp. 328–350). Harvard University Press.
https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt2jbxs1.13
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 14-23

Keep thy friends close: Maintenance behaviours,

gender differences and contingent self-esteem
Dhairya Mohla1, Sarthak Paliwal2, & Anisha Juneja3

Abstract: Friendship holds a special significance for the kind of satisfaction, growth and support it provides. The
impact of friendships intensifies as adolescents move to the stage of young adulthood since they have entered a
developmental period characterised by greater independence. Whether friendships sustain or fade away, is
determined by the needs they continue to fulfil. The aim of the present study was to determine whether friendship
maintenance behaviours predict friendship contingent self-esteem. The study included 120 young adults (60 males
and 60 females) ranging in age from 16 to 22 years, who were administered Friendship Maintenance Scale (FMS)
(Oswald et al., 2004) and Friendship Contingent Self-Esteem Scale (FCSE) (Cambron et al., 2009). The nature and
differences in perception of same-sex and opposite-sex friendships in men and women were also studied. This study,
with its contradicting findings from previous studies, opens the door to fresh discourse on whether the shifting
concept of gender and the societal landscape actually influence people's perceptions of friendships. The study may
reflect how changing societal maps, fluid notions of gender, co-ed systems of education, and the distinctions
between same-sex and opposite-sex friendships are changing.

Keywords: friendship, friendship maintenance, self-esteem, same sex friendships, opposite sex friendships

Friendships are considered crucial in one’s life. Friends individuals are grouped separately based on their sex,
enrich one’s lives, provide satisfaction (Demir & hence, friendships get confined to the divided groups
Weitekamp, 2007), help in socialization (Ferrer & only (Howes, 1988; Maccoby, 1998). Still, as people
Fugate, 2002), life adjustment and understanding age, their opposite sex interaction also increases and
societal norms (Berndt & Keefe, 1995). they are able to form friendships with them as well
(McDougall & Hymel, 2007). However, gender
Friendships have different roles and functions differences continue to persist in perception of
across developmental stages of one’s life. While friendships. Felmlee and colleagues (2012) showed in
friendship during childhood meant sharing toys and their study that women, in their friendships, hold
playing parallel to each other, for teenagers and young stricter ‘rules’ or norms and higher expectations
adults, it is linked closely to trust and intimacy. relating to trust and intimacy than men.
Research also states that adults value work friendships
more since they provide knowledge and awareness Maintaining Friendships
about things (Pica & Verno, 2010). For older adults,
friendships improve their mental health and protect Like any other human relationship, friendships too turn
them from depressive thoughts and feelings of sour and lose their effect. Wiseman (1986) talked about
isolation (Blieszner et al., 2019). friendships as being fragile bonds because there is no
actual social pressure to maintain them. Research
People tend to befriend people who are mostly highlights that individuals use similar maintenance
like them, having similar interests and traits (Fournet & behaviour in friendships like they do for other
Barrat, 2014). Studies also claim that people tend to relationships, comparatively, they take less effort in
become better friends with individuals of same sex friendship maintenance (Canary et al., 1993). Fehr
than of opposite sex (Baumgarte & Nelson, 2009). This (1996) talked about conflict resolutions in friendships
may stem from the fact that since the age of two, which brought features like self-disclosure, honesty, and

1
Undergraduate student, Department of Psychology, Aryabhatta College
2
Post graduate Student, Psychosocial Clinical Studies, Ambedkar University
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Aryabhatta College
Corresponding Author: Dhairya Mohla, Email: [email protected]
Page 15 Dhairya Mohla, Sarthak Paliwal & Anisha Juneja

openness in the picture. It was Oswald and colleagues related to homophily, men stated same sex and opposite
(2004) who defined friendship maintenance as sex friendships to be more or less similar while women
behaviours involving strategies and routine behaviours regarded opposite sex friendships as less intimate and
used to sustain committed and satisfactor y reliable.
relationships. Four major traits were identified by them
under friendship maintenance - interaction, positivity, History of Gender Differences in Friendship
supportiveness and openness.
The expectation that opposite-sex friendship (OSF)
Interaction entails spending time together and psychology will differ from SSF psychology is
participating in collaborative activities. Being in close supported by compelling evolutionary theoretical
proximity is vital for friendships because it allows other grounds. Men experienced more adaptive issues in
qualities to shine. When people have best friends, they prehistoric environments related to hunting and
are more comfortable with other people and have warfare than did women, whereas women witnessed
better interpersonal happiness than those who find it issues closely related to gathering and childcare
difficult to form friendships. (Silverman et al., 2007). Thus, men's same-sex
friendship (SSF) psychology exhibits preferences for
Positivity includes the pleasant emotions, buddies engaging in conflict and hunting-related
conversations and behaviours that benefit both behaviours. On the other hand, the adaptive issue of
individuals. Everyday contacts with another person finding trustworthy childcare has had an impact on
result in feeling at ease and being emotionally happy female friendships. Most importantly, OSFs might have
(Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015). Furthermore, when made better partners than friends, which again boils
something wonderful happens, we want to inform our down to survival needs.
best friend causing a convergence of emotions in which
the buddy also receives a surge of positive sentiments Research (Hays, 1989; Rose, 1984) shows that there
(Anderson et al., 2003). can also be gender disparities in the usage of
maintenance behaviours. Male friendships have also
Supportiveness means that friends bring assurance shown less reciprocity than female friendships between
and are available when we require assistance. It has same-sex partners. For example, compared to male
been discovered that closest friends offer their support SSFs, female SSFs reported higher levels of closeness,
equally, resulting in a self-other agreement: when each acceptance, attachment, compassion and trust. Males
friend considers their companion as an extension of claimed that engaging in same-sex interplay cost them
themselves. time, frustration, and boredom.

Openness is the stage at which both friends feel Studies on cross-sex friendship maintenance
comfortable disclosing personal and sensitive practices have produced a range of results. For instance,
information to one another. Rose (1984) found that cross-sex friendships were less
likely than same-sex friendships to report using
In the present study, since the researchers are maintenance techniques. On the other hand, the
looking at gender difference as a crucial variable, how acceptance, effort, time, and commitment levels in male
different genders perceive friendships and to what and female same-sex friendships were higher, as were
extent they engage in friendship maintenance the degrees of similar interests.
behaviours will be explored.
However, Monsour (2016) regarded that we had
Female friendships are higher in quality and self- been poorly defining same-sex and opposite sex
disclosure which is believed to maintain that friendships, and do not understand their benefits truly.
relationship (Leung, 2002). Also, compared to men, It is an artificial gender binary concept along the lines of
women show more relational maintenance behaviour which we are trying to create these differences and
when it comes to friendships (Demir et al., 2011; understand friendship. There is nothing natural and
Oswald et al., 2004). When it came to comparison scientific about these differences, rather just
sociological constructs.
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 16

Self-esteem and its link to friendship Objectives

Friendships with high self-esteem have various • To study differences in male and female friendship
characteristics such as mutual affection and respect, maintenance patterns.
and positive interactions outnumber negative ones • To s t u d y t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n f r i e n d s h i p -
more frequently. Disagreements don't endanger the contingent self-esteem between men and women.
friendship. Friendships with strong self-esteem are • To study the nature and differences in percepti
on of same-sex and opposite-sex friendships in
caring because they encourage intimacy and
men and women.
connection among the participants. Both friends feel
secure and at ease. Hypotheses
Although friendships have significant effects on • There will be no significant difference in
individuals, it can be harmful to one's mental health to friendship maintenance perceptions in men and
base one's self-worth on the calibre of one's friendships. women.
Having self-esteem that is reliant on one or more • There will be no significant difference in men and
domains is known as contingent self-esteem, a concept women’s friendship maintenance perceptions
first proposed by James (1890). Experiencing both of same-sex friendships.
positive and bad experiences in a particular domain • There will be a significant difference in men and
can cause changes in overall self-esteem. The amount women’s friendship maintenance perceptions of
opposite-sex friendships.
to which one regards relationships as part of oneself
• There will be no significant difference in
and self-esteem that is dependent on peer acceptance friendship contingent self-esteem in men and
(Crocker & Knight, 2005) is also measured. Self- women.
esteem that depends on how well friendships are going • Friendship maintenance perception will predict
is known as friendship contingent self-esteem. friendship contingent self-esteem.

Present Study Method

Although there are a significant number of studies that Participants

demonstrate the differences between same-sex and
opposite-sex friendships, there are very few that move 120 young adults (60 males and 60 females) between
beyond the single variable. Also, most of the research is the age group of 16 to 22 years participated in the study.
quite old in the sociological context considering the 30 males and 30 females filled the questionnaire
increase in exposure and concept of equality among keeping in mind a friend of the opposite sex, and same
different genders. Thus, the researchers wanted to for same-sex friendship. A non-probability convenience
revisit those gender differences in friendship styles, sampling method was used. The questionnaire’s link
maintenance and association with self-esteem. was distributed through internet groups. The
participants were instructed to keep only one friend
The purpose of this study was also to assess the (either of same-sex or of opposite-sex) in mind while
impact of friendship on one’s self-esteem. Through the filling the questionnaire over Google Forms.
literature reviewed, the researchers could not find
studies available on the subject in an Indian societal The mean age of the participants was 19.45 years, all
context for young-adults. Since friendships impact residing majorly in Delhi, India.
one’s self-esteem in various ways, this study’s findings
will be crucial to understand the role of maintenance
behaviours on one’s self-esteem.
Page 17 Dhairya Mohla, Sarthak Paliwal & Anisha Juneja

Table 1

Demographic characteristics of the participants

Gender Friendship type N M

Male Same-Sex 30 20

Opposite-Sex 30 19.22

Female Same-Sex 30 20.11

Opposite-Sex 30 21.2

Figure 1

Proximity with Friends of the sample

Figure 2

Duration of Friendship of the sample

The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 18

Measures Used come from pre-existing self-esteem scales, rest of the

items were particularly constructed by the developers
This study made use of a questionnaire (google form) of the scale. The Cronbach alpha value was reported by
which consisted of questions related to friendship the scale developers as .93, showing internal reliability.
maintenance and the impact of friendship on one’s self The scale also showed high validity with other
esteem. measures of self-esteem and yet stood out distinct from
other measures as well for being strictly friendship-
Friendship Maintenance Scale (FMS) (Oswald et al., 2004). contingent.
A 20-item questionnaire, FMS assesses friendship
maintenance using four subscales - Positivity, Analysis
Supportiveness, Openness and Interaction. The
Cronbach alpha reliabilities for each subscale is high t-tests for independent samples were run to study the
(Positivity - 0.92, Supportiveness - 0.90, Openness - differences between male and female friendship
0.84, Interaction - 0.74). The participant is supposed to maintenance scores and friendship contingent self-
consider either their best or close friend who does not esteem scores. Male versus female same-sex and male
also fall under the category of their significant other to versus female opposite-sex data was also analysed
answer the items by rating along a 11 point Likert scale through t-tests to see differences. Within same genders
with anchors “never” (1) and “frequently” (11). as well, same-sex versus opposite-sex data was
examined to find significant differences. Lastly, a linear
Friendship Contingent Self-Esteem Scale (FCSE) (Cambron regression analysis was also done to see any relation
et al., 2009). The FCSE scale is an eight-item scale with a between friendship maintenance and friendship-
5-point Likert system (1= very little like me, 5= very contingent self-esteem.
much like me). While two of the items of the scale
Results
Table 2
Independent samples t-test scores for differences in Same-Sex versus Opposite-sex friendship maintenance behaviour and
contingent self-esteem in men and women
Mean (SD) t (df=58)

Variable
Men Women Men Women

Same sex 158.33 (25.55) 168.90 (20.65)

friendship
maintenance
behaviour
.47 1.022
Opposite sex
friendship 154.70 (34.08) 163.67 (18.97)
maintenance
behaviour

Same sex 15.10 (7.59) 16.83 (5.16)

Friendship
contingent self
esteem 2.47 .41

Opposite sex
Friendship
contingent self 19.67 (6.71) 17.50 (7.26)
esteem
Page 19 Dhairya Mohla, Sarthak Paliwal & Anisha Juneja

The results showed no significant difference between same-sex and opposite-sex friendships of men as well as
women on the variables of maintenance behaviour and self-esteem

Table 3

Impact of friendship maintenance perception on friendship contingent self esteem

Variable B ∆R2 t F

Friendship contingent
self esteem .04 .01 .48 .23

The regression analysis showed no significant impact orientations and co-existence of these identities in
of friendship maintenance perception on contingent shared physical spaces. The researchers hence were
self-esteem of the participants. interested in studying the validity of friendship related
constructs in today’s time. The researchers proposed a
Discussion few hypotheses in the current study that went against
the existing literature, and wanted to see if they were
Friendship is one of the closest ties that individuals held true or not.
have. Good quality friendships are crucial for a person’s
well-being because they promote intimacy and The first hypothesis of the study stated that there
connection among those involved. The current study's will be no differences in men and women’s scores on
objective was to look into young adults' friendship friendship maintenance scale. As can be seen in Table
maintenance behaviours, understand how friendships 3.3 and 3.4, this hypothesis was accepted. In
impact one's self-esteem and how these dynamics come contradiction to the existing literature (Demir et al.,
into play. The interplay of same-sex and opposite-sex 2011; Oswald et al., 2004) which showed that women
friendships was studied, with the goal of determining put in more effort in maintaining friendships than men,
whether there are any differences in maintenance there was no difference found in the present study.
behaviours. Lastly, an investigation was carried out to
comprehend if friendship maintenance behaviour has The second hypothesis of the study postulated that
an impact on friendship-contingent self-esteem. men and women will also not have any differences in
friendship maintenance behaviour in same-sex
Previous literature in this domain showed that friendships. On the contrary, the third hypothesis said
gender differences exist in the use of maintenance that men and women will vary in their friendship
behaviours (Hall et al., 2011; Hays, 1989; Oswald et al., maintenance behaviour when it comes to opposite-sex
2004; Rose, 1984). Female same-sex friendships, for friendships. While the second hypothesis was against
example, reported much higher degrees of intimacy, the existing literature, the third one was in line with the
acceptance, attachment, compassion, self-disclosure, previous studies only because the researchers believed
and trust than male same-sex friendships (Hays, 1989). people still hold some biases and values in the Indian
In addition, when it comes to friendships, women context when it comes to opposite-sex friendships.
exhibit greater relational maintenance behaviours than Interestingly, the second hypothesis was retained while
men (Demir et al., 2011). Also, when it comes to the third one was proven false. The results showed no
homophily comparisons, women perceive opposite sex differences in scores in either kind of friendships.
friendships to be less intimate, less trustworthy, and less Previous findings by researchers (Gallagher et al., 2020;
reliable as compared to men. Hays, 1989; Rose, 1984) showed that women found
trust and intimacy more in same-sex relationships as
Today, the understanding of gender is changing. compared to opposite-sex friendships while only men
Considering the urban context specially, there is an did not find any such differences in their same sex
extensive exposure to gender continuum, varied sexual friendships or opposite sex friendships.
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 20

Further, the fourth hypothesis stated that there Gender identities or expressions that differ from their
would be no difference among men and women’s biological sex or from societal and cultural gender
friendship-contingent self-esteem scores. standards, are being reported by an increasing number
of youngsters and adolescents. Some people identify as
Four out of five hypotheses of the present study transgender, while others identify as nonbinary or
bring out an idea that the perception of friendship gender flexible (Diamond, 2020). As stereotyped
(same sex or opposite sex friendships) among men and heteronor mative gender nor ms weaken, this
women is more or less similar and no statistical d eve l o p m e n t e n a b l e s f o r t h e ex p r e s s i o n o f
differences exist among them. These are in stark nonconforming gender neutrality (Gosling, 2018).
contrast to previous research. One may believe that Their gender identification or expression is protean in
previous research in this area is quite old and times nature and can include one, several, or no gender. Thus,
have changed since then. But what has actually the binary systems can no longer explain friendship
changed in the last two to three decades is the maintenance easily.
sociological map of our world. From becoming a
globalized world to empowering women in every area The last hypothesis was a unique addition by the
of work, society has significantly reduced the gap researchers in this area of research as they addressed
between men and women, and thus, blurring the lines the question if friendship maintenance behaviour
that separate their roles and identities. Discussions and influences friendship-contingent self-esteem or not.
reports from the World Bank (2011) and United The findings (Table 3.5) showed no significant result,
Nations show that the wage gap between women and hence, the hypothesis did not hold true.
men has significantly reduced in low-income sectors
because of globalization. Better job opportunities have One argument that could be given for the last
been created for women worldwide. Speaking at a finding can be associated with the fact that most of the
more micro-level, co-ed education has been participants in the study (68%) had friends living in
implemented worldwide to bridge the gender close proximity to them (see Figure 2.1). Research by
difference in society. While Narwana and Rathee Preciado and colleagues (2012) suggests that the
(2017) believe that only providing co-education is not importance of distance in friendship weakens as
enough to reduce the differences, it can be believed to individuals get older, and distance becomes more
have some effect. important for creating than for maintaining friendships.
Still, one might ask if distance has to do anything with
If the researchers highlight the demographic of the friendship maintenance behaviour and contingent self-
sample, it will become evident that most of them esteem. The present research shows that individuals do
belong to urban socio-cultural background, having not engage much in friendship maintenance behaviour
studied in co-ed schools and colleges, having exposure in close-proximity friendships, thus, not leading to a
to same sex and opposite sex friendships in their social high link with contingent self-esteem. One might even
environment. This can be attributed as a reason why attempt to say that long distance might demand more
they may not have perceived any differences in the two effort and maintenance behaviour to continue
kinds of friendships. This continuous interaction friendships as seen in other research (Johnson et al.,
between girls and boys since childhood reduces 2009). This gives way for further research in this area.
awkwardness and hesitation, thus, giving space to
develop healthy friendships, without directly seeking Limitations and Directions for Future Research
the opposite-sex as a romantic or mating partner (Rose,
1984). There are limitations to the present study with respect
to understanding the friendship dynamics in the Indian
Over the years, differences have arisen in the way context. There is a lot of disparity in the population
gender is perceived. Times have evolved and gender is with respect to factors like level of education,
now seen as a fluid concept and not just through the employment, personality factors, residence and there
binary lens with which it was viewed in the past. will always be differences in the urban and rural set up.
The urban population has easy access to resources and
Page 21 Dhairya Mohla, Sarthak Paliwal & Anisha Juneja

more interaction with the opposite sex. References

Even after its limitations, the present study still Anderson, C., Keltner, D., & John, O. P. (2003).
brings a new discourse of discussion in the existing Emotional convergence between people over
literature. It brings the idea that with the changing time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
sociological map, norms and gender differences in the 84(5), 1054–1068.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022
globalized world, the nature of friendships and -3514.84.5.1054
people’s perceptions of them are also evolving. Gender
Antill, J. K., & Cunningham, J. A. (1979). Self-esteem
is no longer a binary construct, the exposure to other as a function of masculinity in both sexes.
sexes is not an alien concept in urban and even rural Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.
settings, friendships are not confined to physically https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.47.4.783
proximal spaces and has expanded to virtual and
global spaces. Considering all these notions, the Baumgarte, R., & Nelson, D. W. (2009). Preference for
implication of the present study can be seen in the form same- versus cross-sex friendships. Journal of
of a transition from old research set in a different Applied Social Psychology, 39(4), 901–917.
sociological landscape and the new world that is slowly https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.
unfolding. Future research can consider the above 00465.x
mentioned changes and see how friendship and its
Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends' influence on
contingent self-esteem evolves in these new settings.
adolescents' adjustment to school. Child
The contrasting findings of this study shall give Development, 66(5), 1312-1329.https://doi.org/
something to researchers to think about, and dwell into 10.2307/1131649
more reasons for these disparities in today’s time.
Blieszner, R., Ogletree, A. M., & Adams, R. G. (2019).
Conclusion Friendship in later life: A research agenda.
Innovation in Aging, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.
The present study explored an age-old question of how 1093/geroni/igz005
men and women perceive friendships and make efforts
in maintaining them. As dictated by previous Cambron, M. J., Acitelli, L. K., & Steinberg, L.
literature, men and women differ in their maintenance (2009). When friends make you blue: The role of
behaviour and contingent self-esteem when it comes to friendship contingent self-esteem in predicting
same-sex and opposite-sex friendships. The results of self-esteem and depressive symptoms. Personality
the present study showed no such differences in and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(3), 384–397.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167209351593
maintenance behaviour and contingent self-esteem.
Globalization, changing gender roles and reducing
Canary, D. J., Stafford, L., Hause, K. S., & Wallace, L.
differences among men and women in education and E. (1993). An inductive analysis of relational
workspaces could be the possible reasons. Also, the maintenance strategies: Comparisons among
changing idea of ‘gender’ as a notion was also an l ove r s, r e l a t ive s, f r i e n d s, a n d o t h e r s.
attributable reason. Lastly, the sample being Communication Research Reports, 10(1), 3–14.
completely urban and having grown in proximity and https://doi.org/10.1080/08824099309359913
exposure to opposite-sex relations, emerged as a reason
for the findings and limitation to the study as well. This Crocker, J., & Knight, K. M. (2005). Contingencies of
research, with its divergent findings from existing self-worth. Current Directions in Psychological
studies, gives a space for new discussions and studies Science, 14(4), 200-203.https://doi.org/10.1111
/j.0963-7214.2005.00364.x
on whether the changing idea of gender and
sociological landscape actually influence the Demir, M., Özdemir, M., & Marum, K. (2011).
perception of friendships among people. Pe r c e ive d a u t o n o my s u p p o r t , f r i e n d s h i p
maintenance, and happiness. The Journal of
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 22

Psychology, 145(6), 537–571. sex. Human Communication Research, 37(4), 529

https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2011. -552. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-
6078666 2958.2011.01411.x

Demir, M., & Weitekamp, L. A. (2007). I am so happy Hays, R. T. (1989). The day-to-day functioning of
cause today I found my friend: Friendship and close versus casual friendships. Journal of Social
personality as predictors of happiness. Journal of and Per sonal Relationships, 6(1), 21–37.
Happiness Studies, 8(2), 181–211. https://doi.org/10.1177/026540758900600102
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9012-7
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T.,
Diamond, L. M. (2020). Gender fluidity and & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and social
nonbinary gender identities among children and isolation as risk factors for mortality. Perspectives
adolescents. Child Development Perspectives, on Psychological Science, 10(2), 227–237.
14(2), 110–15.https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352
12366
Howes, C. (1988). Same- and cross-sex friends:
Fehr, B. (1996). Friendship processes. Thousand Oaks, Implications for interaction and social skills.
CA: Sage. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 3(1), 21–37.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0885-2006(88)90027-0
Felmlee, D., Sweet, E., & Sinclair, H. C. (2012).
Gender rules: Same-and cross-gender friendships James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. New
norms. Sex Roles, 66(7-8), 518-529. Yo r k : H e n r y H o l t a n d C o m p a n y.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0109-z http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/11059-000

Ferrer, M., & Fugate, A. (2002). The importance of Johnson, A. J., Becker, J., Craig, E.A., Gilchrist,
friendship for school-age children. University of E.S., & Haigh, M.M. (2009). Changes in
Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute friendship commitment: Comparing
o f Fo o d a n d A g r i c u l t u ra l S c i e n c e s, E D I S. geographically close and long-distance young-
Retrieved October 25 2022 from adult friendships. Communication Quarterly, 57(4),
http://purl.fcla.edu/UF/lib/FY545pdf 395-415.https://doi.org/10.1080/
01463370903313430
Fournet, J., & Barrat, A. (2014). Contact patterns
among high school students. PLoS ONE, 9(9), Leung, L. (2002). Loneliness, self-disclosure, and
e107878.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone. ICQ ("I seek you") use. Cyberpsychology &
0107878 Behavior, 5(3), 241–251.https://doi.org/10.1089
/109493102760147240.
Gallagher, K. R., Burns, T.H., & Stuhlmacher, A.F.
(2020). Keeping our friends close: Friendship Maccoby, E. E. (1998). The two sexes: growing up
maintenance through the roles of gender and apart, coming together. Choice Reviews Online,
negotiation. Research Handbook on Gender and 36(03), 36–1880. https://doi.org/10.5860/
Negotiation,15-30.https://doi.org/10.4337 choice.36-1880
/9781788976763.00010
McDougall, P. P., & Hymel, S. (2007). Same-Gender
Gosling, J. (2018). Gender fluidity reflected in versus Cross-Gender Friendship Conceptions:
contemporary society. Jung Journal, 12(3), Similar or Different? Merrill-palmer Quarterly-
75–79.https://doi.org/10.1080/19342039. jour nal of Developmental Psychology, 53(3),
2018.1479080 347–380.https://doi.org/10.1353/
mpq.2007.0018
Hall, J. A., Larson, K.A., & Watts, A. (2011). Monsour, M. (2016). The hackneyed notions of adult
Satisfying friendship maintenance expectations: “Same-Sex” and “Opposite-Sex” friendships. In
The role of friendship standards and biological M. Hojjat & A.Moyer (Eds.). The Psychology of
Page 23 Dhairya Mohla, Sarthak Paliwal & Anisha Juneja

Friendships (pp. 59–74). Oxford University Press.

Narwana, K., & Rathee, S. (2017). Gender dynamics

in co-education schools: A comparative study of
two schools in India. Les Cahiers D’Outre-mer,
70(276), 31–49. https://doi.org/10.4000/
com.8331

Oswald, D. L., Clark, E. M., & Kelly, C. (2004).

Friendship maintenance: An analysis of
individual and dyad behaviors. Journal of Social
and Clinical Psychology, 23(3), 413–441.
https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.3.413.35460

Pica, E., & Verno, K. (2010). The changing nature of

friendships over the lifespan. Modern Psychological
Studies, 17(2), 36-42.

Preciado, P., Snijders, T. a. B., Burk, W. J., Stattin,

H., & Kerr, M. (2012). Does proximity matter?
Distance dependence of adolescent friendships.
Social Networks, 34(1), 18-31.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2011.01.002

Rose, S. M. (1984). How friendships end: Patterns

among young adults. Journal of Social and Personal
Relationships, 1(3), 267–277.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407584013001

Silverman, I., Choi, J., & Peters, M. A. (2007). The

Hunter-Gatherer theory of sex differences in
spatial abilities: Data from 40 countries. Archives
o f S e x u a l B e h a v i o r, 3 6 ( 2 ) , 2 6 1 – 2 6 8 .
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-006-9168-6

Wiseman, J. P. (1986). Friendship: Bonds and binds

in a voluntary relationship. Journal of Social and
Personal Relationships, 3(2), 191–211.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407586032005

World Bank. (2011). Globalization’s impact on

gender equality: What’s happened and what’s
needed. In World Development Report 2012 (pp.
2 5 4 – 2 7 8 ) . W o r l d B a n k .
https://doi.org/10.1596/9780821388105_ch6
 The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 24-35

What makes you feel like an imposter:

An investigation of caste discrimination and social support
1 1 2
Arushi Gupta , Neelanjana , Megha Dhillon

Abstract: Imposter literature has predominantly been Western, and looked into gender and racial discrimination.
The present study aimed to understand impostorism in the Indian context with a more culturally informed
framework of the Caste System, and also assess the role played by perceived social support (PSS) in mediating this
relationship between caste discrimination and imposter phenomenon (IP). The sample was recruited through non-
probability techniques, and comprised 168 university students in North India (aged 18-25), with 67 belonging to the
Scheduled Castes (SC) and 101 to the General Caste (GEN) groups. The Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale,
Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and the Everyday Discrimination Scale were administered,
following which the data was analyzed using t-test for independent samples, linear regression, and mediation
analysis. Results revealed (1) no significant association between IP and caste discrimination, (2) a significant
difference among GEN and SC students in perceived social support, but not for IP or caste-discrimination, and (3)
significant mediating role of PSS between caste-discrimination and impostorism. These findings suggest the need
for more contextual frameworks, which consider socio-cultural factors, in understanding imposter phenomenon,
especially among marginalized groups.
Keywords: imposter phenomenon, caste-discrimination, perceived social support, India, scheduled castes

‘Imposter phenomenon’ is described as the feeling of (Nadal et al., 2021). This has been defined as part of
perceived fraudulence where people find it difficult to Tajfel’s (1979) social identity theory, which posits that
attribute their success to their own abilities despite an individual’s sense of identity is based on the groups
many achievements and accolades, and believe they ‘identify’ with. For instance, Clance and Imes
themselves to have landed their roles through luck (1978) argued that negative societal messages about
(Parkman, 2016). It can be detrimental to an women and success cause them to seek alternative
individual’s well-being, causing clinically significant explanations for their accomplishments (such as
mental health consequences characterized by fooling others). Similarly, students from ethnic
psychological distress (Cokley et al., 2017). minorities that are perceived as unintelligent may
Researchers have found that it may also have grapple with feelings of imposterism when they secure
undesirable professional implications as it influences admissions to prestigious universities.
career attitudes and organizational behavior
(Vergauwe et al., 2015). Discrimination and Imposter Phenomenon

While researchers have majorly adopted an Negative stereotypes may result in overt discrimination
individualistic approach in conceptualizing imposter towards minority-status groups. How these behaviors
phenomenon (IP) by examining it as a trait, there is a are actually appraised by the individuals of that group
growing realization about larger social contexts is also of importance. Perceived discrimination occurs
characterized by the kind of structures and interactions when individuals ‘perceive’ or ‘experience’
that induce self-doubt about one’s abilities and worth discrimination, which may fall outside the politico-
(Feenstra et al., 2020). A person’s social position may legal definitions of discrimination (Straiton et al.,
play a role as people belonging to marginalized groups 2019). Perceived discrimination has been linked to low
internalize the negative stereotypes associated with self-esteem in marginalized minority groups, a factor
their group identities causing feelings of inadequacy which is implicated in the development of IP (Harris-

1
Undergraduate Student, Department of Psychology, Lady Shri Ram College, University of Delhi
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Lady Shri Ram College, University of Delhi
Corresponding Author: Arushi Gupta, Email: [email protected]
Page 25 Arushi Gupta, Neelanjana, Megha Dhillon

Britt et al., 2007; Verkuyten, 1998). and for reserving seats in legislatures and government
institutions, it cannot be said that this framework is
Although limited, research has found higher entirely obsolete in the current Indian set-up. SCs
prevalence of IP in women and in people of color, two continue to remain the largest deprived section of
groups which have faced considerable discrimination society (Sundaram & Tendulkar, 2003), and are
throughout history (McGregor et al., 2008; Villwock et subjected to discrimination, with crime rate against
al., 2016). Greater vulnerability to IP in women is Dalits having a 66% increase in recent years (NCRB,
related to their disadvantageous social position due to 2017).
internalization of gender hierarchy within the society
(Cokley et al., 2015). Caste Discrimination and IP: Perceived Social
Support as a possible mediator
While the existing literature establishes a link
between IP and discrimination, it focuses mostly on Social support is the existence or availability of people
experiences of minorities in American societies, being on whom we can rely, people who let us know that they
limited to gender and racial discrimination. This care about, value, and love us” (Sarason et
highlights a need for further research in the Indian al.,1983).While received social support refers to
context which also allows for the investigation of the supportive behaviors provided by social networks of an
caste system and its implications as a unique dimension individual, perceived social support refers to the
related to discrimination. individual’s perception of this support pertaining to its
availability and level of satisfaction (Sarason, Sarason
Caste Discrimination in India & Pierce, 1990). A line of research suggests that
perceived social support could be altered due to
The caste system in India is a social hierarchy entered individual experiences. Perceived discrimination may
into by birth that places people into ranked castes called change the way people appraise the availability of
‘varnas’ on the basis of their occupation, and further social support causing an erosion in their perception of
determines a person’s access to wealth, power, and the social support. In this way, discrimination can be a
privilege. At the bottom of this hierarchy are Dalits, or predictor of low perceived social support (Hashemi et
the ‘untouchables’ as they were known historically – al., 2019).
considered ‘outcastes’ and thus, not included in the
four ranked castes of Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, The lack of social support has been found to be
and Shudras. Historically, the Dalits were subject to detrimental to the psychological well-being of the
ostracization and discrimination. They could be individual, with linkages to loneliness, alcohol use,
charged for ‘polluting’ certain things such as temples major depression, posttraumatic stress disorder
with their presence, and were also subject to not only symptoms, and nonspecific psychological distress
social but considerable economic deprivation. Along (Brewin et al., 2000, Finch et al., 1999; Lakey &
with strict rules against inter-caste interactions, Cronin, 2008). On the other hand, literature also
especially in the case of marriages (Hampton, 2010), suggests that high levels of perceived social support are
there also existed stringent barriers around the kind of linked to several desirable health outcomes such as
occupations an individual from a specific caste could increased quality of life and overall happiness (Kang et
take up – thus, the untouchables were permanently al., 2018: Wang et al., 2018). Perceived social support
resigned to degrading work, disallowing them to rise also plays an important role in stress-buffering. Stress
from their economic circumstances (Sana, 1993). theory posits that social support is a crucial resource for
dealing with stressful situations (Lazarus & Folkman,
This led to widespread criticism and resistance, and 1984) and a lack of the same enhances an individual’s
concerted efforts were made in contemporary Indian susceptibility to emotional distress.
history to address the social inequities produced by this
system. While rapid modernization led to changes in Certain marginalized social groups, such that of
social and cultural values, and various constitutional caste, may face what is known as minority status stress
reforms were put in effect for abolishing untouchability in the form of perceived discrimination, which can
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 26

have damaging effects on the person’s psychological education as even with lower cut-offs, they are unable to
well-being. Williams and Mohammad (2009) suggest fill the quotas (Ministry of HRD, Government of India,
that everyday discrimination makes persistent 2015). Moreover, due to reservations, the individuals
demands which can exhaust the person’s mental who do manage to get into prestigious universities are
resources. The role of social support in mitigating the often subject to patronizing comments, and questioned
impact of these negative social interactions has been about their admission being based on ‘quota’ rather
investigated, suggesting that social support can be than merit, inducing feelings of guilt, inferiority, and
utilized as a coping strategy to effectively deal with self-doubt.
perceived discrimination as it serves a protective
function by acting as a buffer against the associated Additionally, they face a host of unique challenges
negative outcomes (Itzick et al., 2017; Jackson et al., at these educational institutions. Tierney et al. (2018)
2003) spoke to and recorded the narratives of students from
SC background. Many SC students brought up their
Perceived social support has also been found to be economic shortcomings, highlighting the interplay of
linked to higher self-esteem (Budd et al., 2009), as well caste and class, and how their lack of material goods
as higher levels of self-efficacy (Mengfei & Jiyeon, and access to certain technology due to their deprived
2016). Since both these dimensions are related to IP, backgrounds puts them at a disadvantage against their
PSS may also influence the experience of imposter privileged upper-caste peers. Further, in interacting
feelings. Although research on this subject matter is with professors and participating in classroom
sparse, social support can be used as a coping strategy discussions, they seem to struggle with a language
to manage imposter feelings by using social networks barrier due to poor proficiency in English and limited
for feedback and recognition. Coryell et al. (2013) technical vocabulary. Moreover, being first-generation
found that support from peers can enable an individual students, many cannot avail academic support from
to combat feelings of imposterism by enhancing self- their kin, while conservative upper-class professors may
confidence. also not provide empathy and support. While overt
discrimination may be absent, there are several
The current problem: IP and PSS in SC students instances of social exclusion also because students
preferred to stick to other SC peers and feel hesitant in
A review of previous literature has found a high approaching upper-caste seniors for guidance. This
prevalence of imposter phenomenon in student perceived lack of support further exacerbates problems.
populations across a variety of majors including
psychology, engineering, medical, dental, nursing, and Thus, in addressing the existing gaps in the current
pharmacy students. IP was also related to adverse literature linking IP and discrimination, as being
academic outcomes such as evaluation anxiety, low limited to racial and gender discrimination in the
academic self-esteem and self-efficacy, and academic western socio-cultural set-up, the present study aims to
dishonesty (Parkman, 2016). Further, students from investigate the relationship between discrimination and
marginalized communities, such as ethnic minorities IP in the Indian context, specifically in consideration of
who reported as being racially discriminated against, caste-based discrimination by studying the experiences
have been found to experience higher levels of imposter of students from the Scheduled Castes community.
feelings. Among African America college students, Further, in light of research suggesting a possible
Cokley et al. (2013) found a positive association influence of discrimination on perceived social support
between IP and minority status stress – an and the latter’s potential as a coping strategy against
amalgamation of race-related stressors such as racial feelings of impostorism, it also focuses on investigating
discrimination and marginalizing comments. the mediating role played by it in the relationship
between IP and caste-based discrimination.
One such group in the Indian context is that of the
Scheduled Castes. Students belonging to this With reference to the existing literature, the study
community face a number of challenges and are adopted the following five hypotheses to test:
severely underrepresented in institutes of higher
Page 27 Arushi Gupta, Neelanjana, Megha Dhillon

Method
1. There will be a significant association between Participants
imposter phenomenon and caste-based discrimination
as experienced by students across the two caste groups. The sample of the study consisted of 168 students
(82.1% women, 15.5% men, and 2.4% non-binary)
2. There will be a significant difference in imposter studying at universities only within India, aged
phenomenon between the Scheduled Castes and between 18-25 (M = 20) and belonging to either the
General Castes groups. Scheduled Castes (SC) or General Castes (GEN)
groups. Both undergraduate and postgraduate students
3. There will be a significant difference in caste-based were included in the present study. Students belonging
discrimination between the Scheduled Castes and to Scheduled Tribes (STs) and other backward classes
General Castes groups. (OBCs) were excluded from the sample. The study
included a total of 101 GEN students and 67 SC
4. There will be a significant difference in perceived students. 36.9% (SC = 14, GEN = 48) of the
social support between the Scheduled Castes and participants were from an upper-class economic
General Castes groups. background, 53% (SC = 42, GEN = 47) from the
middle and 10.1% (SC = 11, GEN = 6) from the lower
5. There will be a significant mediating role played by
background. The participants were recruited using
perceived social support between caste discrimination
non-probability sampling techniques of purposive,
and imposter phenomenon.
convenience, and snowballing. Demographic details
are also presented in Table 1 –

Table 1

Sociodemographic characteristics of participants

Demographics SC (n=67) GEN (n=101) Total

n n n (%)
Economic Background
Upper-class 14 48 62 (36.9)
Middle-class 42 47 89 (53)
Lower-class 11 6 17 (10.1)
Educational Level
Undergraduation 58 96 154 (91.67)
Postgraduation 9 5 14 (8.3)
Gender
Men 12 14 26 (15.48)
Women 53 82 135 (80.36)
Non-binary 1 3 4 (2.38)
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 28

Measures Additionally, the online questionnaire also

gathered details about the participants’ basic
Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale (CIPS; Clance & Imes, demographic details (age, gender and sexuality,
1978). The CIPS is a 20-item scale that measures the disability status, annual family income, education
extent to which a person experiences imposter feelings qualification, and religion) after taking their informed
or worries about being a fraud. The items are rated on consent.
5-point scale ranging from 1 (not true at all) to 5 (very
true), with higher scores reflecting more intense Procedure and Design
imposter feelings. The CIPS has evidence for good
The present study adopted a quantitative comparative
reliability (ᾳ = .96) and convergent validity in a gender
design using the survey method of data collection. An
and ethnically heterogeneous sample (Cokley et al.,
online questionnaire (Google form) with all the
2017; Mascarenhas et al., 2019).
measures for the study was circulated amongst students
Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS; William et al, 1997). across universities/colleges in India. The form
A 9-item scale used to assess the frequency of routine, contained a cover page informing them about the
relatively subtle discriminatory experiences in details of the study, their rights as a participant, as well
everyday social situations. Responses are coded on a 6- as the instructions on answering the questions. Their
point Likert scale, ranging from “almost every day” (6) informed consent was taken before proceeding with the
to “never” (1), with higher scores indicating greater questions. Participants were recruited on the basis of
perceived discrimination. For the purpose of the purpose and convenience, along with the non-
present study, an additional clause regarding caste was probability sampling technique of snowballing. The
added to the questionnaire: “Please keep in mind your data obtained was coded by calculating scores on each
caste while answering the following questions”. The individual scale for both the caste groups, and the
EDS has demonstrated good internal consistency and average scores then statistically analyzed for
validity over time, even in an Indian sample (Gonzalez comparison between groups, association, and
et al., 2016; Khubchandani et al., 2018). mediation on SPSS version 28.0. Simple linear
regression was done to assess the association between
Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support caste discrimination and IP, t-tests were carried out for
(MSPSS; Zimet et al., 1988). This 12-item scale measures independent means on all three constructs for both the
the subjective assessment of an individual’s perceived groups (GEN and SC), and the mediating role of
social support from three sources: family, friends, and perceived social support was analyzed using
significant others. The responses are rated and scored PROCESS macro mediational analysis.
on a 7-point Likert scale, with 1 = “very strongly
disagree” and 7 = “very strongly agree”. A higher score Results
reflects higher perception of social support. The scale
Tables 2-4 along with Figure 1, present the results for
has a high internal reliability of ᾳ = .88 and has
each of the inferential analyses carried out in the
indicated good internal consistency in the previous
present study.
studies (Koydemir et al., 2013; Tonsing et al., 2012).

Table 2

Simple linear regression analysis of caste discrimination and IP

Model R Square F p-value

Caste Discrimination .009 1.550 0.215

Page 29 Arushi Gupta, Neelanjana, Megha Dhillon

Simple linear regression analysis was carried out have a significant impact on the imposter feelings
to check for association between caste-discrimination experienced by students, with a regression coefficient
and imposter phenomenon among the entire sample (R Square) of .009 and p = .215. Thus, the 0.9% of
of participants. The results of the same, as presented variance in imposter feelings attributable to caste-
in Table 2, revealed that caste-discrimination does not discrimination is not statistically significant at p<0.1
level.

Table 3

Comparison of IP, PSS, and Caste Discrimination between SC and GEN participants

Mean (SD) t-value p-value

SC GEN

IP 62.19 (14.75) 66.12 (12.94) -1.820 .071

PSS 57.46 (12.07) 63.64 (11.89) -3.280 .001*

Caste Discrimination 19.73 (8.13) 18.60 (8.15) .879 .381

Note: *p<.001

Table 3 presents the results of the independent difference between both the groups on imposter
samples t-test carried out to compare the mean scores phenomenon and caste discrimination (t = -1.820, p =
of students in both SC and GEN groups on caste- .071; t = .879, p = .381). However, for perceived social
discrimination, imposter phenomenon, and perceived support, a statistically significant difference was
social support. The results revealed no significant observed between both the groups, with a t-value of -
3.280 and p<0.001.

Table 4

Mediation Analysis for Caste Discrimination and IP through PSS

Coefficient SE t-value p-value

Path A (Direct) -.3927 .1134 -3.464 0.0007*

Path B (Direct) -.2300 .0881 -2.611 0.0099**

Path C (Direct) .0726 .1332 .5451 .5864

Note: *p<.001

**p<0.01
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 30

A mediational analysis using PROCESS macro with an indirect effect of .0903 significant at p<0.05
was conducted to check for indirect effect of caste- level.
discrimination on imposter phenomenon through
perceived social support. Results of the same, as shown According to the criteria given by Hair et al.
in Table 4, suggest a significant effect of perceived (2010), perfect mediation could be established
social support in mediating the indirect impact of between caste discrimination and IP through PSS in
caste-discrimination on impostorism among students, the present study since A and B effects are significant
while path C is not. Figure 1 demonstrates this
mediation model.

Figure 1

Mediation Analysis Model for Caste Discrimination and IP through PSS

Thus, even though a direct effect of caste- IP (MGEN=66.12, MSC=62.19) and PSS (MGEN=63.64,
discrimination was not observed on students’ imposter MSC=54.76) among the GEN students than SC, but
feelings, a perfect indirect effect with perceived social lower on caste discrimination (MGEN=18.6, MSC=19.73).
support as a mediator was present. The amount of The results revealed no significant association
social support was also differently perceived by both between caste-discrimination and imposter
the SC and GEN groups, with SC students having phenomenon, and no significant difference among SC
significantly lower scores and GEN groups on caste-discrimination and
imposter feelings. Thus, these hypotheses were not
Discussion accepted. However, perceived social support played a
perfect mediating role between caste discrimination
The study sought to investigate the contextual roots of
and imposter phenomenon, and was significantly
imposter phenomenon and frame a culturally-
different for SC and GEN students. While some of
informed model by studying imposter feelings in
these findings contradict existing literature, it must be
relation with discrimination and social support as
noted that the link between discrimination, imposter
experienced and perceived by students from the
phenomenon, and perceived social support has not
Scheduled and General Castes. A comparison of the
been studied so far in the Indian context.
descriptive statistics reports higher average scores on
Page 31 Arushi Gupta, Neelanjana, Megha Dhillon

Though there were no significant caste minority discrimination and imposter phenomenon among
differences in imposterism and discrimination, students.
perceived social support was significantly lower in SC
students. Students from marginalized backgrounds Though no statistically significant association
face a myriad of challenges (Tierney et al., 2018), could be established between caste-discrimination and
therefore, social support may play an important role in imposter feelings directly, this can be attributed to
shaping their experiences at educational institutions. limitations in measurement approach since the EDS
Since material support is a crucial aspect of perceived does not have provisions for assessing culture-bound
social support, taking into consideration that the experiences of caste discrimination in everyday life.
number of students from an upper and middle-class
background were higher for the GEN group as Further, it is possible that students from minority
compared to the SC group, this may also explain castes minimize their perceived discrimination in order
higher PSS among GEN. to feel more in control of their social worth. Ruggiero
and Taylor (1997) established that minority group
Expressions of discrimination may not always be students hold a greater tendency towards the same due
overt and are much less prevalent at institutes of higher to the perceived consequences of high performance,
education in urban areas (Leo & Panigrahi, 2021), and social control and self-esteem.
from where the sample was primarily derived, which
might have reduced the difference in perception of the M o r e o ve r, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e R e j e c t i o n -
same among SC and GEN students. Moreover, since Identification Model (Branscombe, Schmitt, & Harvey,
E D S d o e s n o t s p e c i f i c a l ly m e a s u r e c a s t e - 1999), perceived discrimination may enhance in-group
discrimination, the participants’ appraisal of the identification which has been shown to act as a buffer
discrimination they experience could have been against negative outcomes related to discrimination by
influenced by their gender since majority of the sample serving a protective function for the individual’s well-
(80.36%) comprised of women. Comparable IP scores being, especially self-esteem. This may have played a
in GEN as opposed to SC may also be attributed to a role in the relationship as being related to both
higher percentage of women as they are more likely to perceived discrimination and imposter phenomenon.
experience IP (McGregor et al., 2008).
Examination of perceived discrimination as of a
The dynamics of impostor phenomenon suggest personal or group nature is also of relevance. Personal
that individuals’ perceptions can vary and are shaped versus group discrimination can influence the self-
by external factors (Clance & Imes, 1978). Social esteem of an individual in different ways (Bourguignon
support can act as an active coping strategy in et al., 2006) where the former is related to low self-
managing one’s imposter feelings as it allows one esteem and the latter to higher levels of self-esteem.
alternative perspective to review their perceived These discrepancies may influence the relationship
limitations, receive feedback on their performance, between perceived discrimination and IP of which self-
and also focus on the successes (Pervez et al., 2021). esteem is an important component.
Alternatively, social support may also become a source
Limitations and Future Directions
of stress in cases of negative or ambivalent experiences
while seeking social support from peers (Gardner et In the present study the questionnaire was built using
al., 2019). Thus, individual experiences of perceived standardized scales used in English, therefore limiting
discrimination may alter the appraisal of availability the sample to only the English speakers. The scale used
of social support (Hashemi et al., 2019). In the present for assessing caste-based discrimination was not
study as well, perceived social support was observed to designed specially to measure caste discrimination in
have a significant mediating role in explaining the an Indian context, thus may have altered the obtained
impact discrimination has on imposter phenomenon. results. Further, it is needed that research methods
Thus, it can be suggested that perceived social support other than survey be utilized for investigating the
helps in establishing a casual pathway between caste- discriminatory experiences of marginalised students
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 32

where Focus Group Discussions or interviews could References

elicit elaborate subjective descriptions of the
participants’ experiences Bernard, D. L., Hoggard, L. S., & Neblett, E. W., Jr.
(2017). Racial discrimination, racial identity, and
Additionally, the in-group identification of SC impostor phenomenon: A profile approach.
students may also be assessed to understand the extent Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology,
of internalization of negative stereotypes associated 24(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000161
with their social group which could help explain the
Bernard, D. L., Lige, Q. M., Willis, H. A., Sosoo, E.
levels of imposter phenomenon as well as its E . , & N e b l e t t , E . W. ( 2 0 1 7 ) . I m p o s t e r
relationship with perceived discrimination. phenomenon and mental health: The influence of
Discrimination may also be measured for both the racial discrimination and gender. Journal
personal and group dimension in order to better of Counseling Psychology, 64(2), 155–166. https://
examine how group identity plays into perceived doi.org/ 10.1037/cou0000197
discrimination.
Bourguignon, D., Seron, E., Yzerbyt, V., & Herman,
The study also identified perceived social support G. (2006). Perceived group and personal
as a predictor of better college/university experiences discrimination: Differential effects on personal self
for minority caste students by allowing them to cope -esteem. European Journal of Social Psychology,
with their impostorism. Therefore, university/college 36(5), 773–789. https://doi.org
intervention programs can target the creation of peer /10.1002/ejsp.326
support programs or groups for the student body
Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M., & Harvey, R. J.
overall. Recommendations can also be made to (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination
college counselors working with caste-minority among African Americans: Implications for group
students to address the common stressors experienced identification and well-being. Journal of Personality
by individuals who are not a part of the dominant and Social Psychology, 77(1), 135–149. https://
group on campus. doi.org/ 10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.135

Conclusion Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000).

Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic
The present study observed a significant role played by stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal
perceived social support in mediating the impact of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5),
discriminatory attitudes and behaviors have on 748–766. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-
university students’ imposter feelings, also indicating 006x.68.5.748
how the experiences of marginalized students at
Budd, A., Buschman, C., & Esch, L. (2009). The
educational institutions are shaped by a dynamic
correlation of self-esteem and perceived social
interplay of complex socio-cultural factors. Our
support. Undergraduate Research Journal for the
findings highlight the need for more culturally-sound Human Sciences, 8(1).
contextual frameworks for conceptualizing Imposter
Phenomenon, which has largely been individualized Clance, P. R. (1985). The impostor phenomenon:
in Western literature. Such frameworks could offer Overcoming the fear that haunts your success. Atlanta,
more contextual interventions, and structural and GA: Peachtree.
effective solutions for combating imposter feelings.
Clance, P. R., & Imes, S. A. (1978). The imposter
phenomenon in high achieving women:
Dynamics and therapeutic inter vention.
Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 15(3),
241. http://dx.doi.org /10.1037/h0086006
Page 33 Arushi Gupta, Neelanjana, Megha Dhillon

Cokley, K., Awad, G., Smith, L., Jackson, S., social support. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 115,
Awosogba, O., Hurst A., Stone, S., Blondeau, L., & 103337.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.103
Roberts, D. (2015). The roles of gender stigma 337
consciousness, impostor phenomenon and
academic self-concept in the academic outcomes of Guan, M., & So, J. (2016). Influence of social identity
women and men. Sex Roles: A Journal of on self-efficacy beliefs through perceived social
R e s e a r c h , 7 3 ( 9 ) , 4 1 4 – 4 2 6 . support: A social identity theory perspective.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0516-7 Communication Studies, 67(5), 588–604. https://
doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2016.1239645
Cokley, K., McClain, S., Enciso, A., & Martinez, M.
(2013). An examination of the impact of minority Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E.,
status stress and impostor feelings on the mental & Tatham, R. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis
health of diverse ethnic minority college students. (ed.): Pearson Prentice Hall.
Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development,
41(2), 82–95. https://doi.org/ 10.1002 /j.2161 Hampton, A. (2010). The Untouchables. Home-CSU,
-1912.2013.00029.x Chico.

Cokley, K., Smith, L., Bernard, D., Hurst, A., Jackson, Harris-Britt, A., Valrie, C. R., Kurtz-Costes, B., &
S., Stone, S., Awosogba, O., Saucer, C., Bailey, M., Ro w l e y, S. J. ( 2 0 0 7 ) . Pe r c e i ve d r a c i a l
& Roberts, D. (2017). Impostor feelings as a discrimination and self-esteem in African
moderator and mediator of the relationship American youth: Racial socialization as a
between perceived discrimination and mental protective factor. Journal of Research on Adolescence,
health among racial/ethnic minority college 17(4), 669–682. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1532
students.Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(2), -7795.2007.00540.x
141–154. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/cou0000198
Harvey, J. C., & Katz, C. (1985). If I'm so successful, why
Coryell, J. E., Wagner, S., Clark, M. C., & Stuessy, C. do I feel like a fake: The impostor phenomenon. New
(2013). Becoming real: Adult student impressions York: St. Martin's Press.
of developing an educational researcher identity.
Journal of Further and Higher Education, 37(3), 367 Hashemi, N., Marzban, M., Sebar, B., & Harris, N. D.
-383.https://doi.org /10.1 080 /0309877X.2011. J. (2019). Acculturation and psychological well
645456 -being among Middle Eastern migrants in
Australia: The mediating role of social support
Crime in India - 2017. (2021). National Crime Records and perceived discrimination. International Journal
Bureau (Ministry of Home Affairs). Retrieved of Intercultural Relations, 72, 45–60.
October 15, 2022, fromhttps://ncrb.gov.in/en/ https://doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.ijintrel.2019.07.002
/crime-india-2017-0
Itzick, M., Kagan, M., & Tal-Katz, P. (2018).
Finch, J. F., Okun, M. A., Pool, G. J., & Ruehlman, L. Perceived social support as a moderator between
S. (1999). A comparison of the influence of perceived discrimination and subjective well-being
conflictual and supportive social interactions on among people with physical disabilities in Israel.
psychological distress. Journal of Personality, 67, Disability and Rehabilitation, 40(18), 2208–2216.
581–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2017.
1331380
Feenstra, S., Begeny, C. T., Ryan, M. K., Rink, F.,
Stoker, J. I., & Jordan, J. (2020). Contextualizing Jackson, J.S., Williams, D.R. Torres, M., Rockville, A.,
the Impostor “Syndrome.” Frontiers in Psychology, & Maney, M.D. (2003). Social Stressors, Personal
11. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.575024 and Social Resources, and Their Mental Health
Consequences. Incomplete
Gardner, R. C., Bednar, J., Stewart, B. A., Oldroyd, J.
B., & Moore, J. P. (2019). “I must have slipped
through the cracks somehow”: An examination of
coping with perceived impostorism and the role of
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 34

Kang, H., Park, M., & Wallace, J. P. (2016). The McGregor, L. N., Gee, D. E., & Posey, K. E. (2008). I
impact of perceived social support, loneliness, and feel like a fraud and it depresses me: the relation
physical activity on quality of life in South Korean b e t we e n t h e i m p o s t e r p h e n o m e n o n a n d
older adults. Journal of Sport and Health Science, depression. Social Behavior and Personality, 36(1),
7(2), 237–244. https://doi.org/10. 1016/ j.jshs.20 43–48. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2008.
16.05.003 36.1.43

Khubchandani, J. A., Soni, A., Fahey, N., Raithatha, Ministr y of Human Resource Development
N., Prabhakaran, A., Byatt, N., Simas, T. a. M., Government of India. (2015). Annual Report 2014
Phatak, A. G., Rosal, M. C., Nimbalkar, S., & -15. https://www.education. gov.in/ sites
Allison, J. J. (2018). Caste matters: perceived /upload_files/mhrd/files/documentreports/Part
discrimination among women in rural India. 1.pdf
Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 21(2), 163–170.
https:// doi.org/ 10.1007/s00737-017-0790-1 Nadal, K. L., King, R., Sissoko, D. R. G., Floyd, N., &
Hines, D. (2021). The legacies of systemic and
Koydemir, S., Şimşek, Ö., Schütz, A., & Tipandjan, A. internalized oppression: Experiences of microa
(2013). Differences in how trait emotional ggressions, imposter phenomenon, and stereotype
intelligence predicts life satisfaction: The role of threat on historically marginalized groups. New
affect balance versus social support in India and Ideas in Psychology, 63, 100895. https://doi.org /10
Germany. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(1), .1016/j.newideapsych.2021.100895
51–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011
-9315-1 Parkman, A. (2016). The imposter phenomenon in
higher education: Incidence and impact. Journal of
Lakey, B., & Cronin, A. (2008). Low social support Higher Education Theory & Practice, 16(1), 51-60.
and major depression. Elsevier EBooks, 385–408. https://doi.org/10.1111/hea.12061_11
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-045078
-0.00017-4 Pervez, A., Brady, L. L., Mullane, K., Lo, K. D.,
Bennett, A. A., & Nelson, T. A. (2021). An
Lazarus, R., & Folkman, S. (1984) Stress Appraisal and empirical investigation of mental illness, impostor
Coping. New York: Springer. syndrome, and social support in management
doctoral programs. Journal of Management
Lige, Q. M., Peteet, B. J., & Brown, C. M. (2016). E d u c a t i o n , 4 5 ( 1 ) , 1 2 6 - 1 5 8 .
Racial identity, self-esteem, and the impostor https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562920953195
phenomenon among African American college
students. Journal of Black Psychology, 43(4). Ruggiero, K. M., & Taylor, D. S. (1997). Why mi
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0095798416648787 nority group members perceive or do not perceive
the discrimination that confronts them: The role
Leo, I., & Panigrahi, D. (2021). Caste discrimination of self-esteem and perceived control. Journal of
and social change in India. Journal of Social Personality and Social Psychology, 72(2), 373–389.
Responsibility, Tourism and Hospitality (JSRTH) https:// doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.373
ISSN 2799-1016, 1(02), 1-6.
Sana, A. (1993). The caste system in India and its
Mak, K. K. L., Kleitman, S., & Abbott, M. J. (2019). consequences. International Journal of Sociology and
Impostor phenomenon measurement scales: A Social Policy, 13(3/4), 1–76. https://doi.org
systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. /10.1108/eb013170
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00671
Sarason, B. R., Sarason, I. G., & Pierce, G. R. (1990).
Mascarenhas, V. R., D’Souza, D. C., & Bicholkar, A. Traditional views of social support and their
(2018). Prevalence of impostor phenomenon and impact on assessment. In B. R. Sarason, I. G.
its association with self-esteem among medical Sarason, & G. R. Pierce (Eds.), Social support: An
interns in Goa, India. International Journal of interactional view (pp. 9–25). New York: Wiley.
Community Medicine and Public Health, 6(1), 355.
https:// doi.org/10.18203/2394
-6040.ijcmph20185272
Page 35 Arushi Gupta, Neelanjana, Megha Dhillon

Sarason, I. G., Levine, H. M., Basham, R. B., & Wang, J., Mann, F., Lloyd-Evans, B. et al. (2018)
Sarason, B. R. (1983). Assessing social support: Associations between loneliness and perceived
The Social Support Questionnaire. Journal of social support and outcomes of mental health
Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 127–139. problems: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry, 18,
https:// doi. org /10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.127 156. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1736-5

Straiton, M.L., Aambø, A.K. & Johansen, R. (2019) Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009).
Perceived discrimination, health and mental health Discrimination and racial disparities in health:
among immigrants in Norway: the role of evidence and needed research. Jour nal of
moderating factors. BMC Public Health 19, 325. Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 20–47. https://doi.org
https:/ /doi.org /10.1186/s12889-019-6649-9 /10.1007 /s10865-008-9185-0

Sundaram, K., & Tendulkar, S. D. (2003). Poverty Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J. S., & Anderson, N.
among social and economic groups in India in H. (1997). Racial differences in physical and
1990s. Economic and Political Weekly, 38(50), mental health. Journal of Health Psychology, 2(3),
5263–5276. 335–351. https://doi.org/10. 1177/ 135 910
539700200305
Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C., Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S.
(1979). An integrative theory of intergroup Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley,
conflict. In M. J. Hatch, & M. Schultz (Eds.), G. K. (1988). The Multidimensional Scale of
Organizational identity: A reader (pp. 33–47). Perceived Social Support. Journal of Personality
Oxford Press. Assessment, 52(1), 30–41. https://doi.org/ 10.1207
/s15327752jpa5201_2
Tierney, W. M., Sabharwal, N. S., & Malish, C. (2019).
Inequitable structures: Class and caste in Indian
higher education. Qualitative Inquiry, 25(5),
471–481.https://doi.org/10.1177/10778004188
17836

Tonsing, K. N., Zimet, G. D., & Tse, S. (2012).

Assessing social support among South Asians: The
multidimensional scale of perceived social
support. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 5(2), 164–168.
https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2012.02.012

Vergauwe, J., Wille, B., Feys, M. et al. (2015) Fear of

being exposed: The trait-relatedness of the
impostor phenomenon and its relevance in the
work context. Journal of Business Psychology, 30,
565–581. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10869-014
-9382-5

Verkuyten, M. (1998). Perceived discrimination and

self-esteem among ethnic minority adolescents.
Journal of Social Psychology, 138(4), 479–493.
https:// doi.org/10.1080/00224549809600402

Villwock, J. A., Sobin, L. B., Koester, L. A., & Harris,

T. M. (2016). Impostor syndrome and burnout
among American medical students: A pilot study.
International Journal of Medical Education, 7,
364–369. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.5801
.eac4
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 36-46

Attaining Peace? Exploring self-harm behaviour in religious and non-

religious contexts
Sanyukta Golaya1

Abstract : Self-harm behaviour which is prevalent among various cultural/religious groups is considered to be
normative and is viewed as an attempt to attain inner peace, contentment and relief. On the other hand, similar
behaviour among individuals engaging in it for ‘non-religious’ purposes tends to be stigmatized and viewed as
psychopathological. The present study sought to compare and contrast self-harm practices performed in religious
and non-religious contexts, in terms of its emotional, physiological and situational antecedents and consequences.
Self-harm behaviour in Islamic, Buddhist and Hindu religious texts was examined, and in-depth qualitative
interviews were carried out with four young adults who had previously engaged in self-harm. Data obtained from
both sources was thematically analysed, and it was observed that both practices are similar with respect to their goals
and perceived affective outcomes: by providing the person with a cathartic experience, irrespective of the context,
such behaviour aims to restore inner peace and enable the individual to seek psychological repentance. However,
important differences were also observed, particularly with respect to the ‘lasting’ effects of the relief that is
obtained. The study seeks to open up a dialogue about the coping value of self-harm behaviour both in religious and
non-religious contexts, subsequently reduce the taboo associated with such activity, and facilitate psycho-education
for alternatives to achieve psychological relief.
Keywords: self-harm, religion, inner peace, culture, qualitative research.

Self-harm or self-injury may be defined as “intentional al., 1998; Ryan et al., 1997; Vivekananda, 2000). Even
and repeated self-aggressive activity, subjectively within the domain of clinical psychology and
performed to relieve ‘emotional malaise,’ without the psychiatry, self-harming behaviour is often attributed
intention of committing suicide, getting sexual to numerous mental illnesses, and individuals
pleasure (sadomasochism), or pursuing some aesthetic engaging in the same are judged as being irrational
goals (body art)” (Brossard, 2014, p. 558). It typically and clinically symptomatic. The attitudes contribute
involves cutting, burning, or hitting oneself, and such to stigmatization and negative biases directed towards
behaviour can cause significant psychological and who engage in self-harm (McAllister, 2003; Van der
physical distress to not just the person engaging in it, Kolk et al., 1991). Rayner and Warner (2003) discuss
but also to those close to them (Nock, 2010; Rani, et how in situations of illness, individuals are
al., 2014). Brunner et al. (2014) further found a strong normatively expected to attempt to get better- hence,
positive correlation between self-harm and various in this sense, self-harming behaviour is viewed as
risk-taking behaviours such as substance abuse and purposeful attempts to inflict ‘sickness’ on ones’ self.
sexual risk taking, along with other mental health Further, according to an ‘illness model’ (as proposed
difficulties, including instability of mood and anxiety by such disciplines), individuals who engage in self-
(Holliday, 2020). Self-mutilating behaviours are also a harming behaviour are frequently hospitalized, which
key risk factor in completed suicide (Holliday, 2020; arguably only contributes to the problem by
Klonsky et al., 2013). pathologizing such behaviour. This ‘professionalizes’
the issue and enables the clinician to become the
Most authors within the field of academia believe expert who views the person as disordered and in
that the act of self-harm is looked upon as taboo, requirement of clinical intervention (Johnstone, 1997;
primarily because as a behaviour, it intuitively goes McAllister, 2003).
against the core human values and drives associated
with self-preservation (Linehan, 1993; Pembroke et
1
Assistant Professor, St. Xavier's College (Autonomous), Mumbai
Corresponding Author: Sanyukta Golaya, Email: [email protected]
Page 37 Sanyukta Golaya

Interestingly, there are many cultural practices and name of cultural tradition or personal distress, is
religious traditions (including Hinduism, Buddhism performed as a means of achieving catharsis,
and Judaeo-Christianity) that sanction, and even psychological relief, and respite.
promote self-harming behaviour that would otherwise
be considered pathological, by considering such acts as Method
devotional or as part of religious protests (Cid, 2016;
Kelly, 2011; Wilson, 2012). For instance, the ritual of Part I: Analysis of secondary data
self-mutilation and self-immolation at the Vajresvari
With respect to secondary data, self-harm practices
Temple in Kangra, Himachal Pradesh (India) has been
prevalent in three different religious contexts, i.e.,
a common religious practice carried out for the
Buddhism, Islam and Hinduism were reviewed and
Goddess Sakti, the first wife of Shiva. Devotees believe
subsequently analysed. These texts sought to focus on
that by engaging in this practice, one has a greater
self-harm practices within that particular religious
chance of meeting the Goddess (‘Darshan’) (Cid,
community in terms of what the behaviours consist of,
2016). Further, Buddhist traditions sanction suicide
the purpose they serve for the individual, and the
and self-harming behaviour if the motivation behind
rationale behind engaging in those activities. After a
such acts involves helping others (Bendall & Rouse,
thorough literature review, nine texts were selected as
1971; Grossoehme & Springer, 1999; Kelly, 2011).
being the main sources of secondary data (three per
Another example pertains to Muslim Shia men, who
religion). Buddhism practices pertaining to self-harm
are known to engage in self-flagellating during the
were explored via the work of Budny et al. (1991), Kelly
festival of Muharram, using knives, blades and chains;
(2011) and Kieschnick (2000); Islamic self-harm rituals
some individuals even cover themselves with mud and
were explored by examining texts authored by Khan et
light bonfires, and this practice is considered to be a
al. (2014), Hegland (2008) and Daryaee & Malekzadeh
symbol of struggle against oppression, tyranny and
(2014); and finally, Hindu self-mutilation practices
injustice (Bagadiya, 2017). These studies show that self-
were examined through sources produced by Cid
harming behaviours are prevalent in various religions
(2016), Kolamkuzhyyil (2016) and Bates (2006). The
as a way to attain inner peace, contentment and relief.
aforementioned texts were only included in the study
Objectives of the Present Study after all authors unanimously agreed that they provided
a comprehensive overview of the self-harm practices
Numerous studies have identified self-harming prevalent in each of the religious contexts. Further,
behaviour as an inter, as well as intra-coping since the method of analysis chosen was a deductive
mechanism, which aims to relieve individuals of their thematic analysis technique, where-in the core
distress and other negative emotions (such as ideas/notions to be explored under each religion was
helplessness, hopelessness, and neglect). While self- pre-decided, it was ensured that the texts selected for
harm behaviour which is carried out in religious and the purpose of the study adequately captured those
cultural contexts may be viewed as “learned way(s) of themes.
coping with life and a way of maintaining status in a
very difficult institution or sub-culture”, when carried Part II: Collection and Analysis of Primary Data
out in non-religious contexts, such acts are viewed as
Participants
symptoms of pathology (Rayner & Warner, 2003, p.
309; Ross & McKay, 1979). The present study sought to The sample for the study consisted of four young adults
compare and contrast perspectives associated with self- of ages ranging between 19-22 years. Convenience and
harming in both, religious and non-religious contexts purposive non-probability sampling techniques were
and associated themes pertaining to both kinds of used to identify individuals who (a) had engaged in self-
phenomena. Further, it argues that while the normative harm, (b) were of age 19 years or above, and (c) were
value attached to the behaviour in both contexts willing to share their experiences of indulging in self-
significantly differs, both seek to serve the same harm. The participants belonged to the upper-middle
purpose for the person engaging in it; self-harm socio-economic status, resided in urban areas, and were
behaviour, irrespective of whether carried out in the pursuing undergraduate or postgraduate degrees.
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 38

Further demographic details of the participants, along with the number of times and the means through which they
engaged in self-harm, can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1

Demographic details of participants

Participant Age Gender Number of times Means of engaging in

participant engaged in self-harm
self-harm

A 19 Male 3 Cutting using a razor

B 22 Female 2 Cutting using a razor,

burning one’s skin

C 21 Female 1 Cutting using a razor

D 20 Female 4 Cutting using a razor and

hitting one’s self

Design, Tools and Procedure participants had experienced, with respect to the nature
of their self-harm behaviour. Finally, various codes
After a thorough literature review, a semi-structured were integrated meaningfully to form a theme, with
interview was designed and used as a tool for the study. each theme serving as an ‘umbrella’ account of
The interview aimed to elicit the experiences of self- experiences and ideas that the data reflected.
harm and to understand the emotional, physiological
and situational antecedents and consequences of Results
engaging in the behaviour. The questions sought to
explore the various positive and negative emotions Part I- Insights from Secondary Data
experienced before and after the act of self-harming,
what participants believed motivates someone to self- Through the use of a deductive analysis technique, the
harm repeatedly and the relation of self-harm with themes that were collaboratively discussed and
peace. Informed consent was elicited from the narrowed down to be explored included- looking at the
participants, and they were debriefed post the construct of self-harm behaviour as understood by the
interview process. religion, the acceptable and sanctioned practices
performed, religious motivations and reasons for
Data Analysis engaging in the prescribed behaviours, perceived
outcomes of performing the self-harm activities,
After completing data collection, the interviews were whether the nature of the behaviour was individualistic
transcribed and analysed using an inductive thematic or collectivistic, and lastly, the notion of ‘after-life’ and
analysis technique. As part of this, the authors first spiritual transcendence as held by that religious
familiarised themselves with the transcribed content, context.
following which codes were generated that captured
similarities, differences and important features of the Buddhism. Buddhist teachings largely discourage the
data, across all four participants. Supporting each of acts of hurting oneself or others. However, the religion
the codes were multiple verbatim accounts of what the does sanction certain self-injuring behaviours
Page 39 Sanyukta Golaya

(including burning or cutting parts of one’s body, with purest devotion reach the heavenly world. The acts
walking on fire and pricking parts of one’s body to of sacrifice are performed individually by the sacrificer.
obtain blood) aimed at ending others’ suffering. Other However, these sacrifices are always performed in
reasons for engaging in self-injuring tasks are rituals where the family of the sacrificer, the priests and
facilitation of spiritual practice, attainment of spiritual sometimes even the community needs to be present.
merit (‘Punya’) or to follow the vow of “Imitating the The ultimate aim of these acts is to transcend
Buddhas”. Buddhists believe that such self-injuring spiritually.
acts not only show one’s devotion but also bring people
closer to enlightenment and re-birth in the Heavens. Part II- Analysis of Primary Data
Such acts are engaged in amid the process of
contemplation and solitude, individually, and not in a Figure 1 highlights the seven major themes and their
group setting. The ultimate aim of these acts is to gain corresponding codes that were derived from the
entry into the Pure Land and reach the state of inductive thematic analysis of primary data. The first
Nirvana. theme pertained to the emotions participants
experienced prior to engaging in self-harm, and the
Islam. Self-flagellation and harming behaviours are results indicated that these were often characterised by
carried out in the Shi’a sect of the Muslim community intense negative feelings, the perceived inability to
as a part of Muharram rituals. Self-injuring acts address the root cause of these feelings (or the feelings
(‘Matam’) include chest/breast beating which are itself) in an adaptive way, and a sense of social isolation.
publicly performed during chanting, self-flagellation This further tied into the second theme revolving
through the use of flails and razors (‘Zanjeer Zani’) around a desire to punish the self, in an attempt to
and head beating, which is done during “Majalis” on overcome or deal with the negative emotions being
the 10th day of the festival. These self-injuring acts are experienced. Themes three and four focused on the act
a way of expressing devotion to God (‘Allah’), a way to of self-harm itself, and its immediate impact on the
protest against injustices and a way to honour Husayn individual, physically and psychologically. Due to the
who is considered as the legitimate political authority. painful physical impact of the behaviour, participants
The self-harm ultimately helps people to appease God reported an immediate (and positive) distraction from
and enables the Shias assert their identity as a separate the emotional turmoil being experienced; however, this
sect of Islam. The practice is done in a group/ tended to be short-lived, as they soon experienced
collectivistic setting, where the Matam rituals and feelings of guilt, shock and shame for having taken such
behaviours are performed along with mourning chants a step. However, as reflected in themes five and six, it
(‘Nohas’) which are sung in a group. Death in Islam is may be noted that the initial and instant relief obtained
perceived to be a transition from one’s current after self-harming was something that was cherished,
existence to a future life, based on the nature of one’s and was described as emotionally cathar tic.
deeds in the current life. Interestingly, even though shame is later experienced
for hurting one’s self, in the moment, some participants
Hinduism. Sacrifices are a common part of Hindu even experienced a sense of pride and accomplishment
rituals (‘Yajna). The basic essence behind any sort of for being able to carry out such an act, especially after
sacrifice is the abandonment of the material world and knowing that it might momentarily allow them to
attainment of salvation to reach Heaven (‘Swarga’). c o g n i t i ve l y d i s s o c i a t e f r o m t h e i r d i f f i c u l t
Some of the self-injuring sacrifices performed include circumstances. Hence, the anticipation of instantly
gashing, piercing/cutting of tongues, hook-swinging being able to escape from their negative thoughts and
and walking on fire. These self-injuring acts are done to emotional states in the moment was reported as being a
impress Gods and Goddesses like Shiva and tentative reason for the repetitive nature of such
Dev Bakbani (Kali). Fulfilment of desires, thanking activity. Finally, the seventh theme centred on the
the Gods, and getting closer to God to attain perceived link between self-harm and peace, and how
enlightenment are some other reasons that drive even though peace was a definitive consequence, it was
devotees to engage in these self-harming acts. It is almost always short-lived and not permanent; yet,
believed that those who sacrifice the most in their lives despite having experienced and knowing this,
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 40

participants would find it difficult to control the urge to self-harm the next time they felt like engaging in it, as they
irrationally believed that unlike the previous time(s), the sense of relief would be more pervasive and long-lasting
this time round.

Figure 1
Themes emerging from the inductive thematic analysis of primary data

Discussion
the other is viewed as a symptom of psychopathology.
The present study sought to explore patterns of self- The study employed a qualitative design and made use
harm in religious and non-religious contexts, and of data generated via four interviews administered on
develop a comparison of the behaviours/experiences adults who had self-harmed, as well by analysing data
pertaining to the same. It proposed that both acts relevant to self-mutilation behaviour in Buddhist,
ultimately seek to serve as sources of inner peace, even Hindu, and Islamic religious contexts. Interestingly,
though one is considered normatively acceptable and along with similarities, various differences also
Page 41 Sanyukta Golaya

emerged with respect to the experience of participating wanted the people to realise that they had hurt me”. The
in such behaviour in both contexts, as discussed below. participant, instead of attempting to confront the
individuals responsible for the same, engaged in self-
Similarities between the experience of self-harming harming behaviour as a means of resolving the issue
for religious and non-religious purposes. There are a and unpleasant emotions being experienced. Similarly,
variety of similarities that may be observed when it the self-harm (‘Matam’) rituals performed by the Shi’a
comes to the nature and experience of self-harm in community during Muharram seek to serve as an
religious as well as non-religious contexts. Both instance of standing up against the suffering brought
behaviours have an underlying common set of upon them by the Sunni community (Khan et al.,
affective, physiological, and cognitive components 2014).
that prompt the person to resort to self-injurious
activity, which is then followed by cer tain Commonly observed repetitive or cyclic nature of the
consequences and responses that were previously behaviour. Self-harming, in both religious and non-
envisaged and sought to be attained. religious contexts, is often engaged in multiple times on
the basis of the underlying belief that it will lead
As a means of distracting one’s self from negative to/result in an outcome that is desired by the
emotions. In both contexts, individuals engaging in individual. In the case of the participants, when asked
self-harm behaviour tend to do so with the aim of what motivated them to engage in the behaviour on
distracting themselves from certain undesirable or multiple occasions, the major factors with respect to the
negative emotions being experienced in the present same revolved around the knowledge of the fact that the
(such as guilt, distress and anxiety), which are experience would be cathartic, accompanied by a desire
perceived as being extremely difficult to overcome. to find an immediate escape from one’s current state of
One of the participants, while talking about the being, and the inability to gain better perspective (in the
emotional state they experienced prior to self-harming- moment). One participant stated, “Yes I am expecting the
particularly the desire to escape and free one’s self of same (outcome), or I have a certain goal in mind, and you
the emotions being felt, stated- “I just wanted to do know, I’m doing this (self-harming) because I want to feel
something…I wanted to take action about those feelings this”. Interestingly, studies indicate that repetitive self-
(and) address them in some way, and I felt quite helpless….” harming tendencies serve as reinforcement to continue
This finding is supported by work done by Stanickeet doing so, hence indicating that the behaviour promotes
al. (2018) which indicates that one of the major its cyclic nature (Gordon et al., 2010). In the case of
reasons people indulge in self-harm is to enable them religious rituals, self-harming behaviour is often
to better control feelings which they find difficult to performed routinely, as in the case of the Shi’a
manage and deal with. In the case of Buddhist monks, community of Muslims- flagellation, chest and head
numerous instances suggest that cutting off the beating and cutting is collectively done every year on
testicles and penis is a means to prevent one’s self from the tenth day of Muharram. In this case too, the same
getting distracted by sexual temptation, in order to outcome is envisaged before the performing of the act-
better focus on spiritual practice (Favazza, 1996; Kelly, that of honouring their identity as a distinct
2011). Both situations highlight a commonly community, remembering and mourning the death of
experienced state before engaging in self-harm- that of Husayan and making efforts to appease God (Khan et
feeling incapable of handling the intensity of emotions al., 2014; Wilson, 2012).
felt in the present, as well as an extreme desire to
distract one’ self from them. Further, in both cases, Element of punishment and need to ‘undo’ wrong
individuals feel incapable of addressing the problem deeds. A common desire experienced by individuals
from which their negative emotions stem, in a ‘direct’ with a desire to self-harm, is that of wanting to punish
fashion, which results in them resorting to self-harm, themselves and rectify, or ‘undo’ their perceived wrong
as an indirect means to cope. For instance, when asked actions and deeds (Edmondson et al., 2016; Kumar et
about the emotional/cognitive states preceding the act al., 2004; Osuch et al., 2014). One participant stated, “I
of harming themselves, one participant stated, “I found it necessary for me…you know, to punch or punish
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 42

myself sometimes…”; further, the idea of having above, the experience of self-harming may have
successfully ‘punished’ themselves, in turn provides different characteristics and properties based on the
another source of emotional satisfaction and context, i.e., religious versus non-religious settings.
contentment (as stated by a participant- “I immediately Highlighted below are some differences observed with
feel, okay, fine, this is a punishment for whatever bad, respect to the nature of the experience.
whatever wrong I had done”). The same is apparent in the
religious context as well, as in the case of Hinduism, Perceived goals attained by engaging in the self-
where people engage in self-harm and mutilation to injuring acts and the subsequent appraisal of the
express their devotion, as well as attain spiritual decision. It has been observed that individuals who
transcendence so as to not take re-birth (by attaining engage in self-harm for non-religious purposes do so
‘Moksa’) (Kolamkuzhyyil, 2016). A case can also be when they are overwhelmed by their emotions, and
put forth with respect to the practice of Matam and further, wish to escape from them (as stated by one
associated rituals in Muslim communities, where the participant- “I just wanted to do something...I wanted to take
Shi’a sect members seek to vicariously re-live the death action about those feelings”). On the other hand, religious
and suffering of Husayan who was killed by the Sunni reasons for engaging in it are the appeasement of God
sect, as a means of honouring him (Khan et. al, 2014). for favours and attainment of salvation. While non-
religious self-injuring acts are to help one’s self, the
Emotional relief, catharsis and sense of religious ones may aim to end other’s sufferings as is
accomplishment experienced, despite physical pain. seen in Buddhism- “…a true Bodhisattva might
Despite the act of self-harm being physically painful in sacrifice his body and life in order to end the suffering of
nature, the persons engaging in it tend to report a sense others, bring peace and happiness to others…” (Bendall
of emotional relief and experience of catharsis post the & Rouse, 1971; Kelly, 2011, p. 305; Shih, 1994).
experience (Stanicke et al., 2018). With respect to the Further, most participants stated that they felt self-
immediate emotional aftermath, one participant stated harming served no purpose following the act- “But then
“I felt calm, in a way. You know, like, my mind was blank for later on, you know it, doesn’t really help that much- I mean
five minutes and after that I was like okay, fine…I felt very like whatever I was feeling before cutting I still do…those
calm after some time”. Another participant also feelings usually return”. On the other hand, the religious
expressed the cathartic value of the experience and consequences of engaging in self-harm (attainment of
stated, “That pain just made me feel as if I’ve relieved some peace/ enlightenment) are usually more long-lasting
kind of pressure”. Studies show that self-harming and pervasive (Budny et al., 1991; Hope, 1967; Kelly,
behaviour may often be perceived as “warm”, and even 2011; Kolamkuzhyyil, 2016). Another difference
comforting, prompting the individual to experience pertained to the difference in emotions experienced
desires to engage in the same whenever distressed after the act is performed, where in non-religious
(Edmondson, et al., 2016; Klonsky, 2009; Polk & Liss, contexts, some participants reported experiencing
2009). Even within the religious context, self-harming shock, guilt and shame (“This was not what it was
enables the individuals involved to emotionally supposed to be, and you know, this is not how things should
unburden themselves, as in the case of the Muslim have gone”), while in religious contexts those engaging in
practice of collectively beating themselves while self-harming behaviour experience a more long lasting
mourning the death of Husayan. Further, a sense of sense of contentment and satisfaction, as they believe
accomplishment is evident in the case of the Buddhist that their actions have enabled them to move towards
tradition of “blood writing”, where monks dutifully enlightenment and God (Bendall & Rouse, 1971; Cid,
copy scriptures by mixing their blood with ink, and 2016; Kelly, 2011; Kolamkuzhyyil, 2016; Wilson,
believe that they have derived merit from the same, 2012).
which has important consequences for their present
and future lives.
Differences in religious and non-religious self- Acceptability of the self-harming behaviour. With
injuring acts. Aside from the similarities highlighted respect to self-harm behaviour carried out in non-
Page 43 Sanyukta Golaya

religious contexts, it has been observed that the contexts are the associated emotions of shame, guilt
experience of the same is often prompted by, and also and panic that arise after the act has occurred (“I just cut
characterized by psychological states of loneliness and and there was so much blood and that very instant I started to
a sense of perceived irrationality; this is evident by the think that why am I doing this…”). The same, however, is
statements provided by one participant, regarding how not the case with respect to self-harming behaviour in
they felt before they engaged in self-harm- “So I felt quite religious contexts, where the peace experienced is not
stupid, I felt quite…uh I felt quite unneeded…”, as well as overcome with emotions of guilt and anxiety. While
that reported by another participant after engaging in research does highlight the existence of the positive
the act- “it doesn’t feel like it was good, I mean it doesn’t feel physiological affect experienced after self-harming
nice- it feels it makes you feel weak from inside..”. Research behaviour, one may note that there is indeed a degree of
estimates that over 80% of individuals who self-harm pathology and stigma associated with such activity,
often do so to exert some form of interpersonal which individuals present in non-religious contexts are
influence, suggesting that these individuals face a consciously or unconsciously aware of (Steggals, 2015).
perceived sense of emotional distance and feeling of A possible explanation pertaining to the feeling of
being unloved, and even post the act feel and shock and shame associated with the behaviour in non-
internalise the stigma associated with the behaviour religious contexts may stem from this ver y
(Edmondson et al., 2016). On the other hand, the understanding of the behaviour being regarded as non-
practice of self-harming in religious contexts often normative and culturally unacceptable/unsanctioned,
enables the individuals engaging in the same to as opposed to activities that stem from ‘well recognized’
establish themselves as a distinct community, and culturally acceptable practices. While studies are
experience feelings of closeness and a strong sense of increasingly recognizing the role of self-harm as
identification. For instance, self-flagellation in Islam is reportedly being a positive experience for individuals,
done in a group setting and helps the Shia’s assert their which ultimately serves a variety of self-reported
identity as a separate sect of Islam. Further, it helps adaptive functions, the varying levels of normative
them stand against the suffering caused to them by the acceptability largely determine the nature of this
Sunni sect (Khan et al., 2014). With respect to the experience of peace, along with its classification into
perceived rationality associated with the behaviour, the broad domain of psychopatholog y or
self-injuring acts pertaining to a greater good and ‘cultural/religious traditions’. (Edmondson et al.,
appeasement of God are culturally sanctioned and 2016).
even encouraged in such contexts, hence leaving the
persons performing the same with a sense of Implications, Limitations and Directions for Future
accomplishment and satisfaction (Bates, 2006; Cid, Research
2016; Dames & Joyce, 1913; Hegland, 2008; Kelly,
In conclusion, the present study sheds light on how
2011; Wilson, 2012).
there are various similarities and differences in self-
Conclusion- Attainment of Peace: A Temporary harm behaviour, when carried out in religious and non-
aftermath or permanent solution? religious contexts. While one prominent similarity
pertains to the positive affect and psychological state the
From the analysis of the interviews and secondary concerned individuals (in both contexts) experience
data collected, it was observed that there exist a variety post carrying out the behaviour, a major difference lies
of similarities and differences in acts of self-harm in how long the aforementioned sense of relief/peace
performed in religious and non-religious contexts. lasts. When carried out for religious purposes, the
While three participants reported that the feelings of peaceful state is more pervasive and long-lasting, as it
peace and contentment that followed self-harm serves as a clear ‘means to an end’ (in terms of attaining
behaviour was temporary and short-lived, the fourth spiritual consequences), while on the other hand, when
participant asserted that the same was perceived to be engaged in for non-religious purposes, the sense of
stable and relatively long-lasting (as does happen in relief is short-lived as it is done to rid the self of
religious contexts as well). An interesting feature of the momentary distress. Implications of these findings
self-harming behaviour performed in non-religious include spurring a dialogue about the coping value of
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 44

self-harm behaviour both in religious and non-

religious contexts, subsequently reducing associated Budny, P. G., Regan, P. J., Riley, P., & Roberts, A. H.
taboo with ‘pathological’ manifestations of the (1991). Ritual burns- The Buddhist tradition.
behaviour, and facilitating psycho-education for Burns, 17(4), 335-337. https:// doi.org/ 10.101
alternatives to achieve psychological relief. 6/0305-4179(91)90051-h

The limitations of study pertain to the size and Brunner, R., Kaess, M., Parzer, P., Fischer, G., Carli,
V., Hoven, C. W., Wasserman, C., Sarchiapone,
nature of the sample, which was restricted, but could
M., Resch, F., Apter, A., Balazs, J., Barzilay, S.,
be larger and more inclusive to study gender Bobes, J., Corcoran, P., Cosmanm, D., Haring, C.,
differences and persons from different socio-economic Iosuec, M., Kahn, J., Keeley, H., & Wasserman, D.
strata as well. Second, while only three prominent (2014). Life-time prevalence and psychosocial
religions were analysed through their texts, future correlates of adolescent direct self-injurious
work may examine other cultural frameworks and behaviour: A comparative study of 11 European
traditions that focus on self-harm behaviour, and how countries. Jour nal of Child Psychology and
such practices may help expand the notion in question. Psychiatr y, 55(4), 337-348.https://doi.org/
Third, other forms of data may be collected and 10.1111/jcpp.12166
analysed, such as quantitative information via the use
Cid, A. J. (2016). Blood for the Goddess. Self
of surveys or in-depth case studies which will help
-mutilation rituals at Vajresvari Mandir, Kangra.
enrich the amount and kind of data being collected and
Indialogs,3,37-55. https://doi.org /10.
analysed. Much like any other human experience, self- 5565/rev/indialogs.41
harm behaviour needs to be studied from a multi-
dimensional socio-cultural lens, in order to gain a more Dames, M. L., & Joyce, T. A. (1913). Note on a
comprehensive understanding of such activity, and Gandhara relief representing the story of King
how it can deeply impact the lives of the people who Sivi. Man,13, 17-19. https://doi.org /10.2307
choose to participate in it with hopes of attaining /2787921
(permanent or temporary) peace.
Dar yaee, T., & Malekzadeh, S. (2014). The
References performance of pain and remembrance in late
antique Iran. The Silk Road,12, 57-64.
Bagadiya, T. (2017, October 1). Why Shia men practise
self-harm during Muharram. Youth Ki Awaaz. Edmondson, A. J., Brennan, C. A., & House, A. O.
https://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2017/10/muha (2016). Non-suicidal reasons for self-harm: A
rram/ systematic review of self-reported accounts.
Journal of Af fective Disorder, 191, 109-117.
Bates, C. (2006). Human sacrifice in Colonial Central https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.11.043
India: Myth, Agency, and representation. In C.
Bates (Ed.), Beyond Representation: Colonial and Favazza, A. R. (1996). Bodies under Siege: Self
Postcolonial Constructions of Indian Identity, (pp. -mutilation and body modification in culture and
1-54). OUP India. psychiatry. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Bendall, C., & Rouse, W. (1971). SiksaSamuccaya: A Gordon, K. H., Selby, E. A., Anestis, M. D., Bender,
compendium of Buddhist doctrine, compiled by T. W., Witte, T. K., Braithwaite, S., Van Orden,
Santideva chief ly from the early Mahayana K.A., Bresin, K., & Joiner, T. E. (2010). The
s o u r c e s . M o t i l a l B a n a r s i d a s P u b l i s h e r s. reinforcing properties of repeated deliberate self
-harm. Archives of Suicide Research: Of ficial
Brossard, B. (2014). Fighting with oneself to maintain Journal of the International Academy of uicide
the Interaction Order: A Sociological Approach to Research,14(4), 329-341.https://doi.org/
Self-Injur y Daily Process. Symbolic 10.1080/13811118.2010.524059
Interaction,37(4),558-575. https://doi.org/ Grossoehme, D. H., & Springer, L. S. (1999). Images
10.1002/symb.118 of God used by self-injurious burn patients.
Page 45 Sanyukta Golaya

B u r n s , 2 5 ( 5 ) , 4 4 3 - 4 4 8 . Comparative Study. [MA thesis]. University of

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-179(99)00016-9 Luzern

Hegland, M. E. (2008). Flagellation and Kumar, G., Pepe, D., & Steer, R. A. (2004).
fundamentalism: ( t r a n s ) f o r m i n g m e a n i n g, Adolescent psychiatric inpatients' self
identity, and gender throug Pakistani women's -reported reasons for cutting themselves. The
rituals of mourning. American Ethnologist,25(2), Jour nal of Ner vous and Mental Disease,
2 4 0 - 2 6 6 . h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 5 2 5 / a e. 192(12), 830-836. https://doi.org/10.1097/
1998.25.2.240 01.nmd.0000146737.18053.d2

Holliday, R., Brennan, C., & Cottrell, D. (2020). Linehan, M. (1993). Cognitive-Behavioral
Understanding adolescents’ experiences of self- Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder.
harm:Secondary analysis of family therapy The Guilford Press.
sessions from the SHIFT trial. Archives of Suicide
Research,24 ( s u p 1 ) , 1 9 0 - 2 0 3 h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g McAllister, M. (2003). Multiple meanings of self
/10.1080/13811118.2018.1501448 -harm: A critical review. International Journal
of Mental Health Nursing,12(3), 177-185.
Hope, M. (1967). The reluctant way: self-immolation https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440
in Vietnam. Antioch Review,27(2), 149-163. -0979.2003.00287.x

Johnstone, L. (1997). Self-Injury and the psychiatric Nock, M. K. (2010). Self-injury. Annual Review
response. Feminism and Psychology,7(3), 421-426. o f C l i n i c a l P s y c h o l o g y, 6 ( 1 ) , 3 3 9 - 3 6 3 .
https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353597073025 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.12
1208.131258.
Kelly, B. D. (2011). Self-immolation, suicide and self
-harm in Buddhist and Western traditions. Osuch, E. A., Ford, K. A., Wrath, A. J., Bartha,
Transcultural Psychiatry, 48(3), 299–317.https:// R., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2014). Functional
doi.org/10.1177/1363461511402869 M R I o f p a i n a p p l i c a t i o n i n yo u t h w h o
engaged in repetitive non-suicidal self-injury
Khan, S., Chaudhry, W. L., & Badshah, I. (2014). vs. psychiatric controls. Psychiatr y Research:
Ethnographic study of Muharram rituals in a Neuroimaging, 223(2), 104–112.
Punjabi village in Pakistan. Journal of Asian https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2014
Civilizations, 37(2),181-196 .05.003

Kieschnick, J. (2000). Blood writing in Chinese Pembroke, L., Smith, A., & the National Self
Buddhism. Journal of the International Association -Harm Network (1998). Minimising the
of Buddhist Studies,23(2), 177-14. damage from self-harm: The guide for
friends, relatives and advocates going with a
Klonsky, D. E., May, A. M., & Glenn, C. R. (2013). person who self-har ms to an accident and
The relationship between non- suicidal self-injury emergency depar tment. National Self Harm
and attempted suicide: Converging evidence from Network.
four samples. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,
122(1), 231 - 2 3 7 . h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 3 7 Polk, E., & Liss, M. (2009). Exploring the
/a0030278 motivations behind self-injur y. Counseling
P s y c h o l o g y Q u a r t e r l y, 2 2 ( 2 ) , 2 3 3 - 2 4 1 .
Klonsky, E. (2009). The functions of self-injury in https://doi.org/10.1080/0951507090
young adults who cut them-selves: clarifying the 3216911
evidence for affect-regulation. Psychiatry Research
1 6 6 ( 2 - 3 ) , 2 6 0 - 2 6 8 . Rani, M., Rani, Y., & Meena, M. C. (2014). Self
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.02.008 -inflicted injuries- An overview. Journal of
Fo re n s i c M e d i c i n e & To x i c o l o g y , 3 1 ( 2 ) , 6 - 8 .
Kolamkuzhyyil, T. M. (2016). The Concept of a
Sacrifice in Christianity and in Hinduism: A
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 46

Rayner, G., & Warner, S. (2003). Self-harming behaviour:

From lay perceptions to clinical practice. Counselling
Psychology Quarterly,16(4), 305-329.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0951507032000156862

Ross, R.R. & McKay, H.B. (1979). Self-Mutilation.

Lexington, MA: Heath.

Ryan, J., Clemmett, S., & Snelson, A. (1997). Role of a

psychiatric liaison nurse in an A & E department.
Accident and Emergenc y Nursing,5(3), 152-155.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0965-2302(97)90010-2

Shih, H. (1994). Upasakasila-sutra: The Sutra on Upasaka

precepts (BDK English Tripitaka 45-II). Numata enter
for Buddhist Translation and Research.

Stanicke, L. I., Haavind, H., & Gullestad, S. E. (2018).

How do young people understand their own self
-harm? A meta-synthesis of adolescents' subjective
experience of self-har m. Adolescent Research
Review,3, 173-191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894
-018-0080-9

Steggals, P. (2015). Making sense of self-harm- The

cultural meaning and social context of non-suicidal
self-injury. Springer

Van der Kolk, B., Perry, C., & Herman, J. (1991).

Childhood origin of self-destructive behaviour.
American Journal of Psychiatry,148(12), 1665-1671.
h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 1 7 6 / a j p. 1 4 8 . 1 2 . 1 6 6 5

Vivekananda, K. (2000). Integrating models for

u n d e r s t a n d i n g s e l f - i n j u r y. P s y c h o t h e r a p y i n
Australia,7(1), 18-25.

Wilson, L. (2012). Starvation and self-mutilation in

religious traditions. In Oxford Handbook of Religion
and Violence (pp. 242–249). Oxford University Press.
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 47-54

To be or not to be : A comparative study of psychological well-being

among users and non-users of dating apps and their frequency of use
Garima Shah1 & Shweta Krishnamurthy2

Abstract : Swipe-Based Dating Apps (SBDAs) have become an integral part of our world today, acting as one of the
primary sources of seeking and developing interpersonal relationships. With a plethora of such opportunities
available virtually, the consequences related to an individual’s well-being become crucial to study. Thus, the present
study aimed to explore the differences in levels of Psychological Well-being (PWB) between users of Swipe-Based
Dating Apps and non-users in the Indian context. Moreover, the frequency of usage of SBDA was also
hypothesized to have an impact on the levels of PWB. 250 young adults between the ages of 18-25 years were
recruited for this study using convenience sampling. The measure used was the Psychological Well-being (PWB)
Scale (Ryff, 1995). The findings of the study indicated a lack of significant difference in PWB levels between users
and non-users of SBDAs. Additionally, no differences were found in levels of PWB based on frequency of usage.
Limitations and possible directions for future research are also discussed.
Keywords: dating apps, well-being, frequency of use, tinder, India

The advent of the internet and social media has people's quality of life (Gable et al., 2004), individuals
permanently changed the way our lives work. One of look for such opportunities on online dating
the many impacts of the internet can be observed in the applications. One research (Bonilla-Zorita et al., 2020)
way people find love and companionship with the found that personality correlates such as neuroticism,
emergence of online dating and dating apps. These s o c i a b i l i t y, s e n s a t i o n - s e e k i n g , a n d s e x u a l
apps, usually made for the specific purpose of “dating” permissiveness are related to greater use of online
or finding partners function like other social media dating services. Studies have also examined the effect
applications, with the added feature of swiping left or of using SBDAs on body image, self-esteem, and
right on potential applicants. Each user has a profile clinical mental health outcomes (Blake et al., 2022;
that other users can approve or reject by swiping the Cacioppo et al., 2006; Strubel & Petrie, 2017). Online
screen to the right or the left. While initially these dating is a convenient way to form meaningful
applications were considered destructive and seen connections and long-term relationships, but not
negatively - as seen by the highly viewed New York Post everyone has a positive experience. A study by Woerner
story called “Tinder Is Tearing Society Apart” (Riley, (2022) revealed that dating app facilitated sexual
2015), these applications are now widely accepted as a violence (DAFSV) frequency was associated with
good way to meet people (Smith & Anderson, 2016). higher depression and anxiety symptoms, higher
These SBDAs have found a large database of users in loneliness, lower self-esteem, and lower perceived
India as well. According to statisa.com, the number of control. Research on the benefits of using dating apps is
users is expected to amount to 28.41 million Indian relatively scarce, but it has been stressed that these tools
users in the online dating segment, making India the are making life and relationships easier for many
second-largest market for the same. people worldwide (Castro & Barrada, 2020). Studies
focusing on users of SBDAs have shown that frequency
Many studies have focused on the motivations of usage also has significant linkages with mental
behind the usage of SBDAs (Chisom, 2021; Joshi et al., health. For instance, a study by Holtzhausen et al
2020; Sumter et al., 2017). As nurturing healthy and (2020) found a significantly higher rate of
trustworthy romantic relationships can enhance p s yc h o l o g i c a l d i s t r e s s a m o n g d a i l y u s e r s.

1
MSc. Clinical Psychology, National Forensic Sciences University, Gujarat, India
Corresponding Author: Shweta Krishnamurthy, Email: [email protected]
2
M.A. Criminology with specialization in Forensic Psychology,
National Forensic Sciences University, Gujarat, India
Page 48 Garima Shah & Shweta Krishnamurthy

Psychological well-being and Swipe Based Dating Method

Apps (SBDA)
Sample
Few studies have examined the association
between SBDAs and mental health outcomes The sample was recruited through convenience
(Holtzhausen et al., 2020; Langert, 2021; Portingale et sampling and consisted of 250 participants (Males =
al, 2022). One study by Holtzhausen and colleagues 93, Females = 152, Non-binary/Gender Fluid = 5). A
(2020) found significantly higher rates of psychological non-probability sample was used since dating apps still
distress, anxiety, and depression in users of dating apps hold a negative connotation in India. Stigma is attached
as compared to non-users. Another study by Zervoulis to the use of dating apps due to many reasons like the
and colleagues (2019) focused on gay dating apps and belief that these apps are only used to seek sexual
found a lower sense of community, higher levels of fulfilments, the fear of getting catfished or stalked
loneliness, and lower levels of satisfaction with life in online, the disapproval of parents to use such apps, and
frequent users of dating apps. A survey conducted by so on. Hence, the sample was obtained by directly
the Pew Research Center on 4,860 US adults saw that reaching out to users and non-users of these apps.
57% of the users had an overall positive experience.
35% of dating app users said that online dating made The age range of the sample was 18-25 years.
them feel more pessimistic; on the other hand, 29% of Participants belonged to different parts of India, with
the users believed that it had left them feeling more majority of the sample residing in Gujarat and New
optimistic (Vogels, 2020). Delhi. 125 participants were users of SBDAs while 125
were non-users. Users were operationalized as those
Most studies conducted on dating apps and mental participants who had used any dating app within the
health have focused on general well-being and body past six months, and non-users those who had not.
image. Studies conducted in the Indian context have
focused on body image, and motivations behind usage Design
and have focused specifically on the LGBTQ+
A survey design was followed in the present study.
community (Bhan, 2021; Bhatia, 2020; Singh et al.,
Psychological Well Being (PWB) was treated as a
2021). Relationship needs and the need for
dependent variable that was affected by the usage of
belongingness (and lack thereof) form an important
Swipe-Based Dating App (SBDAs) (Independent
aspect of psychological well-being. To our limited
Variable).
knowledge, no study has specifically focused on the
comparison of psychological well-being in users and Measures
non-users of SBDAs. Despite a large database of
SBDA users in India, there is a serious lack of research Demographic profile. A demographic questionnaire was
in this domain in India. It is hence necessary to address circulated alongside the standardised tools. Questions
this literature gap and examine the relationship included email address, age, gender, sexual orientation,
between psychological well-being and usage (or non- and current state of residence. The questionnaire also
usage) of SBDAs in the Indian context. included basic information on SBDAs usage. First, the
Based on the literature reviewed, our study proposes participants were asked if they had used any dating app
the following hypotheses: within the past six months and were segregated
accordingly, into users and non-users. For users, the
H1 - There will be a significant difference in the questionnaire also included a question on the frequency
levels of Psychological Well-Being (PWB) of Swipe- of SBDAs usage (almost never, once a month, multiple
Based Dating App (SBDAs) users and non-users. times a month, once a week, multiple times a week,
every day) (Holtzhausen et al., 2020).
H2 - There will be a significant difference on
Psychological Well-being (PWB) between the various Psychological Well-Being Scale (Ryff & Keyes, 1995). The
groups categorised according to the frequency of usage current study utilised the short version of the
of Swipe-Based Dating App (SBDAs).
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 49

Psychological Well-being (PWB) Scale developed by A total of 250 participants completed the online
Ryff (1995). This scale consists of 18 items using a 7- form. The sample was erqually divided into users and
point scale (1 = strongly agree; 7 = strongly disagree). non-users (125 participants in each). Out of the total
T h e s c a l e h a s s i x s u b s c a l e s - A u t o n o m y, sample, the majority were females (n=153, 61%). In the
Environmental Mastery, Personal Growth, Positive ‘users’ category, the distribution included 55 females,
Relations with Others, Purpose in Life, and Self- 66 males and 5 participants in the ‘other’ section.
acceptance, with three questions in each of the Whereas in the category of ‘non-users’, the participants
subscales. The statements were negatively and included 98 females, 26 males and 1 from the ‘other’
positively framed. For this study, only the total score section. Among those who used SBDAs (n = 125),
was considered. Higher scores indicated higher levels 19.2% of them used the SBDA almost never (n = 24) or
of psychological well-being. Satisfactory psychometric once a month (n = 24). 17.6% of the users used the app
properties have been reported by the authors using multiple times a month (n = 22) while 26.4% used it
American data (Ryff, 1995). The Cronbach's alpha for multiple times a week (n = 33). Only 14 SBDA users
the current sample was 0.69. (11.2%) used it once a week and 0.06% (n = 8) used the
SBDA every day.
Procedure
An independent sample t-test was conducted using
The items of the scale were transcribed into a google SPSS 23 to examine if there was a significant difference
form and were disseminated to individuals over a one- in Psychological Well Being (PWB) (Dependent
month period (December 2022 - January 2023). Prior Variable) of Swipe-Based Dating App (SBDAs) users
permission was obtained from relevant authorities to and non-users (Independent Variable). The Shapiro-
use the measures. Participants were recruited mainly Wilk test was performed on the data (n = 250) with its
through different social media platforms like results indicating values >0.05 (0.490 and 0.491 for
WhatsApp and Instagram. The form link was also non-users and users respectively), proving the
circulated on different swipe-based dating apps like normality of the data. A statistically insignificant
Hinge and Bumble through personal profiles. Consent difference was seen in the Psychological Well-Being of
was obtained at the beginning of the questionnaire and SBDAs users and non-users (t = .509, p = .611),
confidentiality of personal information was assured. rejecting the first hypothesis (H1). Table 1 summarises
Data analysis was carried out using Statistical Package the above findings.
for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.

Results

Table 1
t test Comparing Psychological Well-being Among Users and Non-users

Variable n Mean SD t value p value

Users 125 92.34 11.28 .509 .611

Non-users 125 93.12 12.79

For assessing the second hypothesis (H2), a one- Multiple times a month, Once a week, Multiple
way ANOVA between groups was performed using times a week, Everyday) whose influence was
SPSS 23, to find the differences between the frequency studied on the dependent variable Psychological
of usage of SBDA users and their Psychological Well- Well-Being (PWB). Table 2 summarises the research
Being. The independent variable was the Frequency of findings.
usage having six levels (Almost never, Once a month,
Page 50 Garima Shah & Shweta Krishnamurthy

Table 2

Descriptive Statistics of Frequency of Usage and Psychological Well-Being

Frequency of Use n Mean Std. Deviation

Almost Never 24 95.21 13.30

Once a Month 24 88.54 14.86

Multiple Times a Month 22 94.82 12.13

Once a Week 14 90.64 13.86

Multiple Times a Week 33 93.55 10.31

Everyday 8 98.50 12.87

Total 125 93.12 12.79

Table 3

One Way Analyses of Frequency of Use and PWB scores

df f value p value

Between groups 5 1.227 .301

Normality tests on the data (n=125) revealed that the between the users and non-users of swipe-based dating
statistic values (-.176 and .430 for Skewness and apps. Additionally, the study also explored whether the
Kurtosis, respectively) were less than an absolute value frequency of usage of swipe- based dating apps
of 2.0, indicating that the data was normally (SBDAs) users influenced their Psychological Well-
distributed. The p-value obtained from conducting being (PWB).
one-way ANOVA was .301 (>0.05). Thus, the second
hypothesis (H2) that ‘There will be a significant Our first hypothesis that there will be a significant
difference on Psychological Well-being (PWB) difference in the levels of psychological well-being of
between the various groups categorised according to SBDA users and non-users was rejected (Table 1). This
the frequency of usage of Swipe-Based Dating App implies that there were no significant differences in the
(SBDAs)’ was also rejected. well-being of SBDA users and non-users. Nevertheless,
multiple studies have indicated a relationship, mostly a
Discussion negative one between usage of SBDAs and
psychological well-being (Salaric, 2022; Singh et al.,
Considering the increase in dating app users and the 2021; Zervoulis et al., 2019). Studies have shown that
lack of previous research focusing on mental health users of dating apps report higher levels of distress,
outcomes of dating app usage in the Indian context, it depression, anxiety, loneliness, all of which can
is important to explore the effect of the usage of dating influence the person’s overall psychological well-being.
applications on well-being. The current study aimed to While the findings of our study are surprising, there
explore the differences in psychological well-being may be few explanations for the same.
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 51

One possible explanation could be the motives dating apps found that none of the participants
behind the usage of these apps. SBDAs can be used for revealed the reason for using dating apps. A possible
multiple reasons - finding long lasting and meaningful reason for this could be the social desirability in
relationships, for short-term dating, to find friends, for expressing intentions of casual sex, as premarital sex is
hooking up and only sexual reasons and even for against the existing social norms in India (Chakraborty,
entertainment. Bartsch and Oliver (2016) found that 2019). This is in contrast to a study done in the United
well-being may be influenced when individuals use States, which found that 17.9% of women and 33.1%
SBDAs to fulfil their social, physical, and psychosocial men reported using dating platforms for hook-ups
needs or use it as a tool for entertainment experiences. (Lykens et al., 2019).
Seeing online dating mainly as an act of joy and
entertainment might positively affect users’ well- Our second hypothesis focused on the difference
being. However, seeing it as a form of building a between the frequency of usage and psychological well-
relationship might imply a greater negative effect on being of SBDA users. Table 2 focuses on the descriptive
users’ wellbeing (Langert, 2021). Hence, if the statistics concerning the different levels of frequency of
individuals’ motive for using the app is met, their usage of SBDAs among the users and their PWB
psychological well-being levels may increase; scores. Out of all the six subcategories, interestingly,
however, if they are unable to make use of the apps for the one with the highest number of participants was the
their motives, their psychological well-being levels ‘Multiple times a week’, whereas the category with the
may decrease. Since the present study did not tap the least number of participants was ‘Everyday’. Table 3
motives of using the SBDAs- whether it is the sheds light on the results obtained after carrying out
formation of a connection, or a temporary date for one-way ANOVA on the concerned sample. As a result,
fun, entertainment or sex, it is difficult to understand the second hypothesis of the study was also rejected.
the lack of effect of usage of SBDA on PWB. This indicates that the frequency of usage has no
impact on the psychological well-being of the
Previous studies have also found that usage of individual. This finding was also inconsistent from past
dating apps can lower self-image and self-esteem due studies which have found that increased usage of dating
to rejection and lack of matches on the SBDAs apps results in lowered self-esteem, body image issues,
(Marston et al., 2020; Salaric, 2022; Strubel & Petrie, and overall well-being (Holtzhausen et al., 2020;
2017). However, these apps do not have the feature of a Langert, 2021). The current study measured frequency
direct, confrontative rejection. There is no form of in broad terms (multiple times a week, once a month,
absolute negative feedback in these apps - even if a and so on) instead of a specific count. This, hence,
person swipes left (i.e., rejects) on a person, the said includes a range of users, from those who may install
person has no direct way of knowing this since the the SBDA once every month and uninstall it after their
users are only made aware of the matches, and not the needs have been met, to those who use it diligently as
rejections. Orosz et al. (2016) found that any self- and when they feel the need to. Accordingly, a
esteem enhancing experience of dating app usage difference in psychological well-being cannot be
might be temporary and has no or a relatively small accounted for by the difference in frequency of use;
effect on one’s global self-esteem. Another reason rather, the specific number of hours used per day may
could be the very importance of dating apps in the be a better indicator for psychological well-being.
individual’s life. It is possible that by itself, usage or
non-usage of SBDAs cannot account for increasing or Limitations and Future Directions
decreasing an individual’s psychological well-being.
Other situational factors in the person’s life may play a The present study, despite consisting of a relatively
higher or an overpowering role in influencing overall wider sample, did not take into consideration the many
levels of well-being. The effects may also differ mediating and contextual factors that may play a role in
depending on the cultural context and norms influencing a person’s psychological well-being (such
surrounding dating in different societies (Chen et al., as presence of a mental illness, experience of a recent
2020). Research by Chandra and Priya (2020) traumatic event particularly with refence to SBDAs and
analysing self-presentation of Indian individuals on so on), be it a user or a non-user. Perhaps, future
Page 52 Garima Shah & Shweta Krishnamurthy

research can expand the objectives of the current

research, throwing light on such factors thereby also References
providing specific directions to the research. For the
users of SBDAs, the study was restricted to individuals Bartsch, A., & Oliver, M. B. (2017). Appreciation of
who had used any of these applications in the last six meaningful entertainment experiences and
eudaimonic well-being. In L. Reinecke & M. B.
months. However, it did not control all the other
Oliver (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of media use
possible conditions that may have directly affected the and well-being: International perspectives on theory
validity of the sample (for example participants who and research on positive media effects (pp. 80–92).
uninstalled applications despite falling in the time- Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
limit). Thus, it can be inferred that the study did not
have a robust exclusion criterion, which might have Bhan, T. (2021). A comparative study of mental health
impacted our results. The findings of the present parameters in dating app users and non - users. The
research can nonetheless act as a base for future studies, International Journal of Indian Psychology, 9(4),
exploring the expectancies, motivations involved in 1604-1622. DOI: 10.25215/0904.154
SBDAs usage, types of interpersonal relationships that
exist on SBDAs and their possible impact on PWB. Bhatia, R. (2020). Study of analysis of psychological
impact of dating apps in the minds of young adults
Further research on this topic may also benefit from
[Unpublished Bachelor’s Thesis]. Navrachana
using more stringent measures and accounting for University.
factors like par ticipants' educational levels,
occupations, socioeconomic status, urban or semi- Blake, K., Portingale, J., Giles, S., Griffiths, S., &
urban living conditions, independent or family living Krug, I. (2022). Dating app usage and motivations
arrangements. Future researchers may also benefit from for dating app usage are associated with increased
using multiple variables and scales instead of using a disordered eating. Journal of Eating Disorders,
single psychometric scale. A qualitative method can 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-022
also be used to better explore these variables and their -00693-9
interrelations. Finally, like most research, the current
Bonilla-Zorita, G., Griffiths, M. D., & Kuss, D. J.
study also uses convenience sampling and fails to
(2020). Online dating and problematic use: A
thoroughly account for the population it is supposed to systematic review. Inter national Jour nal of
characterise. This form of sampling hence exposes the Mental Health and Addiction, 19(6), 2245–2278.
study to different forms of biases and can lead to a https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00318-9
severe underrepresentation of different and relatively
inaccessible populations, especially from rural parts of Cacioppo, J. T., Hughes, M. E., Waite, L. J., Hawkley,
India. L. C., & Thisted, R. A. (2006). Loneliness as a
specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: Cross
Conclusion -sectional and longitudinal analyses. Psychology
and Aging, 21(1), 140–151.https://doi.org/
The objective of the current study was to explore 10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.140
differences in the Psychological Well-being (PWB) of
Swipe-Based Dating Apps (SBDAs) users and non- Castro, N., & Barrada, J. R. (2020). Dating apps and
users, along with assessing the relationship between their sociodemographic and psychosocial
frequency of usage of SBDAs users and their PWB. The correlates: A systematic review. International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public
findings revealed an insignificant relationship,
Health, 17(18), 6500.https://doi.org/10.3390/
suggesting no difference in the levels of PWB among
ijerph17186500
users and non-users of SBDAs. Moreover, the
frequency of usage of the SBDAs was also seen to have Chakraborty, D. (2019). Components affecting
no effect on PWB. These results hint towards the intention to use online dating apps in India: A
possibility of the mediation of various other
unexplored factors in relation to SBDA use which can
be responsible for changes in psychological well-being.
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 53

study conducted on smartphone users. Asia-Pacific flirting and online dating among adolescent youth
Journal of Management Research and Innovation, and young adults. JMIR Public Health and
15(3), 87–96.https://doi.org/10.1177/2319510 Surveillance, 5(2), e10695.https://doi.org/10.2196
x19872596 /10695

Chandra, A., & Priya, M (2020). Self-presentation of Marston, H. R., Niles-Yokum, K., Earle, S., Gomez,
males and females in an online dating application: B., & Lee, D. J. (2020). OK Cupid, stop bumbling
A profile analysis from north India. Indian Journal around and match me Tinder: Using dating apps
of Health, Sexuality & Culture, 6(1), 65-72. across the life course. Gerontology and Geriatric
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3929230 Medicine, 6, 2333721420947498.https://doi.org/
10.1177/2333721420947498
Chen, B. B., Vansteelandt, K., & Van de Vijver, F. J.
(2020). Dating and romantic relationships in Orosz, G., To t́ h-Kiraĺ y, I., Bo t̋he, B., & Melher, D. (2016).
adolescence and young adulthood: Cultural perspectives. Too many swipes for today: The development of
In J. E. Maddux (Ed.), Social psychological foundations the Problematic Tinder Use Scale (PTUS). Journal
of culture (pp. 389-408). Taylor & Francis. of Behavioral Addictions, 5(3), 518–523.
https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.5.2016.016
Chisom, O. (2021). Effects of modern dating
a p p l i c a t i o n s o n h e a l t hy o f f l i n e i n t i m a t e Portingale, J., Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M., Liu, S., Eddy,
relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic: A S., Liu, X., Giles, S., & Krug, I. (2022). Love me
review of the Tinder dating application. Advances Tinder: The effects of women’s lifetime dating app
in Journalism and Communication, 9(1), 12-38. use on daily body dissatisfaction, disordered eating
https://doi.org/10.4236/ajc.2021.91002 urges, and negative mood. Body Image, 40,
310–321.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.
Gable, S. L., Reis, H. T., Impett, E. A., & Asher, E. R. 2022.01.005
(2004). What do you do when things go right? The
intrapersonal benefits of sharing positive events. Riley, N. S. (2015, August). Tinder is tearing society
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, apart. New York Post.https://nypost.com/2015
87(2), 228–245. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022 /08/16/tinder-is-tearing-apart-societ/
-3514.87.2.228
Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult
Holtzhausen, N., Fitzgerald, K., Thakur, I., Ashley, J., life. Current Directions in Psychological Science,
Rolfe, M., & Pit, S. W. (2020). Swipe-based dating 4, 99–104. https://doi.org/10.1159/000353263
applications use and its association with mental
health outcomes: A cross-sectional study. BMC Salaric, P., Cain, R., Zitkus, E., & Visch, V. (2022).
Psychology,8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359 Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of
-020-0373-1 dating applications. DRS2022: Bilbao, 25.
https://doi.org/10.21606/drs.202.543
Joshi, G., Rais, S., Ann, M., & Mishra, I. (2020).
Online dating: A motivated behavior during Singh, D. K., Suri, V. R., & Shukla, J. (2021).
pandemic. Indian Journal of Health, Sexuality & Understanding the digital technology use amongst
C u l t u re , 6 ( 2 ) , 2 2 - 3 2 . h t t p : / / d x . d o i . o r g / LGBTQ+ adults in India for well-being
10.5281/zenodo.4295667 [Unpublished Bachelor’s Thesis]. Indraprastha
I n s t i t u t e o f I n f o r m a t i o n Te c h n o l o g y.
Langert, L. (2021). Finding love or self-affirmation? http://repository.iiitd.edu.in/xmlui/handle/
Exploring online dating applications usage and its 123456789/982
multifaceted consequences on users’ well-being
[Unpublished Master's thesis]. University of Smith, A. & M. Anderson (2016, February). 5 Facts
Twente. about Online Dating. Pew Research Center.
https://internet.psych.wisc.edu/wp-content
Lykens, J. E., Pilloton, M., Silva, C. L., Schlamm, E., /uploads/532-Master/532-UnitPages/Unit-06
Wilburn, K., & Pence, E. (2019). Google for sexual /Smith_Pew_OnlineDating_2016a.pdf
relationships: Mixed-methods study on digital
Page 54 Garima Shah & Shweta Krishnamurthy

Strubel, J., & Petrie, T. A. (2017). Love me Tinder:

Body image and psychosocial functioning among
men and women. Body Image, 21, 34–38.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.02.006

Sumter, S. R., Vandenbosch, L., & Ligtenberg, L.

(2017). Love me Tinder: Untangling emerging
adults’ motivations for using the dating
application Tinder. Telematics and Informatics,
34(1), 67–78.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.
2016.04.009

Vogels, E. A. (2020, February). 10 facts about

Americans and online dating in 2019. Pew
ResearchCenter.https://www.pewresearch.
org/fact-tank/2020/02/06/10-facts-about-
americans-and-online-dating/

Woerner, J. (2022). College students’ experiences of

dating app facilitated sexual violence and
associations with mental health symptoms and
well-being.PsyArXiv.https://doi.org/10.31234
/osf.io/y6uka

Zervoulis, K., Smith, D. S., Reed, R., & Dinos, S.

(2019). Use of ‘gay dating apps’ and its relationship
with individual well-being and sense of
community in men who have sex with men.
P s y c h o l o g y & S e x u a l i t y, 1 1 ( 1 – 2 ) , 8 8 – 1 0 2 .
https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2019.
1684354
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 55-67

Fear fuels workplace motivation:

Exploring workplace fear of missing out and
masculinity contest culture in India
1 1 1
Vanshika Verma , Reva Garg & Maanvi Nuniwal

Abstract : The concept of Workplace FoMO is relatively new in the domain of psychological research. Defined and
investigated in the western context for the first time in 2019, there is no existing literature on the construct in the
Indian context, a country with one of the largest demographic dividends. The present study aimed to explore
workplace FoMO and its relationship to workplace motivation as mediated by the masculinity contest culture, and
further investigated gender-related differences that lie therein. Data was collected from 98 working employees (64
males, 34 females) on the three variables through the Workplace FoMO scale, Multidimensional work motivation
scale and masculinity contest culture scale. The data was analysed using correlation, independent sample t-tests,
regression and mediation analysis. The results indicated a significant positive correlation between workplace
FoMO and workplace motivation. Furthermore, workplace motivation was predicted by workplace FoMO and
Masculinity Contest Culture and a partial mediation was found. However, no gender differences were reported in
the experience of Workplace FoMO and Workplace motivation. The results of the present study, being the first of
its kind in the Indian context, can be leveraged to enhance employee motivation and alter management practices to
utilise FoMO as a constructive solution rather than an abrasive element within an organisation.
Keywords: Workplace FoMO, workplace motivation, masculinity contest culture, gender differences, employee
performance

India, a country that worships multiple Goddesses for Since culturally learnt expectations are reinforced
prosperity, happiness and love, brings its own paradox and influenced by the surrounding social structure that
to life, as it ranks 135 out of 146 countries in the World invalidates and undermines women's attempts to be
Economic Forum's Global Gender Gap Report effective, influential, and powerful, a woman leader
(2022). Such inequality in India arises from the social stimulates a different reaction than a male leader.
construct of unequal power in a relationship. Researchers (e.g., Badura et al., 2018) have long
Consequently, there is a clear norm of male discovered that when people think "leader," they tend
dominance and female subjugation in various areas of to think "male," and that this finding cuts across many
life, including the workplace (Esteve-Volart, 2004). cultural boundaries. These findings are reproduced in
Even though women have historically been working in professional settings too. According to a Deloitte
various domains, their contribution is often Global report, in India, just 17.1% of board positions
disregarded or disguised as their ‘responsibility as a were held by women in 2021.
good woman’ who must cook, clean and take care of
the family. Gender disparity in employment implies Fear of Missing Out (FoMO)
treating women (or men) differently because of
Often, the work done by women is overlooked and goes
characteristics that are not related to their merit or the
unrecognised which demonstrates the implications of
requirements of the job (Kaushik et al., 2014). As per a
the self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan,
report published by Minnesota Advocates for Human
2000). This theory postulates that individuals are
Rights in Bulgaria (1999), women are hired for low-
motivated to grow when their innate psychological
paying, stagnant jobs that are referred to as
needs of connection, competence and autonomy are
"Traditional" women's jobs with fewer opportunities
fulfilled. Fear of Missing Out (FoMO), a relatively
for advancement (Michael, 2007).

1
Undergraduate student, Department of Psychology, Lady Shri Ram College for Women, University of Delhi
Corresponding Author: Vanshika Verma, Email: [email protected]
Page 56 Vanshika Verma, Reva Garg & Maanvi Nuniwal

newer psychological phenomenon, has been frustration, ‘experienced as personal rather than as
conceptualized in terms of STD by Przybylski et al. situational’.
(2013) as a “pervasive apprehension that others might
be having rewarding experiences from which one is Workplace Motivation and Gender Gap
absent”. It may lead the individual to feel a deeper
sense of social inferiority, loneliness, or intense rage. Not only does gender disparity in the workplace
The fulfilment of this social acceptance desire leads to influence workplace FoMO, but it has also been
enhanced feelings of meaning (Lambert et al., 2013), demonstrated to impact work motivation among
positive emotional experiences (Baumeister & Leary, employees. Pinder (1998) defined work motivation as
1995), and life satisfaction (Sheldon & Bettencourt, “a set of energetic forces that originates both within as
2002). Alternatively, thwarting the need to belong well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-
leads to stress and negative affect (Beekman et al., related behaviour, and to determine its form, direction,
2016). intensity and duration”. A direct relationship between
higher levels of job motivation and improved
Marsh et al. (2022) suggest that FoMO is a organizational performance has been found (Grant,
significant maladaptive aspect of technology. With the 2008; Halbesleben & Bowler, 2007). Irrespective of the
increased use of social media and other digital tools sexual identity of the person, both men and women
post-pandemic, the work-life orientation has seek positions and jobs with development and training
experienced a significant shift and established a culture opportunities that would thereby allow them to
of work from home. With this vast virtual space, advance to greater levels (Maxwell & Broadbridge,
FoMO can also be applied to employee worries and 2017).
behaviours (Farivar & Richardson, 2021).
Ayub and Rafif (2011) found a significant gender
Workplace FoMO difference in work motivation. Multiple studies have
shown that discriminatory treatment of women at the
When applied to the workplace, Budnick et al. (2020) workplace leads to reduced positive psychological
define workplace FoMO as “a pervasive apprehension constructs. Female employees expect equal treatment
that, relative to other employees, one might miss from the organisation, and when that expectation is not
valuable career opportunities when away or met, job motivation and satisfaction suffer (Brief &
disconnected from work.” It is manifested as the fear of Barsky, 2000; Miner-Rubino & Cortina, 2006). Memon
missing opportunities for rewarding experiences like and Jena (2017) found reduced motivational levels in
building professional relationships, gaining valuable women who experienced gender inequality at their
information, and contributing to key organizational workplace in India. Equally skilled at their job, female
decisions and projects. employees want to contribute and have their presence
felt in the organisation like the male employees, the lack
This recent phenomenon, FoMO at the workplace of which leads to negative impacts. Etzkowitz and
has been explored by a limited number of studies. Ranga (2011) suggested that, when their skills are being
Research conducted by Hoşgör et al. (2021) found that utilised, women in STEM fields feel fulfilled; otherwise,
higher levels of FoMO were positively associated with they lose motivation, and may even contemplate
higher levels of perceived work overload among leaving their jobs. Additionally, women value a
nurses. Additionally, higher FoMO levels are welcoming setting and are usually concerned with
negatively associated with lower levels of overall prestige, challenge, job security, task importance,
information security awareness at the workplace cooperative environments, and their working
(Hadlington et al., 2020). This construct becomes a conditions, while men are concerned predominantly
double-edged sword for working mothers. The findings with earnings, responsibilities, and promotions
of a study by Miliopoulou and Kapareliotis (2021) give (Hofstede, 2001). Some studies demonstrate negligible
insight into mothers' ‘double‐sided FoMO’ of gender differences in workplace motivation (Dubinsky
important work opportunities and significant events in et al., 1993; Deci & Ryan, 2014). In line with these
their children’s lives, which in turn raises anxiety and findings, Pearson and Chatterjee (2002) found gender
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 57

uniformity in job motivation where men and women study aimed to explore the relationship between
shared similar attitudes to development opportunities, Workplace FoMO and Motivation and investigate if
relationships with managers, high earnings, skill usage, there exist any gender differences among professionals
work autonomy, appealing living areas, etc. in the Indian context with the following hypotheses

Masculinity in the Workplace Hypotheses

Gender attributes are known to influence the larger The following hypotheses about workplace FoMO,
context of the organisation itself. Masculinity Contest Workplace motivation and masculinity contest culture
Culture (MCC) was introduced by Berdahl et al. (2018) at the workplace were tested in light of the existing
to describe a dysfunctional organizational culture in literature.
which stereotypically masculine characteristics are
honoured. It has four dimensions- (1) Show no 1. Workplace FoMO and workplace motivation will
weakness (avoiding display of vulnerability, denying be positively and significantly related.
any mistakes, (2) Strength and stamina (valuing
2. There will be a significant relationship between
physical strength, working for extreme hours), and (3)
workplace FoMO and masculinity contest culture
Put work first (prioritising work over other obligations, at workplace.
where taking breaks is viewed a sign of non-
commitment), and (4) Dog-Eat-Dog 3. There will be a significant relationship between
(hypercompetitive environment with lack of trust in workplace motivation and masculinity contest
anyone). Both men and women are required to culture.
demonstrate their "manhood" in workplaces, to be
awarded with rewards and positions of power. 4. There will be significant difference in the
However, mostly, all is not well if you choose to workplace motivation of men and women.
embrace ‘femininity’ as those who don't live up to the
5. There will be significant difference in the
severe expectations are likely to suffer the
w o r k p l a c e Fo M O o f m e n a n d w o m e n .
consequences in the form of abuse, social rejection,
and ridicule. This is a double-edged sword because 6. Workplace FoMO and masculinity at workplace
women and men from oppressed groups may be will be statistically significantly related with
ridiculed for acting in a domineering manner that is workplace motivation.
deemed "masculine" and hence only appropriate for
upper-class men (Livingston & Pearce, 2009; Rudman 7. Masculinity at workplace will mediate the
et al., 2012). relationship between workplace FoMO and
Workplace motivation.
MCC is associated with a number of negative
outcomes, including stress, work/life conflict, intent to Method
job search, greater burnout and turnover intentions,
Design
and lesser organizational dedication, harassment and
poorer psychological well-being (Matos et al., 2018; This study adopted a quantitative approach to study the
Glick et al., 2018; Workman-Stark, 2020). Koc et al. relationship between the specified variables and report
(2021) reported that the impact of MCC on any observed differences between the two gender
organizational outcomes did not differ between men groups involved in the sample. Data was collected using
and women. According to Glick et al. (2018), an online one-shot survey from May 2022 to August
masculinity contest workplaces were experienced as 2022 using non probability sampling techniques. The
hostile, socially negative, unsatisfying, and personally survey included standardised questionnaires for
detrimental by both men and women. measuring workplace motivation, workplace FoMO
and Masculinity context culture. The obtained data
In an attempt to explore these further, the present
was subjected to inferential statistical techniques of
Page 58 Vanshika Verma, Reva Garg & Maanvi Nuniwal

correlation, regression, t-test and mediation analysis. including IT, manufacturing, banking, consulting
and medical in the Indian workplace setting. The
Sample average age of employees was 30.14 years (SD =
4.53) who worked an average of 46 hours (SD=
The two main inclusion criteria for the sample were that 12.35) per week with an average current job tenure
the respondent must fall in the age group of 25- 40 years of 2.56 years. Shapiro-Wilk test was performed to
and must have been employed for more than 2 years. establish that the data formed a normal distribution.
The participants were recruited through convenience Since the CalcW (Shapiro-Wilk test statistic) was
and snowball sampling. A total of 105 responses were greater than 0.05 the data was normally distributed
collected. 7 responses were excluded because they did and fit for further analyses (King & Eckersley, 2019)
not meet the inclusion criteria. The final sample of the (Refer to Table 1)
study included 98 working employees (65.31% males
and 34.69% females) from different areas of industries

Table 1 Measures

Tests of Normality (Shapiro Wilk – CalcW)

Variables Gender p-value

Workplace FoMO Male 0.111

Female 0.563

Workplace Motivation Male 0.173

Female 0.952

Note: Normally distributed at p>0.05

work environment”. The responses are scored a 5-

Multi-Dimensional Work Motivation Scale Developed by point Likert scale with 1 for (not at all true for my work
Gagné et al. (2013), MWMS is based on the self- environment) to 5 (entirely true of my work
determination theory. It has 19 items spread across the environment). The established reliability of the scale is
five dimensions of amotivation, extrinsic regulation 0.90 (Koc et al., 2021)
(social and material), identified regulation, and
introjected regulation. The stem for the scale is “why do Workplace Fear of Missing Out scale Developed by
you or would you put efforts into your current job.” The Budnick et al. (2020), this scale measures workplace
responses are scored on a 7-point Likert scale where 1 FoMO along the two dimensions of information
= “not at all” to 7= “completely”. This measure has a exclusion and relational exclusion. It is a 10-item scale
strong reliability (alpha = 0.80) and decent convergent with a stem “When I am absent or disconnected from
and discriminant validity with Cronbach’s alpha > work...”. The responses are scored on a 5-point Likert
0.80 (Gagne et al., 2014). scale ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 5 =
Strongly agree. The reliability of the scale is
Masculinity Contest Culture scale Developed by Glick et satisfactory (Alpha = 0.80) (Budnick et al., 2021).
al. (2018), this assesses workplace culture in terms of
masculinity contest norms of showing no weakness, Procedure
strengths and stamina, putting work first and dog-eat-
dog. It is originally a 20-item scale, but for the purposes The period of data collection was from May 2022 to
of this study, the shortened version of the scale (8 August 2022. An online questionnaire was circulated
items) was utilised. The stem for the scale is “In my among the working population according to the
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 59

criteria mentioned above in the Indian workplace Table 2 revealed that workplace motivation and
setting. The Google form contained an introduction workplace FoMO are positively and significantly
page, informed consent form, basic demographic correlated at alpha = 0.01 with r = 0.318. Using
information and the three standardised instruments – Cohen's conventions (1988), a correlation coefficient
Workplace Motivation Scale, Masculinity contest of 0.318 is considered a moderate correlation.
culture scale and workplace FoMO scale. Each scale Furthermore, the correlation between workplace
was scored by the researchers as per the guidelines motivation and Masculinity contest culture (MCC) at
provided by the test constructors. Inferential statistical workplace and workplace FoMO and MCC were found
techniques were utilised on SPSS version 26.0. Ninty insignificant at p<0.05.
eight responses were included in the analysis.
Table 3 shows the results of the independent
Results sample t-test to compare the experience of workplace
FoMO and Workplace motivation separately among
A range of inferential statistical techniques were used men and women employees. Results revealed no
to analyse the results. These are discussed below. significant differences in levels of workplace
motivation between men and women (t = 0.367, p =
Table 2

Correlational analysis of WFoMO, WM and MCC (N = 98)

Variable n M SD 1 2 3

1. Workplace 98 69.897 17.204 -

Motivation

2. Workplace 98 30.479 9.157 .318** -

FoMO

3. Masculinity 98 19.112 7.4817 -.0504 -.1135 -

contest culture

Note:
**Correlation is significant at p< 0.01
0.715 at alpha = 0.05). Additionally, no significant Multiple regression analysis (Table 4) was run
differences in the experience of workplace FoMO between to predict workplace motivation from masculinity
men and women employees were reported (t = -1.264, p = contest culture and workplace FoMO. These
0.210 at alpha = 0.05) variables statistically significantly predicted
workplace motivation, F (2, 95) = 11.648, p =
2
<0.001, R = 0.197. Both variables, workplace
Table 3

Comparison of WFoMO and WM between men and women employees

Mean (SD) t-value p-value

Men Women

Workplace FoMO 29.656 (9.443) 32.029 (8.512) -1.264 0.210

Workplace Motivation 70.328 (18.679) 69.088 (14.245) 0.367 0.715

Page 60 Vanshika Verma, Reva Garg & Maanvi Nuniwal

FoMO and masculinity contest culture, predicted A meditation analysis using PROCESS macro was
workplace motivation for employees in the Indian conducted to assess the mediating role of masculinity
workplace setting. contest culture (Mas) on the linkage between
workplace FoMO (WFoMO) and Workplace
motivation (WM). The results (see Table 5) revealed
Table 4

Multiple linear regression analysis

Variables B Beta t-value p-value

Constant 43.940 7.374 <0.001*

Workplace FoMO .373 .198 2.015 0.047*

Masculinity contest Culture .764 .332 3.371 0.001

R= .444 R2 = .197 F= 11.648 p<0.001

Dependent variable: Workplace Motivation

that the total effect of workplace FoMO on workplace between the variables can be established, also called
motivation was significant (Beta = 0.5967, t = 3.2817, p complementary mediation (Zhao et al., 2010)
= 0.0014) at p < 0.05. With the inclusion of masculinity
contest culture (Mas), the impact of workplace FoMO Discussion
on workplace motivation is significant as well (Beta =
0.3728, t = 2.0147, p = 0.0468) at p < 0.05. The indirect The present study aimed to explore workplace FoMO
effect of workplace FoMO on workplace motivation and its relationship to workplace motivation as
through masculinity contest culture was found mediated by the masculinity contest culture, and further
significant with an effect size of 0.2238 at p < 0.05. investigated gender-related differences that lie therein.
Since, both the direct and indirect effects are Applying multiple inferential statistics techniques, the
significant, partial mediation (Baron & Kenny, 1986) findings revealed a significant positive correlation

Table 5

Mediation Analysis for Workplace FoMO and Workplace motivation through Masculinity contest culture

Coefficient SE t-value p-value

Path A 0.2932 0.0778 3.7666 0.0003

Path B 0.7636 0.2265 3.3710 0.0011

Path C’ (Direct effect) 0.3728 0.1851 2.0147 0.0468

Path C (Total effect) 0.5967 0.1818 3.2817 0.0014

Note: Results significant at p<0.05

The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 61

between workplace motivation and workplace FoMO. It hypothesis (Reinders, 2022). The influence of age
implies that when an employee is afraid to miss out on and tenure of the employees on workplace
work opportunities, their motivation to work proactively motivation has been investigated in previous
increases to bridge that gap. This result is in line with the research. The present sample is relatively young
hypothesis and previous literature that suggest that an (mean age = 30 years) and Akkermans and Tims
increase in the workplace FoMO would subsequently (2017) found that younger employees were more
increase the employee’s motivation to work. Similarly, likely to engage in proactive behaviours, such as
Budnick et al. (2020) found that higher levels of seeking out new challenges and opportunities for
workplace FoMO predicted higher reports of work growth in the workplace which may be related with
burnout and message-checking behaviours to remain the motivational aspect of workplace FoMO.
infor med (i.e., reduce infor mation exclusion Furthermore, the tenure of employees in their
apprehensions). Moreover, it has also been proven that present organisation affects their engagement. A
employees try to reduce informational exclusion, which Forbes article published in 2019 highlighted that up
is a component of workplace FoMO, by learning more, until two years of tenure, employees tend to be most
to compensate for the time when one is not present. engaged, which may be a possible explanation for
Hence, the fear of informational exclusion leads to the positive correlation between WFoMO and WM
higher motivation which is in line with the present since the average tenure of the present sample is
Page 62 Vanshika Verma, Reva Garg & Maanvi Nuniwal

2.56 years.
workplace FoMO have not reported significant
Further, through regression analysis, masculinity at the differences suggesting that workplace FoMO may
workplace was found to be significantly related with be experienced by anyone who works for an
workplace motivation. Extrinsic motivation originates from organisation, irrespective of their gender (McKee et
an individual's physical environment; money and verbal al., 2022). It is interesting to note, high scores were
rewards that are mediated outside of a person are examples observed on the workplace FoMO scale for both
of extrinsic motivation (Deci, 1972). Because MCC at work men and women employees. This consistency of
value competition and individual performance, it is possible scores across both genders may be reasoned by the
that they will drive extrinsic motivation. However, connection between FoMO and the human need for
Eskildsen et al. (2010) found that the less masculine a social connection and engagement as social
society is, the greater is the score on everyday work and animals. Since socialising with co-workers is a daily
motivation. Similarly, Maswadeh and Zumot (2021) activity, it is possible for anyone, regardless of
reported that a humanistic approach to discipline influences gender, to feel as though they are missing out on
work motivation by acknowledging every member of the something significant when they are not doing so.
organisation as an average person with flaws, shortcomings,
and mistakes. This contrasts with an MCC, where Finally, the findings also revealed that
displaying vulnerability and acknowledging mistakes is masculinity at the workplace mediated the
strongly discouraged. relationship between workplace FoMO and
workplace motivation. This suggests that the
The results also revealed no significant differences in masculinity contest culture (MCC) is often
levels of workplace motivation between men and women. displayed by male and female employees alike in an
This could indicate the progressive and explicit gender organisational setting as it is conventionally the
diversity policies that companies have introduced as a part trademark of a good and driven employee. This
of their organisational culture which enhanced focus to behaviour, in turn, enhances workplace motivation
create more equitable spaces. Previous literature suggests and workplace FoMO by creating a culture which
that women employees experience a drop in the levels of propagates and promotes competitiveness and
their job satisfaction and job motivation when they do not dominance. The sense of urgency and hustle
receive equitable treatment from their company (Kannan, culture created by such an environment can be
2005; Miner-Rubino & Cortina, 2006). Hence, the lack of instrumental in providing opportunities of
differential levels of job motivation may suggest the more professional engagement that make it more likely
equitable practices that companies are adopting nowadays. for employees to experience FoMO and thereby
This can be observed in the gender workforce parity between increase their workplace motivation to ‘compete’
multiple companies in India like Info Edge (41% women amongst themselves. This stands in contrast to the
employees), PepsiCo (40% Women Managers), Zomato previous literature which states that as MCC does
(50% Women Directors), TCS (44% women managers) and not foster a positive social identification with one’s
so on. Other studies also offer support for the findings of the organisation, it leads to a reduction in employee
present research and demonstrate negligible gender motivation levels (Koc et al., 2021).
differences in workplace motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2014).
For instance, Pearson and Chatterjee (2002) found gender Limitations
uniformity in job motivation where men and women shared
the same attitudes to development opportunities, work Since an English medium survey was used for data
autonomy, high earnings, skill usage, appealing living areas, collection, social desirability associated with self-
relationships with managers, etc. report measures can be considered a key constraint
while also introducing a language barrier for
Additionally, no significant differences in the employees who don’t have adequate grasp over the
experience of workplace FoMO between men and women language. Additionally, the sample size of the study
employees were reported. Previous researches attempting to was less than 100, and the sampling technique used
determine the impact of gender on the construct of for data collection was non-probability. These
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 63

factors affect the representativeness of the sample and enhance employee motivation and alter management
reduce the generalizability of the findings. A limitation practices to utilise FoMO as a constructive solution
on demographic information was also noted. The rather than an abrasive element. For instance, a
participants did not specify the type of company they manager can strive to strike the delicate balance of
work for, for instance a fortune 500 or start-up. This paying just enough attention to and including the
could have some influence on the workplace employees to make them feel engaged but also limiting
motivation of the employees. Lastly, in order to the communication in the workplace enough to inspire
enhance the methodological rigor in the future, curiosity. Other social incentives may be formulated
checking assumptions related with multiple regression along similar lines to employ workplace FoMO as an
may be useful apart from just determining the asset for desired outcomes.
normality.
Conclusion

Future directions and implications The present study attempts to add to the limited
literature on workplace FoMO in the Indian workplace
The research in the direction of Workplace FoMO can context while also establishing a partial meditational
be furthered by looking into sector specific factors or relationship between workplace FoMO and motivation
undertaking comparisons like public vs. private sectors, through Masculinity contest culture. Considering how
Physical Workplace vs. Hybrid cultures organisation this construct is in its infancy in the domain of
that might motivate employees to work better due to psychological research, it provides further impetus to
FoMO. The impact of age and tenure of the employees investigate the same in greater depth and establish its
on the experience of WFoMO and Workplace relationship with other organisation – related variables
Motivation can also be investigated. Additionally, as well.
while motivation is one side of the coin, it can be useful References
to investigate the health-related costs of experience
workplace FoMO like stress, anxiety, burnout and Akkermans, J., & Tims, M. (2017). Crafting your
physical health outcomes such as cardiovascular career: How career competencies relate to career
disease and immune dysfunction. Research could success via job crafting. Applied Psychology, 66(1),
examine the cost implications for employers, such as 168–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12082.
increased healthcare utilization and absenteeism, as
well as potential interventions to mitigate the negative Albers, K. (2020). Always on mentality: The effects of
effects of workplace FoMO on employee health and workplace telepressure on health and motivation of the
Dutch young workforce: Examining the moderating role
productivity. Furthermore, individual differences can
of workplace FoMO and social comparison orientation
be explored using self-esteem that may give a fuller [ M A t h e s i s ] . U t r e c h t U n i v e r s i t y.
picture of cost-benefit analysis of leveraging FoMO in https://studenttheses.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/
the workplace. Future studies can also focus on 20.500.12932/36173/Albers%20%285487102%
including more variables like leadership styles, impact 29%20thesis.pdf ?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
of hybrid culture and organisational citizenship
behaviour to further the infant concept of workplace Ayub, N., & Rafif, S. (2011). The relationship between
FoMO in psychological research. In order to enrich work motivation and job satisfaction. Pakistan
findings, data can be collected both qualitatively and Business Review, 13(2), 332-347.
quantitatively in the future to report subjective https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nadia
-Ayub-2/publication/3 42864521_
experiences of employees and longitudinal studies on
T h e _ R e l a t i o n s h i p _ b e t w e e n _ Wo r k
WFoMO may be done to determine causality. Lastly, it
_Motivation_and_Job_Satisfaction/links/5f095
may be beneficial for the generalisation of results in the 9 2 a 2 9 9 b f 1 8 8 1 6 1 2 8 c 8 b / T h e - Re l a t i o n s h i p
Indian context to ascertain the reliability of the scales - b e t w e e n - Wo r k - M o t i v a t i o n - a n d - J o b
used. The results of the present study, if utilised -Satisfaction.pdf#page=128
appropriately, can have considerable implications for
the organisational practices. It may be leveraged to
Page 64 Vanshika Verma, Reva Garg & Maanvi Nuniwal

Badura, K. L., Grijalva, E., Newman, D. A., Yan, T. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The" what" and”
T., & Jeon, G. (2018). Gender and leadership why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self
emergence: A meta‐analysis and explanatory -determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry,
model. Personnel Psychology, 71(3), 335-367. 11(4), 227-268. https://doi.org/10. 1207 /S15
https://doi.org/10.1111/pe ps.12266 327965PLI1104_01

Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2014). The importance of
moderator–mediator variable distinction in social universal psychological needs for understanding
psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and motivation in the workplace. In M. Gagné (Ed.),
statistical considerations. Journal of Personality The Oxford handbook of work engagement,
a n d S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y, 5 1 ( 6 ) , 1 1 7 3 – 1 1 8 2 . motivation, and self-determination theory (pp.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173 13–32). Oxford University Press. https://psycnet.
apa.org/record/2014-24108-002.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to
belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a Deloitte. (2021). 2021 Global Impact Repor t.
fundamental drive. Psychological bulletin, 117(3), Retrieved August 14, 2022, from
497–529. https://www.deloitte.com/content/dam/assets
-shared/legacy/docs/about/2022/gx-about
Beekman, J. B., Stock, M. L., & Marcus, T. (2016). -deloitte-global-report-full-version-2021.pdf
Need to belong, not rejection sensitivity,
moderates cortisol response, self-reported stress, Dubinsky, A. J., Jolson, M. A., Michaels, R. E.,
and negative affect following social exclusion. The Kotabe, M., & Lim, C. U. (1993). Perceptions of
Journal of social psychology, 156(2), 131-138. motivational components: Salesmen and
https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2015.107176 saleswomen revisited. Journal of Personal Selling
7 & Sales Management, 13(4), 25-37.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.108
Berdahl, J. L., Cooper, M., Glick, P., Livingston, R. 0/08853134.1993.10753965
W., & Williams, J. C. (2018). Work as a masculinity
contest. Journal of Social Issues, 74(3), 422–448. Eskildsen, J., Kristensen, K., & Gjesing Antvor, H.
https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12289 (2010). The relationship between job satisfaction
and national culture. The TQM Journal, 22(4),
Brief, A. P., & Barsky, A. (2000). Establishing a climate 369-378. https://doi.org/10.1108 /175427
for diversity: The inhibition of prejudiced reactions 31011053299
in the workplace. Research in Personnel and Human
Resources Management, 19, 91-129. Esteve-Volart, B. (2004). Gender discrimination and
growth: Theory and evidence from India. LSE
Budnick, C. J., Rogers, A. P., & Barber, L. K. (2020). S T I C E R D R e s e a r c h Pa p e r N o . D E D P S 4 2 .
The fear of missing out at work: Examining costs https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstr
and benefits to employee health and motivation. act_id=1127011
Computers in Human Behavior, 104, 106161.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.106161 Etzkowitz, H., & Ranga, M. (2011). Gender dynamics
in science and technology: From the ‘‘leaky
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the pipeline’’ to the ‘‘vanish box’’. Brussels Economic
Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Review, 54(2/3), 131-147.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Farivar, F., & Richardson, J. (2021). Workplace
Deci, E. L. (1972). The effects of contingent and digitalisation and work-nonwork satisfaction: The
noncontingent rewards and controls on intrinsic role of spillover social media. Behaviour &
motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human I n f o r m a t i o n Te c h n o l o g y, 4 0 ( 8 ) , 7 4 7 - 7 5 8 .
Performance, 8(2), 217-229. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929x.2020.
/10.1016/0030-5073(72)90047-5 1723702
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 65

Fridchay, J., & Reizer, A. (2022). Fear of Missing out , D. (2021). Relationship between nomophobia,
(FoMO): Implications for employees and job fear of missing out, and perceived work overload
performance. The Journal of Psychology, 156(4), in nurses in Turkey. Perspectives in Psychiatric
257–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0022 Care, 57(3), 1026–1033. https://doi.org/ 10.1111
3980.2022.2034727 /ppc.12653

Gagné, M., Forest, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Crevier Kannan, R. (2005). Theories of motivation—J
-Braud, L., Van Den Broeck, A., Aspeli, A. K., Stacey Adams—equity theory on job motivation.
th
Bellerose, J., Benabou, C., Chemolli, E., Güntert, Re t r i e ve d o n 3 0 O c t o b e r, 2 0 2 2 , f r o m
S. T. , H a l v a r i , H . , I n d i y a s t u t i , D. L . , www.geocities.com/kstability/learning/manage
Johnson, P. A., Molstad, M. H., Naudin, M., ment/equity.htm
Ndao, A., Olafsen, A. H., Roussel, P., Wang, Z., &
Westbye, C. (2014). Multidimensional Work Kaushik, N., Sharma, A., & Kumar Kaushik, V.
Motivation Scale: Validation evidence in seven (2014). Equality in the workplace: A study of
languages and nine countries. European Journal gender issues in Indian organisations. Journal of
of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24(2), M a n a ge m e n t D e v e l o p m e n t , 3 3 ( 2 ) , 9 0 - 1 0 6 .
178–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/ https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-11-2013-0140
1359432x.2013.877892
King, A. P., & Eckersley, R. J. (2019). Inferential
Glick, P., Berdahl, J. L., & Alonso, N. M. (2018). statistics IV: Choosing a hypothesis test.
Development and validation of the masculinity Statistics for Biomedical Engineers and
contest culture scale. Journal of Social Issues, Scientists, 147–171. https://doi.org/10.1016
74(3), 449–476. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/ /b978-0-08-102939-8.00016-5
josi.12280
Koc, Y., Gulseren, D., & Lyubykh, Z. (2021).
Grant, A. M. (2008). Does intrinsic motivation fuel Masculinity contest culture reduces
the prosocial fire? Motivational synergy in organizational citizenship behaviors through
predicting persistence, perfor mance, and decreased organizational identification. Journal
productivity. Journal of Applied Psychology, of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 27(2),
93(1), 48. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021 408–416. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000351
-9010.93.1.48
Lambert, N. M., Stillman, T. F., Hicks, J. A.,
Hadlington, L., Binder, J., & Stanulewicz, N. (2020). Kamble, S., Baumeister, R. F., & Fincham, F. D.
Fe a r o f m i s s i n g o u t p r e d i c t s e m p l o ye e (2013). To belong is to matter: Sense of
i n f o r m a t i o n s e c u r i t y aw a r e n e s s a b o v e belonging enhances meaning in life. Personality
p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s , a g e, a n d g e n d e r. and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(11), 1418-
C y b e r p s y c h o l o g y , B e h a v i o r, a n d S o c i a l 1427. https://10.1177/0146167213499186
Networking, 23(7), 459-464. https://doi.org
/10.1089/cyber.2019.0703 Livingston, R. W., & Pearce, N. A. (2009). The
teddy-bear effect: Does having a baby face
Halbesleben, J. R., & Bowler, W. M. (2007). b e n e f i t b l a c k c h i e f e x e c u t i ve o f f i c e r s ? .
Emotional exhaustion and job performance: The Psychological Science, 20(10), 1229-1236.
mediating role of motivation. Journal of Applied https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009
Psychology, 92(1), 93. https://psycnet. apa.org .02431.x
/doi/10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.93
MacArthur, H. V. (2019, September 25). Why tenure
Hofstede, G. H., & Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's matters for employee engagement. Forbes.
c o n s e q u e n c e s : C o m p a r i n g v a l u e s, b e h a v i o r s, https://www.forbes.com/sites/hvmacarthur/2
institutions and organizations across nations. 019/09/25/why-tenure-matters-for-employee
Sage Publications. -engagement/

Hoşgör, H., Coşkun, F., Çalişkan, F., & Gündüz Hoşgör, Marsh, E., Vallejos, E. P., & Spence, A. (2022). The
Page 66 Vanshika Verma, Reva Garg & Maanvi Nuniwal

d i g i t a l wo r k p l a c e a n d i t s d a r k s i d e : A n
i n t e g r a t ive r ev i ew. C o m p u t e r s i n H u m a n Miner-Rubino, K., & Cortina, L. M. (2006). Observed
Behavior, 128, 107118. https://doi.org/ 10.1016 incivility toward women at work: The role of
/j.chb.2021.107118 organizational justice. In APA/NIOSH Work,
Stress and Health Conference, Miami.
Maswadeh, S., & Zumot, R. (2021). The effect of
total quality management on the financial Murdoch, J. (2021). Measuring the relationship
performance by moderating organizational between workplace opportunities and motivation
c u l t u r e. A c c o u n t i n g , 7 ( 2 ) , 4 4 1 - 4 5 0 . among women in the technology industry. Fields:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5267/j.ac.2020.11.007 Journal of Huddersfield Student Research, 7(1),
1-18. https://search.informit.o rg/doi /10.3316
Matos, K., O'Neill, O., & Lei, X. (2018). Toxic /informit.990547403217961
leadership and the masculinity contest culture:
How “win or die” cultures breed abusive Pearson, C. A., & Chatterjee, S. R. (2002). Gender
leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 74(3), 500-528. variations in work goal priorities: A survey of
https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12284 Chinese managers. International Journal of
Management, 19(4), 535-543.
Maxwell, G. A., & Broadbridge, A. M. (2017).
Generation Ys’ employment expectations: UK P i n d e r, C. C. ( 1 9 9 8 ) . Wo r k m o t iva t i o n i n
underg raduates’ opinions on enjoyment, organizational behavior. Upper Saddle River, N J:
opportunity and progression. Studies in Higher Prentice-Hall.
Education, 42(12), 2267-2283. https://doi.org/
10.1080/03075079.2016.1141403 Przybylski, A. K., Murayama, K., DeHaan, C. R., &
Gladwell, V. (2013). Motivational, emotional,
McKee, P. C., Budnick, C. J., Walters, K. S., & and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out.
Antonios, I. (2022). College student Fear of Computers in human behavior, 29(4), 1841-1848.
Missing Out (FoMO) and maladaptive behavior: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014
Traditional statistical modeling and predictive
analysis using machine learning. PLOS ONE, Reinders, E. (2022). The association between
17(10), e0274698. https://doi.org/ 10.1 371 workplace fear of missing out and work
/journal.pone.0274698 engagement and motivation to learn, and the
moderating role of mindfulness. [MA Thesis].
Memon, N. Z., & Jena, L. K. (2017). Gender Utrecht University.
inequality, job satisfaction and job motivation:
Evidence from Indian female employees. Research With Fawad. (2022, March 9). 5. Hayes
Management and Labour Studies, 42(3), 253-274. Process Macro - Model 4 | #Mediation Analysis
https://10.1177/0258042X17718742 w i t h S i n g l e M e d i a t o r [ Vi d e o ] . Yo u Tu b e.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=91mur
Michael, A. (2007). Women at workplace. HRD ZM1ieg
Newsletter, 23(3), 27-28.
Roberts, J. A., & David, M. E. (2020). The social
Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights. (1999). Sex media party: Fear of missing out (FoMO), social
discrimination and sexual harassment in the media intensity, connection, and well-being.
workplace in Bulgaria. https://www.theadvoca Inter national Jour nal of Human–Computer
tesforhumanrights.org/Res/sexharas_2%202. Interaction, 36(4), 386-392.
PDF https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2019.
1646517
Miliopoulou, G. Z., & Kapareliotis, I. (2021).
The toll of success: Female leaders in the Rudman, L. A., Moss-Racusin, C. A., Phelan, J. E., &
“women‐friendly” Greek advertising agencies. Nauts, S. (2012). Status incongruity and backlash
Gender, Work & Organization, 28(5), 1741-1765. effects: Defending the gender hierarchy motivates
h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 1 1 1 / g wa o. 1 2 6 3 6 prejudice against female leaders. Journal of
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 67

Experimental Social Psychology, 48(1), 165-179.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.10.008

Sheldon, K. M., & Bettencourt, B. A. (2002).

Psychological need‐satisfaction and subjective
well‐being within social groups. British Journal of
S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y, 4 1 ( 1 ) , 2 5 - 3 8 .
https://doi.org/10.1348/014466602165036

Uyanık, G. K., & Güler, N. (2013). A study on

multiple linear regression analysis. Procedia -
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 106, 234–240.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.027

Workman-Stark, A. (2020). Countering a masculinity

contest culture at work: the moderating role of
organizational justice. International Journal of
Organization Theory & Behavior, 24(1), 6-23.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOTB-11-2019-0132

World Economic Forum. (2022). Global Gender

Gap Report 2022. Retrieved January 7, 2023,
fromhttps://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_G
GGR_2022.pdf ?_gl=1*1ish6f8*_up*MQ..&gclid
=CjwKCAiAuaKfBhBtEiwAht6H76a2olZPLKP
c3WvPu1RkmTw8fWeCQWfR13xSb869iAvC92
Nw4DeVZRoCUjAQAvD_BwE

Worthley, R., MacNab, B., Brislin, R., Ito, K., &

Rose, E. L. (2009). Workforce motivation in
Japan: An examination of gender differences and
management perceptions. The International
Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(7),
1503-1520. https://doi.org/ 10.1080 /095 851
90902983421

Zacharias, T., Rahawarin, M. A., & Yusriadi, Y.

(2021). Cultural reconstruction and organization
environment for employee performance. Journal
of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 8(2), 296-315.
https://10.29333/ejecs/801

Zhao, X., Lynch Jr, J. G., & Chen, Q. (2010).

Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and
truths about mediation analysis. Journal of
Consumer Research, 37(2), 197-206. https:// doi.
org/10.1086/651257
 The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 68-86

Examining the psychological underpinnings

of Chernobyl and after
1 2
Smriti Haridas & Dr. Surbhi Kumar

Abstract : A safety test in Reactor No. 4 at the Vladimir Lenin Power Plant near Pripyat, Ukraine, in the early hours
of 26 April, 1986, led to one of the worst nuclear disasters in history. The ensuing events included attempts to control
the information available regarding the explosion. The current study analyses the accident at Chernobyl in light of
the psychological factors that played a role in causing it, and in the aftermath. The material analysed includes a
report on an international conference (IAEA) where the incident was discussed at length, an interview with Valery
Legasov, a key person in the dealing of the aftermath, and tape recordings left by him before his death, and a
journalistic article on the concealment mechanisms employed by the State. The method of analysis was thematic
analysis, and the key points that emerged are secrecy, obedience, power dynamics, avoidance of panic, and various
patterns of information dissemination. The themes show how a pattern of concealment and emphasis on fixed roles
and hierarchy may have played a role in causing the incident at Chernobyl, and how the fallout was navigated. The
study shows the role of psychological factors in the functioning of institutions, when dealing with disasters and
emergencies, including decision-making, risk management, information management, and international relations.
Keywords: obedience, secrecy, mass panic, power dynamics, Chernobyl

If history is understood as an account of human pasts, Power Plant near Pripyat, Ukraine, in the early hours of
it can also be thought of as a record of human 26 April 1986, led to one of the worst nuclear disasters
behaviours and their consequences. As put by Gergen in human history. The objective had been to test the
(1973), the concern of psychology is to study human emergency mechanisms of the reactor in the event of a
behaviour, and “theories of social behaviour are power outage. To emulate such a condition, power
primarily reflections of contemporary history” (p. levels were lowered, an action that eventually got out of
309). He also points out that a social psychologist hand and resulted in a fire and explosion of the reactor.
works to derive laws of behaviour that can then be Severely radioactive materials like iodine, caesium,
applied to understand the interaction between and strontium, and graphite were scattered around the site.
among people. World War II and its aftermath Clean up efforts included deploying ‘liquidators’,
necessitated the field itself. The early decades of social including firefighters, workers in the power plant, and
psychological research were focused on creating miners from different Soviets. Ukraine, Belarus, and
foundational concepts such as conformity, social Russia were the worst affected areas within the USSR,
learning, discrimination, and so on (Cartwright, 1979). however, the impact was felt even in Scandinavia, other
Hence, we chose to explore the Chernobyl incident in parts of Europe, China, Japan, Canada, and the United
light of the social psychological processes that were States in subsequent days. Around 115,000 people were
involved. We were interested in the deep-rooted evacuated from contiguous areas (UNSCEAR, 1988).
processes and features of the society that gave rise to
and dealt with the fallout of a catastrophe of this scale. Chernobyl is of interest in psychology as it shows a
Societies and political structures are complex systems pattern of behaviours exhibited on the systemic and
that are made up of people, and hence, can be subjected institutional level, also by the personnel involved.
to the psychological lens to understand the causes and Concepts of hierarchy and obedience were of salience
effects of the behaviours they give rise to. in the Soviet state. Ukraine had a history of striving for
independence from the Soviet Union. The Soviet
A safety test in Reactor No. 4 at the Vladimir Lenin Union employed propaganda to discredit this
1
Undergraduate Student, Department of Psychology, Indraprastha College for Women, University of Delhi
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Indraprastha College for Women, University of Delhi
Corresponding Author: Smriti Haridas, Email: [email protected]
Page 69 Smriti Haridas & Dr. Surbhi Kumar

movement, despite the human rights violations that cultural changes induced by the incident (Nesvetajlov,
Ukrainians had been subjected to (Marples, 1991). 1992). There have also been studies from the
Though the Chernobyl incident was situated in a perspective of mental health and developmental effects
period of Glasnost, literally meaning openness, where (Bromet et al., 2011). The foremost health consequence
the Soviet state began recognising freedom of press, the of Chernobyl has been the impact on mental health,
dissemination of information regarding the explosion specifically of the clean-up personnel and people
was inadequate. The policy of Glasnost was residing in the area. These include symptoms relating
implemented for the media, where dissent was also to cognitive processes like memory and concentration,
slowly incorporated into publications and films, as well as well as more generalised health effects like fatigue
as in political matters, as evidenced by the relaxation in and sleep changes (Pastel, 2002). In nearby locales, it
the treatment of dissidents. However, the policy was found that there was more prevalence of
operated within the caveat that the ruling party could psychological disorders, compared to areas that were
not be brought under criticism (Lowe, 2013). In the further away, more so in mothers who had children
context of the Cold War, when the United States below 18 years of age (Havenaar, et al., 1997).
warned against the dangers of nuclear weapons and Individuals exposed to Chernobyl-related radiation in
advocated for peaceful uses of nuclear energy, the Norway were also observed to have prenatal effects
Soviet Union responded by getting involved in the extending into adolescence (Heiervang et al., 2010).
creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency Further, psychological research has investigated
(IAEA) in 1957, which would allow it a stake in the Chernobyl in light of the perception of nuclear energy
global activities related to nuclear energy and prevent and related phenomena, decision and policy-making,
the USA from dominating them (Holloway, 2016). risk perception, and communication (Eiser et al., 1990;
Even though the Soviets had proposed a law that would Van der Pligt & Midden, 1990; Renn, 1990).
ensure nuclear safety, they did not implement it
(Yaroshinskaya, 2006). Hence, despite the ideal behind W h i l e t h e a b ove r e s e a r c h e x p l o r e s t h e
Glasnost, the Soviet state covered up Chernobyl and psychological aspects of mental health, attitudes
the casualties it caused. towards related phenomena, and perceptions involved
in Chernobyl, there has not been much focus on the
T h e c u r r e n t s t u dy s e e k s t o ex p l o r e t h e group processes that were prevalent in the state and
psychological patterns displayed through the political structures. The previous research explores
behaviour of authority and institutions, forming a politics of policy making in the wake of a disaster and
structure that impacts the individuals who are both the resultant perception of nuclear energy, however, it
parts of the system, and those who are subject to it. has not adequately looked into the fundamental group
Apart from systemic factors that had a causal role, processes and dynamics that underlie the incident. The
dealing with the aftermath also displayed the use of Chernobyl incident, specifically, was chosen as the
psychology in trying to control the information that is focus of the present study, as there is a lack of a social
freely available to the people, perspective setting, and psychological view of the causes and aftermath of the
giving the perception of normalcy. The dependence on event. Further, the backdrop of the Cold War and the
established hierarchies and roles is evident in the Soviet Union form an interesting base from which to
functioning of the state and the handling of the study the social psychology of historical events.
incident.
The Present Study
Chernobyl in the Social Sciences
Given the interlinkage of social psychology and
Chernobyl has been the focus of studies within the historical events, the present study seeks to explore the
social sciences, specifically how policymaking is psychology underlying the causation and aftermath of
influenced by disasters and crises, (Nohrstedt, 2008) the Chernobyl incident, in light of the social, cultural,
interplay of the state, political bodies, and non- and systemic factors that played a role. The larger goal
governmental actors, (Stsiapanau, 2010) how risk is is to use the case of Chernobyl as a glimpse into the
dealt with as a society, (Beck, 1987) and other socio- psychology of how societies and authority institutions
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 70

deal with emergency and disaster situations. Hence, influence of the psychology of power, and all the
the group processes at play are of key interest. reinforcements that are necessary to maintain it. There
is a constant struggle between this power and the duty
Therefore, the current study seeks to explore the that is owed to the people in the face of a disaster. The
psychology of the individuals and the system that impact of the struggle is also seen in the individuals
caused and dealt with the aftermath of Chernobyl. involved, in their capacity as constituents of a larger
This is done by asking the question: What is the system. This conceptual framework is demonstrated in
psychology behind the subordination of facts and Figure 1.
safety, to the mechanisms of the state? Behind a web of
bureaucratic and state mechanisms that seem to be
intertwined with the incident, there is the underlying

Figure 1
Concept map of the theoretical framework of the study

Socio-Historical Context

Unfolding of
Psychological Factors & Emergency
Lens of Social Psychology
Responses al various levels Disaster
Situations

•Individual: Obedience & •Secrecy & Hiercharchy in

Subordination State
Unpacking Chernobyl and •Social & Institutional: •Information Management
After Group Processes & Power for Perception of Normalcy

Figure 2
The present study used material that gave insight
into the factors that led to the accident, and the Six-step process of thematic analysis given by Braun and
mechanisms of the system that were responsible. Also Clarke (2006)
relevant was material on the aftermath, and how it was
dealt with as a public crisis. The social psychological
constructs implicated in the material are highlighted.

Method

Analysis was done using the six-step process of

thematic analysis as given by Braun and Clarke (2006),
as illustrated in Figure 2.
Page 71 Smriti Haridas & Dr. Surbhi Kumar

The first source is an interview given by Valery Agency (IAEA), where a Soviet delegation gave details
Legasov, the head of the committee that was created to about the incident on an international platform. The
deal with the effects of Chernobyl, done in 1987, a year third source is an article by Alla Yaroshinskaia (2006)
after the explosion. The interview discusses the who is a journalist, on state’s attempts to conceal
condition of the population, clean-up efforts, and information in the aftermath of Chernobyl. The fourth
further steps taken to ensure safety. The next source and final source used is the translated transcripts of
used is a report by Walter Patterson (1986) on the audio tapes left by Legasov before his death in 1988.
Vienna conference of the International Atomic Energy The table below contains the sources used.

Table 1

Data sets used for thematic analysis, author/source and year, and reference codes used

Data Set Author/Source and Year Reference Codes

“A Soviet expert discusses Valery Legasov (1987) D1

Chernobyl”

“Chernobyl- the official Walter Patterson (1986) D2

story”

“The big lie- The secret Alla Yaroshinskaia (2006) D3

Chernobyl documents”

“The Legasov Tapes” Valery Legasov (1988), translated by

Yury Timofeyev on D4
https://legasovtapetranslation.blogspot.com/

Results
Table 2

Table showing themes and codes from the data sets

Themes Codes

Role of obedience and power dynamics in structures: Emphasis on the goals of the state
factors in causes and effects of the incident Maintaining international image
Rectifying criticisms from Western countries
Public relations success on an international forum
Emphasis on the goals of the State
Emphasis on the fixed roles and responsibilities
Reliance on established procedure
Lack of questioning among personnel
Separation of the state and the work of scientific
institutions
Autonomy of scientific work
Subordination of science to the state
No heed paid to scientific concerns
Emphasis on fixed roles
Honour prioritised over safety
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 72

Secrecy, concealment, and manipulation of relevant Contrast between media for Soviet vs. international
information audiences
Optimistic picture
Concealing facts about the consequences on different
levels
Restricting access to information
Dishonesty about radiation effect on people
Manipulation of diagnoses and medical records
Restricting access to information
Transparency in the face of scrutiny from
international actors
Losing of standards on radiation-related sickness
Manipulation of diagnoses and treatment
Tampering with medical records
Political intervention in medical decisions and records
Concealment of facts to hide economic implications
Manipulation of medical records

Avoidance of panic through projection of Putting severity in perspective, relative to other

normalcy accidents
Mention of normalcy
Dealing with the health of first responders
Providing perspective on long term health effects
Full picture not given to avoid panic

Differential dissemination and disclosure of Admission of seriousness

information Information given in-depth
Details of incident given
Transparency about the incident
Admission of severity
Transparency about structural flaws
Honesty about the incident to undo previous lapses in
giving information
Uncertainty about the situation
Lack of instructions to the masses
Legasov’s desire for transparency
No action taken to provide information
Lack of credible scientific information
Incomplete and unclear information about the causes
Poor planning of the test
Incomplete instructions given to personnel
Flaws in documentation
Lack of transparency regarding evacuation
Page 73 Smriti Haridas & Dr. Surbhi Kumar

Discussion that are made keeping in mind the role and position one
occupies in a system, as opposed to the Logic of
The aim of the study being to explore the psychological Consequence, which involves decision-making,
constructs implicated in Chernobyl, the themes that keeping in mind the possible outcomes of the
emerged in the analysis of the four data sources had to decisions. The former creates constraints based on
do with obedience and power dynamics, secrecy and identities and roles, the situation, and the rules in place.
concealment, avoidance of panic, and differential Stanley Milgram’s (1963) experiment on obedience
patterns of information dissemination based on also showed that people follow instructions given by
different factors. These concepts seemed to broadly authority figures, even if the consequences can cause
describe the behaviour that was observed in the data. harm, whether the source of the authority be legal or
moral (McLeod, 2007). The innateness of obedience is
Obedience and Power Dynamics in Structures: also caused by institutional influence (Zimbardo,
Factors in Causes and Effects of the Incident 1974). The prison experiment at Stanford (Zimbardo et
al., 1971) showed how fixed roles can affect behaviour
The following verbatim exhibits the importance
even when it can cause harm to others. Thus, the
attributed to obedience and power dynamics “…the
behaviour discussed above can be attributed to these
institution in which we all worked was built on principles of
findings. The steadfastness of roles has the power to
the highest qualifications of people who were executing any
dictate behaviour, when operating within a rigid power
operation with the highest responsibility” (D4) showing the
structure. Hofstede’s dimensions (Hofstede, 2011) of
emphasis on the rigid roles of individuals as a part of
power distance, collectivism, and long-term
larger institutions. Further, “...a generation of engineers
orientation are also of interest. Power distance is
came up who were very competent, but not critical of the
described as the expectation regarding equal power
devices themselves, not critical of all the systems that were
distributions among members of a given society that
ensuring their safety;” (D4) succinctly expresses how the
have different positions, in relation to power. The
culture, even in scientific spaces, was one of non-
degree to which inequality of power is accepted is also
questioning and compliance to the established rules
implicated in this dimension. Collectivism refers to
and structures. A recurring code within this theme was
how integrated individuals are into larger society and is
that of emphasis on the larger goals of the state, as seen
characterised by group consciousness and decision-
in “…he said that they had somewhat messed something up,
making that is reflective of the collective will.
and an accident of sort had occurred there, but this would not
Uncertainty avoidance is indicative of the general
stop the overall development of the atomic energy program.”
approach to uncertain situations and navigation of
(D4) further shows the prioritisation of the collective
situations where structure is lacking, characterised by
goal over the immediate needs of those affected. There
set rules of conduct, and negative reactions to anything
was also reliance on established procedures, (“...highly
that falls beyond these defined boundaries. Russia
qualified people who were used to being relied on, and were
scored 93 in the power distance dimension, 39 in the
convinced that safety issues are solved solely by skills and by
individualism dimension (indicating a leaning towards
precisely instructing the personnel that led the process.” from
collectivism), and 95 in the uncertainty avoidance
D4) that displays a desire to avoid uncertain terrains,
dimension, showing the large distance between those
and a sense of safety and continuity derived from tried
with and without power, importance attributed to
and tested methods and activities. Another dominant
group functioning, and a feeling of threat towards
observation was that of maintaining an international
uncertain situations, as reflected through their fixed
image and power dynamic, in the light of the power
bureaucracy system (Hofstede Insights).
play that was prominent during the Cold War. “...the
Western delegations had drastically muted their criticisms of Secrecy, Concealment, and Manipulation of
Soviet nuclear technology” (D2). Relevant Information

Dordevic (2015) attributes the decision-making at One such action pertaining to this theme was that of
Chernobyl to the Logic of Appropriateness model maintaining a disparity in media shown to
given by March (1994). It is characterised by decisions international and Soviet audiences: “The film offered a
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 74

grim contrast to the Soviet television documentary being normality about the livelihood of the people. The state
shown in the delegates' lounge. The doggedly cheerful also withheld information about evacuation to avoid
documentary devoted most of its time to the efforts of the panic: “Because I reasoned, for example, that if we say this to
workers” (D2). There was concealment of facts, the people now, the evacuation will be delayed…People will
including the effect of radiation, and medical records start to pack for too long. That is why I advised…that we
and diagnoses (“These regulations demanded that medical cannot tell about the precise duration of the evacuation yet.”
staff must not enter a diagnosis of “acute radiation (D4). Hence, there is an overall impression of
syndrome” in the files of liquidators from the armed presenting the situation as being in control to avoid
forces but must substitute some other term.” from D3). negative reactions.
Overall, the authorities covered up the impact of the
explosion, political, economic, and health-related (“It Gantt and Gantt (2012) explain how, contrary to
had become a matter of economics: the USSR could the notion of mass panic in the face of disaster
not afford to resettle so many people. The truth about situations, people tend to engage in helpful behaviour,
the health of the population had to be concealed from and that the broad situations that cause panic are ones
the population itself.” from D3). in which there is a perceived threat, perceived lack of
escape, and helplessness. The social attachment model
The act of secrecy involves not revealing (Mawson, 2005) states the tendency to search for
information, as well as providing an alternate, groups and situations that are familiar and known to be
untruthful account of the information at hand safe. This, too, suggests the likelihood of acting in
(Slepian, Chun & Mason, 2017). A characteristic of a groups in emergencies, and that of prosocial behaviour.
restrained society, as per Hofstede’s Dimensions However, a response of mass panic can occur in
(Hofstede, 2011) is the relative lack of importance dangerous situations in the relative absence of close
attributed to freedom of speech. Shlyakhter and relationships, thereby offsetting the feeling of
Wilson (1992) attribute the Chernobyl incident to attachment. Hence, the incidence of mass panic in
failures and secrecy of Soviet bureaucracy that served emergency or disaster situations is not only unlikely,
as protection for their lack of understanding of the but a rare occurrence. It is seen here that due to the steep
issues at hand. Hence, there is a culture of concealment consequences of the accident, there is denial of the
observed, reinforced through mechanisms of severity.
manipulation. They also prioritised the long- term
objective, which also aligns with Hofstede’s Omer (1991) presented the continuity principle
dimension. It is characterised by goal achievement which delineates the need for continuity on all levels, in
through faith in hierarchy. Further, it has been the course of managing a disaster. One such level is the
observed that higher levels of out-group bias is seen in functional level, the continuity of which entails
individuals with authoritarian personalities (Downing adequate coping, and carrying on with necessary
& Monaco, 1986). This may also have influenced the activities and functions, even when there is an
way information was handled domestically, and emergency situation. There are thought to be two biases
abroad. that preclude this continuity: the abnormalcy and
normalcy biases (Omer & Alon, 1994). The
Avoidance of Panic Through Projection of Normalcy abnormalcy bias is the tendency to underestimate
people’s capacity of coping and shaping up to
Panic was avoided by portraying the situation as being requirements in a disaster. Conversely, the normalcy
normal or under control, achieved by comparing the bias is the tendency to underestimate the damage that is
effects to that of other events and accidents, to keep caused by the disaster. Both these biases affect the
things in perspective (“...the history of our time knows achievement of continuity by disregarding both the
accidents when human losses were greater by many orders of disaster itself, and the people who have to deal with it.
magnitude. If we regard the Chernobyl breakdown in this The coincidence of these phenomena, according to
respect, it is not the most terrible” from D1). Further, “They Omer and Alon, can occur when information is
lead quite a normal lifexternal radiation” demonstrates withheld, lest there be adverse reactions among the
that there was an attempt to project a picture of
Page 75 Smriti Haridas & Dr. Surbhi Kumar

people, while making the erroneous assumption that decisions of the group, regardless of the outcome.
there is not a significant danger. This aligns exactly There are certain “symptoms” that are seen to be
with what is observed in the data. characteristic of this phenomenon. One such
characteristic is a belief in the bulletproof nature of the
Shylakhter and Wilson (1992) attribute the decisions taken, which are often erroneous. Further,
accident at Chernobyl to, among other factors, there is an engagement in rationalisation as a way to
ignorance. Concealment of information was done offset criticism, as well as a stereotypical and negative
under the rationale of it being beyond the view of “the other”. This reinforces the commitment to
understanding of people. However, this could also be a the goal, as well as the morality of pursuing it. There is
reflection of the lack of understanding among also a pressure to conform to the group. Finally, there is
bureaucratic personnel. This ignorance and lack of also a perception of unanimity that is reinforced by
understanding can also severely implicate emergency guards within the group. These signs can be observed
responses, both in terms of causation and handling of through the lens of the larger goal of maintaining an
the aftermath (Smithson, 1990). international image, in the backdrop of the Cold War.
Despite the adverse effects of faulty information
Differential Dissemination and Disclosure of dissemination (as seen through the lack of
Information transparency and clear instructions), there was
perseverance in this goal. There was, therefore,
The differences in how much information was
disregard for the deviant view expressed, which was the
disclosed was based on several factors, one of which
suggestion to provide more clarity. The perception of
was the need to go into detail and admit the seriousness
“the other” was dominant; there was a need to negate
on an international platform, as indicated through the
the view that information about the incident was
verbatim: “Although the consequences of the Chernobyl
withheld. Hence, the Soviets gave more information on
disaster are very serious-31 people have perished, over 200
the international platform than domestically. Thus, the
persons have acquired radiation sickness…” (D1). This
group nature of the decisions made is evident.
disclosure also served the purpose of mitigating the
lack of transparency until that point (“Their Conclusion
forthrightness and candour all but blotted out the memory of
the initial Soviet failure to warn their neighbours about These findings point toward behaviours and
Chernobyl.” from D2). Even in the immediate psychological factors; it is observed how the
aftermath, there was a lack of clarity on the course to be individuals are bound by rigid norms, rules, and
taken, due to faulty communication, as expressed in expectations to behave in a way that will achieve the
“There was no understanding of the steps that needed to be collective goal. It also indicated how the characteristics
taken, neither from station personnel nor from the Ministry of of a society exert their influence on individuals, as well
Energy”. Even the people weren’t equipped with as organisations and systems of the state. Further, there
necessary information, and recommendations to are also descriptions of how decisions are made, and
provide it weren't acted upon: “I have already mentioned facts are used to achieve different objectives, and how
that I had proposed from the beginning to create a press group this concealment is justified with biased thinking and
under the Government Commission that would correctly behaviour. According to Shylakhter and Wilson (1992)
inform the population about the events that were happening, there were many factors responsible for the accident,
that would give the right advice. For some reason, this was not but that “human beings are responsible for each of the
accepted” (D4). contributing causes on the list” (p. 253). Hence,
applying a social psychological lens to this incident
The patterns of dissemination of information shows the nature of social interaction that created the
described above can be viewed through the perspective system, which in turn created Chernobyl. From the
of decision-making. Janis (1971) describes the decisions made and the social attitudes in place, to the
phenomenon of groupthink which is the tendency of manipulations and projections of the aftermath,
groups to conform to established norms while making Chernobyl is a case of group processes that were deeply
decisions. There is a sense of commitment to the
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 76

embedded in the institution. It is a study of how a Berkeley Journal of Sociology, 32, 153-165.
society caused, experienced, and later dealt with one of h t t p s : / / w w w. j s t o r. o r g / s t a b l e / 4 1 0 3 5 3 6 3
the greatest tragedies in human histor y.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis
Implications, Limitations, and Direction for Future in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology,
3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/ 10.1 191 /147
Research
8088706qp063oa
T h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u dy g ive a n
Bromet, E. J., Havenaar, J. M., & Guey, L. T. (2011). A
understanding of the psychological factors involved in 25 year retrospective review of the psychological
the functioning of institutions, specifically regarding consequences of the Chernobyl accident. Clinical
dealing with disasters and emergencies. Using the case Oncology, 23(4), 297-305. https://doi .org/
of a historical event, the current study gives a glimpse 10.1016/j.clon.2011.01.501
into how societies and institutions such as
governments are reflections of each other, and are Car twright, D. (1979). Contemporar y social
subject to group processes. It illustrates how key social psychology in historical perspective. Social
psychological concepts like decision making and Psychology Quarterly, 42(1), 82-93. https://
culture underlie the functions of society and the state, doi.org/10.2307/3033880
and can be further applied to understand present-day
Đorđević, Đ. (2015). Chernobyl Disaster–a View
social and governmental activities. The study adds to
f r o m t h e D e c i s i o n - M a k i n g p e r s p e c t ive.
the understanding of the Chernobyl incident through h t t p s : / / d 1 wq t x t s 1 x z l e 7 . c l o u d f r o n t . n e t /
the perspective of psychological processes that govern
social and political behaviour. While previous research Downing, L. L., & Monaco, N. R. (1986). In
explored the causation of the incident in terms of the -group/out-group bias as a function of differential
technical and political aspects, the current study contact and authoritarian personality. The Journal
highlights the group processes involved, thereby o f S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y, 1 2 6 ( 4 ) , 4 4 5 - 4 5 2 .
providing an understanding of political units as social https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1986.
entities, and how individual and group psychology can 9713611
have far reaching effects through policy and crisis
Eiser, J. R., Hannover, B., Mann, L., Morin, M., Van
management.
Der Pligt, J., & Webley, P. A. (1990). Nuclear
attitudes after Chernobyl: a cross-national study.
The study, however, does not provide insight into
Journal of Environmental Psychology, 10(2),
the way the system has changed in almost forty years
101–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272
since the explosion. Further exploration into the -4944(05)80121-5
measures taken in light of the failures of Chernobyl
can be used to evaluate the social change that followed Frequently Asked Cher nobyl Questions. (n.d.).
it. It can also have been limited by the number of data IAEA. https://www.iaea.org/ newscenter/
sources used. focus/chernobyl/faqs.

Further research can be done on the psychology of Gantt, P., & Gantt, R. (2012). Disaster psychology:
institutional structures in relation to group dynamics, Dispelling the myths of panic. Professional Safety,
decision-making, power structures, collectivistic 57(08), 42-49. https://one petro.org/PS/
societies, group secrecy, and information flow. The article/57/08/42/33345/Disaster-Psychology
psychology of governments and its link to the societies -Dispelling-the-Myths-of-Panic
they serve can also be explored.
Gergen, K. J. (1973). Social psychology as history.
Journal of personality and social psychology,
References
26(2), 309-320. https://doi.org/10
.1037/h0034436
Beck, U. (1987). The anthropological shock:
Chernobyl and the contours of the risk society.
Page 77 Smriti Haridas & Dr. Surbhi Kumar

Mawson, A. R. (2005). Understanding mass panic and

Havenaar, J. M., Rumyantzeva, G. M., van den Brink, other collective responses to threat and disaster.
W., Poelijoe, N. W., Van den Bout, J., van Psychiatr y, 68(2), 95-113. https://doi.org
Engeland, H., & Koeter, M. W. (1997). Long-term /10.1521/psyc.2005.68.2.95.
mental health effects of the Chernobyl disaster: an
epidemiologic survey in two former Soviet McLeod, S. A. (2007). The Milgram experiment.
r e g i o n s. A m e r i c a n Jo u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y, Simply Psychology. https://www.simp lyps
154(11), 1605-1607. https://doi.org/10.1176/ ychology.org/milgram.html
ajp. 154.11.1605
Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral Study of obedience.
Heiervang, K. S., Mednick, S., Sundet, K., & Rund, B. The Journal of Abnormal and Social P s y c h o l o g y ,
R. R. (2010). The Chernobyl accident and 67(4), 371–378. https://doi.org /10.
cognitive functioning: a study of Norwegian 1037/h0040525.
adolescents exposed in utero. Developmental
N e u ro p s y c h o l o g y, 3 5 ( 6 ) , 6 4 3 - 6 5 5 . Nesvetajlov, G. A. (1992). Chernobyl from the point
https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2010.508550 of view of disaster sociology. Vestnik Rossijskoj
Akademii Nauk, 54-64. https://inis.iaea.org/
Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:25059257
Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in
Psychology and Culture, 2(1). https:// doi.org/ Nohrstedt, D. (2008). The politics of crisis
10.9707/2307-0919.1014 policymaking: Chernobyl and Swedish nuclear
energy policy. Policy Studies Journal, 36(2), 257
Hofstede Insights. (2021, June 22). Compare countries -278. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.
- Hofstede Insights. https://www.hofstede 2008.00265.x.
-insights.com/product/compare-countries/
Omer, H. (1991). Tasks of a psychological
Holloway, D. (2016). The Soviet Union and the emergency team in disaster. Sihot, 5, 1-23
creation of the international atomic energy
agency. Cold War Histor y, 16(2), 177-193. Omer, H., & Alon, N. (1994). The continuity
https://doi.org/10.1080/14682745.2015. principle: A unified approach to disaster and
1124265 trauma.American Journal of Community Psychology,
22,273–287. https://doi.org/10.1007/ BF02
Janis, I. L. (1971). Groupthink. Psychology today, 5(6), 506866.
43-46.
Pastel, R. H. (2002). Radiophobia: Long-term
Legasov, V. (1987). A Soviet expert discusses psychological consequences of Chernobyl.
Chernobyl. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Military Medicine, 167(suppl_1), 134–136.
43(6), 32-34. https://doi.org/10. 1080 https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/167.suppl_
/00963402.1987.11459553 1.134

Lowe, N. (2013). Modern world history. Hampshire, Patterson, W. C. (1986). Chernobyl—The official
UK: Palgrave Master Series. story. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 42(9),
34-36. https://doi.org/10. 1080 /00
March, J. G. (1994). Primer on decision making: How 963402.1986.11459439.
decisions happen. Simon and Schuster.
Renn, O. (1990). Public responses to the Chernobyl
Marples, D. R. (1991). Ukraine under Perestroika: accident. Journal of Environmental Psychology,
Ecology, Economics and the Workers’ Revolt. NY: 10(2), 151-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272
Springer. -4944(05)80125-2.

Shlyakhter, A., & Wilson, R. (1992). Chernobyl: The

inevitable results of secrecy. Public Understanding
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 78

of Science, 1(3), 251. https://doi.org /10.1088/09

63-6625/1/3/002.

Slepian, M. L., Chun, J. S., & Mason, M. F. (2017).

T h e e x p e r i e n c e o f s e c r e c y. J o u r n a l o f
Personality and Social Psychology, 113(1), 1–33.
https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000085.

Smithson, M. (1990). Ignorance and disasters.

International Journal of Mass Emergencies &
Disasters, 8(3), 207–235. https://doi.org /10.
1177/028072709000800302.

Stsiapanau, A. (2010). The Chernobyl politics in

Belarus: Interplay of discourse-coalitions.
Filosofija. Sociologija, (2), 143-150. https://
w w w. c e e o l . c o m / s e a r c h / a r t i c l e - d e t a i l ? i d
=157922.

UNSCEAR 1988 Report. (n.d.-b). United Nations:

Scientific committee on the effects of atomic
radiation. https://www.unscear.or g/u nscear
/en/publications/1988.html

Timofeyev, Y. (2020). The Legasov Tapes.

https://legasovtapetranslation.blogspot.com/.

Van der Pligt, J., & Midden, C. J. (1990).

Chernobyl: Four years later: Attitudes, risk
management and communication. Journal of
E nv i r o n m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y, 1 0 ( 2 ) , 9 1 – 9 9 .
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)801
20-3

Yaroshinskaia, A. (2006). Chernobyl: The big lie.

Index on Censorship, 35(2), 20-28.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1080
/03064220600746623

Zimbardo, P. G. (1974). On “Obedience to

a u t h o r i t y.” A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t , 2 9 ( 7 ) ,
566–567. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0038158
Zimbardo, P. G., Haney, C., Banks, W. C., & Jaffe, D.
(1971). The Stanford prison experiment.
Zimbardo, Incorporated. https://web.stanford.ed
u / d e p t / s p e c _ c o i o n . p d f
Page 79 Smriti Haridas & Dr. Surbhi Kumar

Appendix

Table Showing Themes, Codes, and Verbatim Statements from the Data Set
Themes Codes Verbatim

Role of obedience and power Emphasis on the goals of the D1: “…the motives requiring the
dynamics in str uctures: state development of the nuclear power industry
factors in causes and effects have not changed… The goal set in the Soviet
of the incident energy program-to raise the capacity of
nuclear power stations by 400 to 600 percent
by the end of this century-will not be revised.”
Maintaining international D2: “The Chernobyl accident in April
image apparently has convinced the world nuclear
industry that nuclear power is safe-or at any
rate safe enough. This somewhat
disconcerting conclusion emerged from an
August 25-29 conference in Vienna, sponsored
by the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA). There the Soviet Union presented its
official report on the world's worst nuclear
accident.”

Rectifying criticisms from D2: “By the close of the conference the
Western countries Western delegations had drastically muted
their criticisms of Soviet nuclear technology.
The evidence of impressive Soviet competence
in other areas-especially the emergency
measures implemented in the hours after the
accident-had taken the edge off earlier
Western suggestions that the Soviets could not
be trusted to build and operate nuclear plants.

Public relations success on D2: “...an outpouring of mutual

an international forum congratulations on the week's efforts. For the
Soviets the conference was a public relations
triumph. Their forthrightness and candor all
but blotted out the memory of the initial
Soviet failure to warn their neighbors about
Chernobyl.”
Emphasis on the goals of the D4: “…he said that they had somewhat
State messed something up, and an accident of sort
had occurred there, but this would not stop the
overall development of the atomic energy
program.”
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 80

Emphasis on fixed D4: “…the institution in which we all

roles and respon - worked was built on principles of the highest
sibilities qualifications of people who were executing
any operation with the highest
Reliance on responsibility…highly qualified people who
established procedure were used to being relied on, and were
convinced that safety issues are solved solely
by skills and by precisely instructing the
personnel that led the process.”
Reliance on
D4: “…they began to lose the standard of
established procedure
modern equipment. The staff began to age.
Fewer young people joined. New approaches
were not welcomed…The habitual rhythm
of work persisted and the usual approach to
solving problems prevailed.”

Lack of questioning D4: “...a generation of engineers came up

among personnel who were very competent, but not critical of
the devices themselves, not critical of all the
systems that were ensuring their safety; but
mainly knew the systems and required an
increase in their numbers.”

D4: “Our Institute was not part of the

Se paration of the Ministry of Medium Machine Building. It
state and the work of stood beside it, as a separate independent
scientific institutions organisation, and had the right to dictate its
scientific requirements and positions. And the
Autonomy of
Ministry, after evaluating the scientific
scientific work
proposals, was technically obliged to execute
them precisely…Scientific proposals not
being limited by the influence of those in
Subordination of power…history came to such a state where
science to the state s c i e n c e b e c a m e s u b o rd i n a t e t o t h e
No heed paid to Ministry…And so, the scientific spirit and
scientific concerns the scientific atmosphere in reactor
engineering gradually began to submit to the
Emphasis on fixed engineering will, as it were, to the ministerial
roles will…it complicated my relationship with
the Ministry when I tried to, not very
carefully, speak out on this issue. And I could
not win in these matters…I was a chemist,
and this allowed them to not listen to my
opinions carefully and to treat my suggestions
as sort of fantasies. This was the general
environment in which all this work was
happening”
Page 81 Smriti Haridas & Dr. Surbhi Kumar

Secrecy, concealment, and Honour prioritised over D4: “The operators made mistakes because
manipulation of relevant safety they had to complete the experiment which
information they considered a matter of honour…”

D2: “Legasov also brought with him a 25-

Contrast between media for minute videotape entitled simply “26 April”,
Soviet vs. international which was shown to the conference on the
audiences opening morning and then twice again by
overwhelming demand. The film offered a
grim contrast to the Soviet television
documentary being shown in the delegates'
lounge. The doggedly cheerful documentary
devoted most of its time to the efforts of the
workers”

Optimistic picture D3: “It is well known that after the Chernobyl
accident, the Soviet government immediately
did everything possible to conceal the fact of
the accident and its consequences for the
population and the environment: it issued
Concealing facts about “top secret” instructions to classify all data on
consequences on different the accident, especially as regards the health of
levels the affected population.”

D3:“…instructions from the ministry of

Restricting access to health and the ministry of defence to classify
information the radiation doses received by the general
population, the “liquidators… and military
personnel. These regulations demanded that
medical staff must not enter a diagnosis of
Dishonesty about radiation “acute radiation syndrome” in the files of
effects on people liquidators from the armed forces but must
substitute some other term.”

Manipulation of diagnoses D3: “These classified documents were not

and medical records accessible for many years. Only in 1991, when
the Soviet Union was collapsing, was I able to
get hold of secret protocols and other
documents of the operative group of the
Restricting access to Politburo. These minutes revealed the
information numb e r s of p e r s ons ir ra dia te d a nd
hospitalized during the first days after the
accident
D3: “The cynicism of the document is
Transparency in the face of
striking: “The proposal of the Ministry of
scrutiny from international
Health Care of the USSR on publishing data
actors
on the number and condition of patients in
Moscow Hospital No. 6 should be accepted,
taking into account that there are US
specialists working in this hospital.” Had
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 82

Americans not been there, nothing would

have been known about the situation in
Loosening of standards on Hospital No. 6.”
radiation-related sickness
D3: “Why did the process of discharging
people from hospitals become so rapid after
the number of patients had exceeded 10
000?... the 10 000-plus people hospitalized
Manipulation of diagnoses
because of exposure to radiation were
and treatment
automatically reclassified as “healthy” and
Tampering with medical
discharged. The official number of people
records
suffering from acute radiation syndrome
Political inter vention in also fell significantly. It goes without saying
medical decisions and records that Party bosses increased the acceptable
dose in this way simply to hide the numbers
affected.”

Concealment of facts to hide D3: “It had become a matter of economics:

economic implications the USSR could not afford to resettle so
many people. The truth about the health of
the population had to be concealed from the
population itself.”

D3: “Officials in the Narodichi district of

the Zhitomir region made every effort to
Tampering with medical eliminate the primary medical documents
records representing the actual doses: medical staff
were ordered to register understated dose
values.”

D3: “…secret official documents of the

Manipulation of medical Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR
records are similar. According to them, no autopsies
of those who died after the accident,
including children, were carried out in the
SCZ in Zhitomir region

D1: “...the history of our time knows

Putting the severity in accidents when human losses were greater by
perspective, relative to other many orders of magnitude. If we regard the
accidents Chernobyl breakdown in this respect, it is
not the most terrible”

Secrecy, concealment, and D1: “There are some districts outside the 30-
manipulation of relevant kilometer zone…which are contaminated by
information strontium and cesium. People live in these
districts but they eat foodstuffs brought from
other regions. They lead quite a normal life;
they are not exposed to any noticeable
external radiation, but foodstuffs grown in
Page 83 Smriti Haridas & Dr. Surbhi Kumar

this territory are not recommended for use.”

D1: “...all 200-odd people who have

developed radiation sickness have left the
hospitals…All-round diagnosis of the
Mention of normalcy general condition of the people is
p e r i o d i c a l ly c a r r i e d o u t , a n d t h e
composition of their blood is checked.
Particular attention is paid to the thyroids
Dealing with the health of first
and lungs. To the best of my knowledge, no
responders
anomalies have been detected among the
evacuees.”

D2: “The press conference panelists-

comparing this with fatalities in car
accidents, plane crashes, and other modern
technological mishaps insisted on the need to
keep the health effects of the Chernobyl
accident in perspective…The precise
numbers, however, could not be predicted
with any confidence, nor would it be possible
to say that Chernobyl caused any particular
Mention of normalcy
cancer.”

D2: “By setting the long-term Chernobyl

fatalities against a background of all the
Providing perspective on long other deaths occurring during the same
term health effects period in the same population, the health
effects of the accident could be made to
appear unimportant.”

D3: “…the authors claim that among the

population in the SCZs, who were exposed to
Putting the severity in irradiation every day, there will be less fatal
perspective, relative to other cases of induced cancers than among the
events population of all other territories.”

D4: “Because I reasoned, for example, that

if we say this to the people now, the
Full picture not given to avoid evacuation will be delayed…People will
panic start to pack for too long. That is why I
advised…that we cannot tell about the
precise duration of the evacuation yet.”
Admission of seriousness
D1: “Although the consequences of the
Chernobyl disaster are very serious-31
people have perished, over 200 persons have
acquired radiation sickness”
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 84

D2: “Western suspicions that the Soviet

authorities would resort to obfuscation and
cover-up were swept aside by a deluge of
information-explicit, vivid, and chilling. The
Differential dissemination Information given in-depth official Soviet report ran to 388 pages. In a
and disclosure of five-hour tour de force the head of the Soviet
information delegation, Academician Valery Legasov,
deputy chairman of the Kurchatov Institute
of Atomic Energy, introduced the report.”

D2: “Legasov's videotape, however,

recounted all too starkly the events ofApril 25-
Details of incident given 26 that had made all the subsequent heroics
and cleanup efforts necessary”

D2: “No Western advance commentary on

the Soviet report had come close to conveying
the true horror of the accident.”
Tr a n s p a r e n c y a b o u t t h e
incident D2: “As to the longer term, many people
would suffer cancers as a result of exposure to
radiation from Chernobyl, some of which
would certainly be fatal.”
Admission of severity
D2: “Legasov had admitted that the RBMK
design had not merely disadvantages but
defects.”

D2: “Their forthrightness and candour all

but blotted out the memory of the initial
Soviet failure to warn their neighbours about
Chernobyl.”

D 4 : “ T h e re a re s o m a ny d i f f e re n t
interpretations of how and why this
Transparency about structural happened, that it is in a way my duty to tell
flaws what I know, how I see and understand it and
how I witnessed the events that occured.”

D4: “There was no understanding of the

steps that needed to be taken, neither from
station personnel nor from the Ministry of
Honesty about the incident to
Energy. And so I and the Government
undo previous lapses in giving
Commission had to take these decisions,
information
come up with the action plan, get a clear
understanding of the situation”
Page 85 Smriti Haridas & Dr. Surbhi Kumar

D4: “During the first days of the Chernobyl

tragedy, the flaws in our information services
were very evident…that prepared literature
Transparency about the incident that could quickly be distributed among the
people to explain, for example, what doses are
extremely dangerous for humans, how to
behave when a person is inside a zone of
Uncertainty about the situation increased radiation exposure…all this
literature was totally absent.”

D4: “I have already mentioned that I had

Lack of instructions to the masses proposed from the beginning to create a press
group under the Government Commission
that would correctly inform the population
about the events that were happening, that
would give the right advice. For some reason,
this was not accepted”
Legasov’s desire for transparency
D4: “…our press repor ted a lot of
information of the second type, about people,
about their impressions, about what was
happening there, b ut repor ted ver y
little…about what has happened so far and
No action taken to provide what has changed. This, in my opinion, was
information a defect in the communication system, firstly.
And secondly, there were too few statements
by expert scientists.”

D4: “It seems to me that they were overly

Lack of credible scientific modest and careful when writing about what
information happened at the station itself, why the
accident occurred, whose fault it was,
whether the reactor was defective or the
actions of the staff were wrong… I think that
the full picture of exactly what happened,
and how, is not entirely clear to anyone.”

Incomplete and unclear D4: “The plan for the experiment was drawn
information about the causes up very poorly, very imprecisely, and not
authorised by the specialists by whom it
should have been authorised…One operator
Poor planning of the test calls another and asks, “Valera, here in the
program, it’s written what needs to be done,
but then a lot of it is crossed out. What should
I do?” And the second one answers, “You do
what is crossed out.””

Incomplete instructions D4: “There were a lot of inconsistencies

given to personnel between the part of the documentation that
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 86

Flaws in documentation was at the station and the reality in various

places of the station and underground
facilities. All this certainly gave an impression
of gross neglect, of gross sloppiness towards
Lack of transparency maintaining documentation, which should
regarding evacuation be accurate”

D4: “I understood, I must tell you honestly,

that I understood that the city was being
evacuated permanently. But psychologically,
somehow, I did not have the means, the
strength, the ability to say this to people
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 87-98

Promoting psychological capital interventions towards

alleviating adjustment problems in adolescents perceiving
inter-parental conflict
Shanta Kumari1 & Dr. Smita Gupta2

Abstract: Adolescents’ mental health and well-being are a major concern for their future as well as for society. The
present study is a crux of the findings of several researches that have been conducted and published in renowned
journals, books, and magazines across the world. Based on the analysis of available literature, the present study tries
to analyze the maladjustments that occur due to the perceived inter-parental conflict among adolescents. It was
found that the most effective way to deal with adolescents is through an authoritative parenting style, characterized
by a high level of parental affection and behavioral control. The importance of adolescents' spontaneous disclosure
to their parents in reducing maladjustment issues has also been highlighted. Further, the study proposes
psychological capital interventions can influence adolescents' perceptions of inter-parental conflict and subsequent
maladjustments. The present study has implications in educational settings, where psychological capital can be used
as an intervention toward lowering maladjustment among adolescents.
Keywords: Adolescent adjustment, inter-parental conflict, psychological capital, interventions, well-being

The period of adolescence is crucial for development children's academic growth or achievement. However,
and growth because it involves self-exploration, later research found that additional factors that affect
identity formation, decision-making, and autonomy. school adjustment include children’s attitudes toward
At this point, adolescents begin to learn how to adapt school, anxieties, loneliness, social support, and
to their surroundings. Research supports that academic motivation (e.g., engagement, avoidance, and
adjustment during adolescence plays a vital role in absences) (Curtona, 2007; Dwyer & Cummings, 2001).
their health and well-being (De La Barrera et al., 2019; These factors also contribute to maladjustment issues in
Ordóñez et al., 2015; Pettit & Laird, 2002). An adolescents' other spheres of functioning, such as social
adjustment is a change in a person’s behavior or adjustment or emotional and behavioral adjustment.
thinking. It is a process by which individuals maintain
a balance between their needs and the surroundings. Further, adolescents may also struggle with
Adolescents who are well-adjusted grow up to be fully adjustment for a number of reasons outside of the
functioning adults in contrast to adolescents who classroom, such as problems with their families,
struggle with maladjustment. neighborhoods, and peers. The dysfunction of each of
these subsystems will worsen adolescents' mental
For any society to produce well-adjusted adults, health and increase their maladaptive behaviors. This
adolescent mental health is crucial. Adolescents need paper, therefore, particularly tries to focus on the
to be taught how to develop adequate emotional adolescents’ adjustment issues as a consequence of
adjustment and to increase their willingness to learn to perceiving inter-parental conflict (IPC). Further, it
adapt to their surroundings. Notably, adolescents assesses whether Psychological Capital (PsyCap) can
struggle with a variety of maladjustment issues, intervene on such adjustment problems among
including emotional and behavioral problems, which adolescents.
can sometimes be easily noticed and other times go
unnoticed until they have negative consequences. Perceived Inter-parental Conflict and Adjustment
According to Birch and Ladd (1996), historically, Problems
school adjustment has been characterized in terms of
Relations between inter-parental conflict and children’s
1
Research Scholar, Discipline of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
Corresponding Author: Shanta Kumari, Email: [email protected]
Page 88 Shanta Kumari & Dr. Smita Gupta

psychological adjustment are well established (e.g., could help manage adjustment issues.
Emery, 1982; Grych & Fincham, 1990). The inter-
parental conflict was found to be associated with Method
children’s internalizing symptoms (Dadds et al., 1999;
Harold et al., 1997); externalizing problems (Grych et To understand the contribution of psychological
al., 2000; Harold et al., 1997); and academic capital interventions towards alleviating adjustment
achievement (Forehand & Wierson, 1993). problems in adolescents perceiving inter-parental
conflict, the present study analyzed the findings of
Further, it was found that an increase in several researches that have been conducted and
adjustment problems was caused by parental rejection published in renowned jour nals, books, and
or lack of acceptance, which came about as a result of magazines as well as an unpublished doctoral thesis.
an inter-parental conflict (Sturge-Apple et al., 2006). It The review also used online databases like JSTOR,
was found that parental resources are depleted by Directory of Open Access journals (DOAJ), Scopus,
emotional distress and distractions caused by inter- and Google Scholar.
parental conflict, which decreases their propensity to
care for their adolescent's mental health. O'Donnell et Inclusion criteria
al. (2010) found that an increase in parent rejection,
• Researches related to the inter-parental conflict
over the course of a year, mediated the relationship that focused on adolescents’ maladjustment,
between an increase in inter-parental conflict and an parenting styles, and psychological capital
increase in depressive symptoms. Moreover, studies components (HERO): hope, efficacy, Resilience,
speculated that differences in child gender may be Optimism, and Psychological Capital
related to adjustment issues when evaluating parent- interventions.
child rejection. In contrast to father-child rejection,
which was found to be associated with internalizing • Published in a peer-reviewed journal, books, any
adjustment problems like withdrawal behavior and article, or unpublished research work/dissertation
anxious-depressive symptoms, mother-child rejection in the English Language.
was found to be associated with externalizing
Exclusion criteria:
adjustment problems like hostility and aggression
(Shelton & Harold, 2008). Grych and colleagues • Studies that largely addressed mental health with
(2004) indicated that a close parent-child relationship no focus on adolescents perceiving inter-parental
has a "main effect" rather than a buffering or conflict and psychological capital interventions
moderating effect on adolescent adjustment. Their were excluded.
study revealed that a positive parent-child relationship
Table 1

Empirical studies indicating the association between inter-parental conflict and adjustment issues

Author/s and year of Methodology Findings/ Results

publication
Emery (1982) Data collected from 132 elementary Only indirect evidence that marital
school students, teachers and their conflict is associated with children's
mothers. adjustment.

Hetherington, Cox, & Six years follow up longitudinal It was found that only the degree of
Cox (1982) conflict to which children were
exposed was related to adjustment
problems in children. It was termed as
"Encapsulated conflict” or conflict of
which children were not aware.
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 89

Rutter et al. (1975) Data was collected from children with Child problems were found to be more
three psychiatric disorders: emotional highly associated with unhappy
disorders, conduct disorders and marriages that were quarrelsome,
specific reading retardation. tense, and hostile than unhappy
marriages characterized by apathy
and indifference.
Cummings et al. (1981) Eleven boys and 13 girls from intact, Children exhibit more distress when
white, middle-class families were observing naturally occurring anger
studied for a 9-month period in a cross- between their parents that involves
sequential design. physical aggression.

Harold, Aitken It was a longitudinal study, analyzed Inter-parental conflict was associated
& Shelton (2007) via. Structural Equation Modeling with academic outcomes
method.
Note: Table 1 demonstrates the adverse effects of inter-parental conflict on children adjustment levels. These studies
depicted that inter-parental conflict not always have direct effect. Most often, as indicated in the research studies,
maladjustment arises due to hidden effects of inter-parental conflict.
Table 2

Researches showing association between trust beliefs and maladjustment

Author/s and year of Methodology Findings/ Results
publication
Rotenberg et al. Longitudinal study (data was collected Low disclosure, withdrawal affect,
(2010) early childhood, age 5 yrs to young and a lack of social connectedness
adulthood, 21 yrs). Structural Equation with others are found to be signs of
Modeling was carried out for data distrust cognition, which promotes a
analysis. lack of social integration.
Malti et al. (2016) Longitudinal study conducted on It was found that children who had
ethically- diverse sample of children in low trustworthiness and low trust
Switzerland.Latent Growth Modeling beliefs progressed toward becoming
was used for data analysis. more aggressive.

Rotenberg, 434 school students of age 5-6 years Children's internalized

Boulton, & Fox were administered in United Kingdom maladjustment was found to be more
(2005) across an 8-month period.Regression pronounced at both of the extremes of
Analysis was carried out for data peer trust beliefs, i.e., very low and
analysis. very high.
Rotenberg et al.
(2014) Data was collected from 149, 8-11 years It was found that compared to girls
children from UK.Latent growth with a middle range of trust beliefs,
Curve Modeling was used for data those with very low and very high
analysis. levels of trust demonstrated higher
indirect aggression, lower peer group
interaction, and distress.
Note. Table 2 demonstrates the association of trust beliefs with maladjustments. These studies suggest that the
relationship between perceived inter-parental conflict and adolescent maladjustment may be moderated by trust
beliefs.
Page 90 Shanta Kumari & Dr. Smita Gupta

Table 3

Researches showing association between adolescents’ spontaneous disclosure and adjustment

Author/s and year of Methodology Findings/ Results

publication
Keijsers et al. (2009) Four wave study among 309 Dutch It was found that as adolescents'
adolescents and their parents. Latent disclosure levels rose over time,
Growth Curve Analysis was used. delinquency among them was more
likely to decline.
Cheung & Pomerantz 825 American and Chinese children It was found that the degree to which
(2011) (mean age= 12.74 yrs).Structural parents are involved in their children's
Equation Modeling was used. education, particularly when it comes
to autonomy support (vs. control), has
been found to have little impact on
how well their children adjust
academically in terms of investment,
engagement, and achievement.
Note. Table 3 demonstrated the association between adolescents’ spontaneous disclosure and adjustment. Studies
have shown the importance of adolescents' spontaneous disclosure to their parents in reducing maladjustment
issues.
Table 4

Researches showing association between parenting styles and maladjustments

Author/s and year of Methodology Findings/ Results
publication
Barber & Buehler (1996) Data was collected from 471Tennessee Parents’ Psychological control has
adolescents. Regression was carried out b e e n f o u n d t o b e p a r t i c u l a r ly
for data Analysis. associated with internalizing
adjustment problems.
Maccoby & Martin Clinical sample was collected from 113 Adolescents, whose parents showed
(1983) mothers and adolescent dyads. high level of parental affection and
behavioral control, were found to be
well adjusted.
Galambos et al. (2003) Longitudinal study was carried out for It was found that those adolescents
32 years (N= 109 families)Hierarchical whose parents uses high psychological
Linear Modeling method was used for c o n t r o l a s we l l a s b e h av i o r a l
data analysis. controlare more prone to substance
abuse, antisocial behaviors and
misconduct at school.

An assessment of potential antecedents It was found that parental involvement

Pettit & Laird (2002)
of parental psychological control was and affection decreased problem
done. behavior in children and adolescents.
Note. Table 4 demonstrated the association between parenting styles and maladjustments.
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 91

Studies indicated that the most effective way to deal interventions can contribute to modifying their
with adolescents is through an authoritative parenting adjustment patterns. Multiple clinical studies have
style that is characterized by a high level of parental demonstrated hope as being developable using a goals-
affection and behavioral control. based, contingency planning framework (Snyder,
2000).
The above review suggests that there has been a
decline in the level of adjustment among adolescents. Further, studies have shown that hope has a
Several studies have documented that inter-parental beneficial effect on outcomes in education, health,
conflict has an adverse effect on adolescent emotional psychological adjustment, and even higher work
and behavioral maladjustment problems (Davies & performance outcomes (e.g., Luthans et al., 2007;
Windle, 2001; Cummings & Davies, 2002). It depends Peterson & Luthans, 2003).
upon how the child perceives the conflict between their
parents (Grych et al., 2000; Jouriles et al., 2000). The Efficacy Resource of PsyCap
Studies also revealed that behavioral and emotional
maladjustment problems arise due to spillover effects Researches show that self-efficacy significantly affects
of inter-parental conflict e.g. maladjustment issues like performance outcomes (Sadri & Robertson, 1993;
depression, a feeling of helplessness, feeling Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). Efficacy has been defined
threatened, and self-blaming tendencies grew worse as as “the individual’s conviction or confidence about his
inter-parental conflict increased (Gerard et al., 2005; or her abilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive
Grych et al., 2000; 2004; DuRant et al., 1995; Formoso resources or courses of action needed to successfully
et al., 2000). In this context, the present study proposes execute a specific task within a given context”
that PsyCap constructs can significantly contribute to (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998, p. 66).
alleviating adjustment problems in adolescents
Self-efficacy may be impacted by psychological,
perceiving inter-parental conflict.
physiological, or emotional arousal and/or wellness.
Psychological Capital Constructs (Hope, Efficacy, Additionally, few researchers have started to focus on
Resilience, and Optimism) PsyCap's mediating role in adolescents' individual
development and the family environment (i.e., the
The Hope Resource in PsyCap parent-child relationship). For instance, adolescents
who believe that they have good parental relationships
According to Snyder (1994, p. 2), hope is an are more likely to report high levels of PsyCap, which
"empowering way of thinking." Snyder's hope theory will help them achieve good social and academic
was based on the premise that people are typically goal- outcomes such as prosocial behavior and academic
oriented, meaning they act in ways that indicate they performance (Carmona-Halty et al., 2020).
are attempting to accomplish something. Inculcating
high hopes through effective psychological capital The Resilience Resource of PsyCap
interventions would be helpful for children witnessing
inter-parental conflict. The research by Buehler, Resilience "refers to a class of phenomena
Franck, and Cook (2009) revealed that adolescent characterized by patterns of positive adaptation in the
internalizing adjustment issues completely mediated context of significant adversity or risk" (Masten &
the association between triangulation in marital Reed, 2002, p. 75), which enables people to recover
conflict and peer rejection. Internalizing behavioral quickly and successfully from negative events.
adjustment problems were found to be linked with peer Richardson (2002) argues that those higher in resilience
rejection (Hay et al., 2004), whereas externalizing bounce back psychologically (including emotion and
behavioral adjustment problems were found to be cognition) to levels at, or even beyond, previous levels
linked with peer rejection and impaired friendships of homeostasis or equilibrium.
The resilience component in psychological capital
(Bagwell & Coie, 2003). This indicates that adolescents
intervention would be helpful for children perceiving
experience difficulties with social adjustment.
inter-parental conflict as research supports that
Therefore, incorporating psychological capital
Page 92 Shanta Kumari & Dr. Smita Gupta

adolescents' emotional reactivity to their parents' projected onto others. In general, studies have shown
arguments and triangulation leads to a variety of that both of these behavioral changes cause issues in a
externalizing and internalizing emotional and variety of spheres of life; including school, peer
behavioral adjustment issues (Buehler & Welsh, 2009). relationships, and mental health (Kitzrow, 2003). The
For alleviating such chronic and prolonged effect of these maladjustments on adolescents’ health
maladjustment issues, developing and enhancing and well-being worsens because they lack an optimistic
resilience is very crucial for the betterment of outlook and develop self-blaming tendencies.
adolescents’ health and well-being. Further, according
to a large body of research in clinical and positive The optimistic component of the psychological
psychology (Bonanno, 2005; Garmenzy, 1974), as well capital intervention helps overcome such internalizing
as human resource development (Luthans et al., 2006), and exter nalizing maladjustment problems.
it was found that resilience can be developed through Adolescents can be taught to develop an optimistic
training interventions. attitude. Seligman (1998) proposed that optimism can
be learned, which he termed "learned optimism".
The Optimism Resource in PsyCap
Studies have suggested that the key to the
Optimists ‘differ in how they approach problems and application of psychological capital interventions is
challenges and differ in the manner and success with that it has state-like properties and are open to
which they cope with adversity’, according to Carver development through relevant training programs
and Scheier (2002, p. 231). Pessimists, on the other (Luthans et al., 2007). PsyCap resources of hope,
hand, ‘expect bad things to happen to them’. According efficacy, resilience, and optimism are malleable and
to Seligman (1998), optimists attribute internal, stable, thus open to change and development.
and global causal explanations for positive events and
external, unstable, and specific explanations for Suggestions of the Present Study
negative events.
This study showed that the perception of inter-parental
Researchers have identified a number of conflict has negative effects on adolescents' well-being.
characteristics in adolescents perceiving inter-parental Furthermore, studies have shown that parental distress
conflict that influence both internalizing and affects their relationship with their children in one way
externalizing behavioral adjustment problems. For or another. As a result, it is proposed, that
instance, Kovacs and Devlin (1998) focus on strengthening parent-child relationships can mitigate
disinhibited behaviors and other under-socialization the detrimental effects of the inter-parental conflict that
expressions, whereas other researchers place more result in maladjustment issues. In order to enhance the
emphasis on negative emotions that are directed mental health and adjustment of adolescents, the
against others and manifest as hostility, aggression, and constructs of positive psychology can be significantly
frustration (Roeser et al., 1998). Moreover, behavioral used. Psychological capital (PsyCap) can lead to
adjustment issues are externalized when self-regulation successful outcomes both at individual and
abilities are underdeveloped, resulting in under- organizational levels. It was found through a review of
controlled behavior (Cole et al., 1996). On the other the literature that psychological capital has primarily
hand, internalizing behavioral adjustment issues was been used in organizational settings and has had a
associated with withdrawal, fearfulness, inhibition, positive impact on raising job-related affective well-
and anxiety (Roeser et al., 1998). Studies have also being (for example, Kaplan et al., 2014). Furthermore,
demonstrated that internalizing adjustment behavior Luthans et al. (2007) noted that psychological capital
issues are caused by excessively rigid self-control (Block (PsyCap) emphasizes a person's "best self." In the
& Block, 1980; Cole et al., 1996). According to Roeser developmental sense, "who you are becoming" is
et al. (1998), negative emotions cause problems with discussed rather than just "who you are" (i.e., human
internalizing adjustment when they are directed at capital) (Luthans et al., 2007, p. 20).
oneself, and externalizing adjustment when they are
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 93

PsyCap interventions need to be implemented in achievements, and mental health. Further the
educational settings to improve adolescent well-being intervention program of Noble and McGrath (2008)
and academic performance. Luthans et al. (2010) found on resilience called ‘Bounce Back’ is considered
that PsyCap interventions for students produced significant towards improving resiliency among
encouraging findings. The present study suggests that adolescents. Some researchers have also designed
developing more PsyCap interventions can enhance interventions in the Indian context such as Vranda
mental health as well as adjustment levels of (2015), who designed school promotive mental health
adolescents. programs to reduce risks and enhance the psychosocial
competencies and resiliency of adolescents in schools.
Although the effects of the individual components Buragohain and Mandal (2015) also found that
have been thoroughly researched, the integration of positive emotions like resilience, self-efficacy, hope,
various PsyCap components may holds special value. satisfaction, forgiveness, savor, etc., could be taught
PsyCap's overall impact may be greater than the sum of and learned at school levels. Our review therefore
its parts (Hobfoll, 2011). Therefore, the present study suggests that self-guided, positive psychology
recommends that interventions should be developed interventions hold the potential for enhancing an
using all of PsyCap's components for adolescents’ well- individual's well-being.
being.
Research studies also indicate that high-quality
Research studies showed that Psycap components relationships with parents might promote higher levels
have a favorable effect on adolescents' adjustment. For of PsyCap (Carmona-Halty et al., 2020) which in turn
instance, a significant relationship has been found might influence their perception of their parents’
between hope and school adjustment (Cedeno et al., conflicts. As described above, PsyCap can be learned
2010), and between optimism and college adjustment and developed. Therefore, PsyCap interventions
(Pritchard et al., 2007). Therefore, it is suggested that designed to enhance parent-child relationships might
PsyCap interventions can contribute to improving be useful in alleviating maladjustment issues.
parent-child relationships.
Thus, based on the literature review, it is suggested
Furthermore, evidence suggests that PsyCap that psychological capital intervention can be
components can enhance cognitive abilities. For developed in school, clinical, and organizational
instance, Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001) broaden-and-build settings, particularly for educational settings
theory of positivity showed that people's combined considering the requirements of adolescents’
psychological resources can be strengthened in adjustment.
addition to their combined intellectual, physical, and
social resources when they are in positive emotional Conclusion
states. Additionally, PsyCap can cause positive
emotions while also having a negative impact on Perceived inter-parental conflict has been identified as
emotional labor (Avey et al., 2011). Therefore, it is one of the causes of adjustment issues of adolescents,
suggested that the PsyCap intervention might help both internally and externally. Studies have shown
influence adolescents' perceptions of their parents' evidence of adjustment issues due to the perception of
conflict and facilitate better adjustments. inter-parental conflict since the early nineties among
adolescents. Studies have also shown that adolescents
Implications struggle with adjustment issues on the emotional,
psychosocial, and academic fronts. The present study
Programs that encourage particular attitudes, showed that positive psychological interventions can
behaviors, and interests can have significant and help adolescents to combat the worsening effects of
enduring effects on psychological health. For example, maladjustment issues. Further, it can be suggested that
Marques, Lopez, and Pais-Ribeiro (2011) planned a future interventions need to be modeled after the
Hope-based intervention on middle-school students to psychological capital intervention for adolescents. In
enhance hope, self-worth, life satisfaction, academic conclusion, it can be said that more interventions need
to be designed which should utilize PsyCap.
Page 94 Shanta Kumari & Dr. Smita Gupta

References Buragohain, P., & Mandal, R. (2015). Teaching of

gratitude among the students of secondary school
Avey, J. B., Wernsing. T. S. & Mhatre. K.H. (2011). A as a means of well-being. International Journal of
longitudinal analysis of positive psychological Humanities Social Sciences and Education
constructs and emotions on stress, anxiety and (IJHSSE), 2(2),179-188.
well-being. Journal of Leadership &
Organizational Studies, 18(2), 216–28. DOI: Carmona-Halty, M., Salanova, M., & Schaufeli, W.
10.1177/1548051810397368 B. (2020). The strengthening starts at home:
Parent–child relationships, psychological capital,
Bagwell, C. L., & Coie, J. D. (2003). The best and academic performance – a longitudinal
friendships of aggressive boys: Relationship mediation analysis. Current Psychology, 41(6),
quality, conflict management, and rule-breaking 3788–3796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-
b e h av i o r. Jo u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l C h i l d 00898-8
Psychology, 88(1), 5–24. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.jecp.2003.11.004 Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. S. (2002). Optimism. In
C . R . S n y d e r & S . J. L o p e z ( E d s . ) ,
Barber, B. K., & Buehler, C. (1996). Family cohesion Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 231–243).
and enmeshment: Different constructs, different Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University
effects. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, Press.
433 –441. https://doi.org/10.2307/353507
Cedeno, L. A., Elias, M. J., Kelly, S., & Chu, B. C.
Birch, S. H., & Ladd, G. W. (1996). Interpersonal (2010). School violence, adjustment, and the
relationships in the school environment and influence of hope on low-income, African
children's early school adjustment: The role of American youth. American Jour nal of
teachers and peers. In J. Juvonen & K. R. O r t h o p s y c h i a t r y, 8 0 ( 2 ) , 2 1 3 – 2 2 6 .
We n t z e l ( E d s . ) , S o c i a l m o t i v a t i o n : https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.20 10.0
Understanding children's school adjustment (pp. 1025.x
1 9 9 – 2 2 5 ) . C a m b r i d g e U n i ve r s i t y P r e s s.
Cheung, C. S., & Pomerantz, Ε. M. (2011). Parents’
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego- involvement in children’s academic lives in the
control and ego-resiliency in the organization of United States and China: Implications for
behavior. In W.A. Collins (Ed.), Minnesota children’s academic and emotional adjustment.
symposia on child psychology: Development of Child Development, 82(3), 932-950. https://doi.o
cognition, af fect, and social relations, Vol. 13. rg/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01582.x
( p p. 3 9 – 1 0 1 ) . H i l l s d a l e, N J: E r l b a u m .
Cole, P. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., Fox, N. A., Usher, B.
Bonanno, G. A. (2005). Clarifying and extending the A., & Welsh, J. A. (1996). Individual differences
c o n s t r u c t o f a d u l t r e s i l i e n c e. A m e r i c a n in emotion regulation and behaviour problems in
Psychologist, 60(3), 265–267. p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n . Jo u r n a l o f A b n o r m a l
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.60.3.265b Psychology, 105(4), 518–529. https://doi.org
/10.1037/0021-843x.105.4.518
Buehler, C., Franck, K., & Cook, E. A. (2009).
Adolescents’ triangulation in marital conflict and
peer relations. Jour nal of Research on Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2002). Effects of
Adolescence, 19(4), 669–689. marital conflict on children: recent advances and
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.200 9.0 emerging themes in process-oriented research.
061 6.x Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
43(1), 31–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469
Buehler, C., & Welsh, D. P. (2009). A process model -7610.00003
of adolescents’ triangulation into parents’ marital
conflict: The role of emotional reactivity. Journal
of Family Psychology, 23(2), 167–180. https:/
/doi.org/10.1037/a0014976
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 95

Cummings, E. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Radke- i n t e r n a l i z i n g p r o b l e m b e h av i o r. C h i l d

Yarrow, M. (1981). Young children’s responses to Development, 72(4), 1112–1134.
expressions of anger and affection by others in https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00337
the family. Child Development, 52(4), 1274.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1129516 Emery, R. E. (1982). Inter-parental conflict and the
children of discord and divorce. Psychological
Curtona, C. E. (2007). Transition to college: B u l l e t i n , 9 2 ( 2 ) , 3 1 0 – 3 3 0 .
Loneliness and the process of social adjustment. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.92.2.310
In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness:
A source book of current theory, research, and Forehand, R., & Wierson, M. (1993). The role of
therapy (pp. 291-309). New York: John Wiley. developmental factors in planning behavioral
interventions for children: Disruptive behavior as
Dadds, M. R., Atkinson, E., Turner, C., Blums, G. J., an example. Behavior Therapy, 24(1), 117–141.
& Lendich, B. (1999). Family conflict and child https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7894(05)80259-x
adjustment: Evidence for a cognitive-contextual
model of intergenerational transmission. Journal Formoso, D., Gonzales, N. A., & Aiken, L. S. (2000).
of Family Psychology, 13(2), 194–208. https:// Family conflict and children’s internalizing and
doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.13.2.194 exter nalizing behavior: Protective factors.
American Journal of Community Psychology,
Davies, P. T., & Windle, M. (2001). Interparental 28(2), 175–199. https://doi.org/10.1023
discord and adolescent adjustment trajectories: / a : 1 0 0 5 1 3 5 2 1 7 4 4 9
T h e p o t e n t i a t i n g a n d p r o t e c t ive r o l e o f
intrapersonal attributes. Child Development, Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What Good Are Positive
72(4), 1163–1178. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467- Emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2(3),
8624.00340 300–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089
-2680.2.3.300
De La Barrera, U., Schoeps, K., Gil-Gómez, J., &
M o n t oya - C a s t i l l a , I . ( 2 0 1 9 ) . P r e d i c t i n g Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive
adolescent adjustment and well-being: The emotions in positive psycholog y: The
interplay between socio-emotional and personal broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions.
factors. International Journal of Environmental American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226.
Research and Public Health, 16(23), 4650. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.56.3.218
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234650
Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Almeida, D. M.
DuRant, R. H., Getts, A. G., Cadenhead, C., Emans, (2003). Parents do matter: Trajectories of
S. J., & Woods, E. R. (1995). Exposure to change in externalizing and internalizing problems
violence and victimization and depression, in early adolescence. Child Development, 74(2),
hopelessness, and pur pose in life among 578–594. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-
adolescents living in and around public housing. 8624.7402017
Jo u r n a l o f D e v e l o p m e n t a l a n d B e h a v i o r a l
Pediatrics, 16(4), 233-237. https://doi.org/10.1 Garmezy, N. (1974). The study of competence in
097/00004703-199508000-00004 children at risk for severe psychopathology. In E.
J. Anthony & C. Koupernik (Eds.), The child in
Dwyer, A., & Cummings, A. L. (2001). Stress, self his family: Children at psychiatric risk. John
-efficacy, social support, and coping strategies in Wiley & Sons.
u n ive r s i t y s t u d e n t s. C a n a d i a n Jo u r n a l o f
Counselling and Psychotherapy, 35(3). http://cjc- Gerard, J. M., Buehler, C., Franck, K., & Anderson,
rcc.ucalgary.ca/cjc/index.php/rcc/article/downl O. (2005). In the eyes of the beholder: Cognitive
oad/189/430Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., appraisals as mediators of the association between
Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Reiser, interparental conflict and youth maladjustment.
M., Murphy, B. M., Losoya, S. H., & Guthrie, I. K. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(3), 376–384.
(2001). The relations of regulation and https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.3.376
emotionality to children’s externalizing and
Page 96 Shanta Kumari & Dr. Smita Gupta

Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital Jouriles, E. N., Spiller, L. C., Stephens, N. S.,
conflict and children’s adjustment: A cognitive McDonald, R., & Swank, P. R. (2000). Variability
contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, in adjustment of children of battered women:
108(2), 267–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033- The role of child appraisals of interparent
2909.108.2.267 conflict. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24(2),
233–249. https://doi. org/10. 1023/a: 100540
Grych, J. H., Fincham, F. D., Jouriles, E. N., & 2310180
McDonald, R. (2000). Interparental conflict and
child adjustment: Testing the mediational role of Kaplan, S. A., Bradley-Geist, J. C., Ahmad, A. S.,
appraisals in the cognitive-contextual framework. Anderson, A. H., Hargrove, A. K., & Lindsey, A.
Child Development, 71(6), 1648–1661. https:// (2014). A test of two positive psychology
doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00255 interventions to increase employee well-being.
Jour nal of Business and Psychology, 29(3),
Grych, J. H., Raynor, S., & Fosco, G. M. (2004). 367–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013
Family processes that shape the impact of -9319-4
inter parental conf lict on adolescents.
D e v e l o p m e n t a n d P s y c h o p a t h o l o g y, 1 6 ( 0 3 ) . Keijsers, L., Frijns, T., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. (2009).
https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579404004717 Developmental links of adolescent disclosure,
parental solicitation, and control with delinquency:
Harold, G. T., Aitken, J., & Shelton, K. H. (2007). Moderation by parental support. Developmental
Inter-parental conflict and children’s academic Psychology, 45(5), 1314–1327.
attainment: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016693
C h i l d P s y c h o l o g y a n d P s y c h i a t r y, 4 8 ( 1 2 ) ,
1223–1232. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469- Kitzrow, M. (2003). The mental health needs of today’s
7610.2007.01793.x college students: Challenges and
recommendations. NASPA Jour nal, 41(1),
Harold, G. T., Osborne, L. N., & Conger, R. D. 167–181. https://doi.org/10.2202/1949-
(1997). Mom and dad are at it again: Adolescent 6605.1310
perceptions of marital conflict and adolescent
psychological distress. Developmental Kovacs, M., & Devlin, B. (1998). Internalizing
Psychology, 33(2), 333–350. d i s o r d e r s i n c h i l d h o o d . Jo u r n a l o f C h i l d
https://doi.org /10.1037/0012-1649.33.2.333 P s y c h o l o g y a n d P s y c h i a t r y, 3 9 ( 1 ) , 4 7 – 6 3 .
https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00303
Hay, D. F., Payne, A. J., & Chadwick, A. (2004). Peer
r e l a t i o n s i n c h i l d h o o d . Jo u r n a l o f C h i l d Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., & Peterson, S. J.
Psychology and Psychiatr y, 45(1), 84–108. ( 2 0 1 0 ) . T h e d e ve l o p m e n t a n d r e s u l t i n g
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0021- performance impact of positive psychological
9 6 3 0 . 2 0 0 3 . 0 0 3 0 8 . x capital. Human Resource Development
Quarterly, 21(1), 41–67. https:// doi.org /10.
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M., & Cox, R. (1982). 1002/hrdq.20034
Effects ofdivorce on parents and children. In
M.E. Lamb (Eds.), Nontraditional families: Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S.
Parenting and child development (pp. 233–288). M. (2007). Positive psychological capital:
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Measurement and relationship with performance
and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60(3),
Hobfoll, S. E. (2011). Conservation of resource 541–572. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-
caravans and engaged settings. Jour nal of 6570.2007.00083.x
Occupational and Organizational Psychology,
84(1), 116–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044- Luthans, F., Vogelgesang, G. R., & Lester, P. B.
8 3 2 5 . 2 0 1 0 . 0 2 0 1 6 . x (2006). Developing the psychological capital of
r e s i l i e n c y. H u m a n R e s o u r c e D e v e l o p m e n t
Review, 5(1), 25–44. https://doi.org/10 .1177
/ 1 5 3 4 4 8 4 3 0 5 2 8 5 3 3 5
The Learning Curve, Vol. XII, ISSN 2321-7057 Page 97

Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2007). Peterson, S. J., & Luthans, F. (2003). The positive
Psychological capital: Developing the human impact and development of hopeful leaders.
competitive edge. Oxford, United Kingdom: Leadership and Organization Development
Oxford University Press. Journal, 24, 26–31. https://doi.org /10.110 8/
01437730310457302
Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization
in the context of the family: Parent – child Pettit, G. S., & Laird, R. D. (2002). Psychological
interaction. In P. H. Mussen (Series Ed.) & control and monitoring and earlier child
Hetherington, E. M. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of adjustment. In B. K. Barber (Ed.), Intrusive
child psychology: Socialization, personality, and parenting. How psychological control af fects
social development, 4th ed. (pp. 1-101). New children and adolescents (pp. 97-123). American
York: Wiley. Psychological Association.

Malti, T., Averdijk, M., Zuffianò, A., Ribeaud, D., Pritchard, M., Wilson, G. J., & Yamnitz, B. (2007).
Betts, L. R., Rotenberg, K. J., & Eisner, M. What predicts adjustment among college
(2016). Children’s trust and the development of students? A longitudinal panel study. Journal of
prosocial behavior. International Journal of American College Health, 56(1), 15–22. https
Behavioral Development, 40(3), 262–270. ://doi.org/10.3200/jach.56.1.15-22
https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025415584628
Richardson, G. E. (2002). The meta theory of
Marques, S., Lopez, S. J., & Pais-Ribeiro, J. L. (2011). resilience and resiliency. Journal of Clinical
“Building hope for the future”: A program to Psychology, 58(3), 307–321. https://doi. org/10
foster strengths in middle-school students. .1002/jclp.10020
Journal of Happiness Studies, 12, 139–152.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9180-3 Roeser, R. W., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. J. (1998).
Academic and emotional functioning in early
Masten, A. S., & Reed, M.G. J. (2002). Resilience in adolescence: Longitudinal relations, patterns, and
development. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez prediction by experience in middle school.
(Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. D e v e l o p m e n t a n d P s y c h o p a t h o l o g y, 1 0 ( 2 ) ,
74–88). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford 321–352. https://doi.org/10. 1017 /s0 9545
University Press. 79498001631

Noble, T., & McGrath, H. (2008). The positive Roeser, R. W., Eccles, J. S., & Strobel, K. R. (1998).
educational practices framework: A tool for Linking the study of schooling and mental health:
facilitating the work of educational psychologists Selected issues and empirical illustrations at the
in promoting pupil well-being. Educational & level of the individual. Educational Psychologist,
C h i l d P s y c h o l o g y, 2 5 ( 2 ) , 1 1 9 – 1 3 4 . 33(4), 153–176. https://doi.org/10. 1207/s
15326985ep3304_2
O’Donnell, E., Moreau, M., Cardemil, E. V., &
Pollastri, A. R. (2010). Interparental conflict, Rotenberg, K.J., Addis, N., Betts, L.R., Fox, C.,
parenting, and childhood depression in a diverse Hobson, Z., Rennison, S., Trueman, M. &
urban population: The role of general cognitive Boulton, M.J. (2010). The relation between trust
style. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(1), beliefs and loneliness during early childhood,
12–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008- middle childhood and adulthood. Personality and
9357-9 Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(8), 1086–1100.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210374957
Ordóñez, A., Maganto, C., & Gonzalez, R. G.
(2015). Quejas somáticas, conciencia emocional Rotenberg, K. J., Boulton, M. E., & Fox, C. L.
e inadaptación en población escolar. Anales De (2005). Cross-sectional and longitudinal relations
Pediatria, 82(5), 308–315. https://doi .org/ 10. among children’s trust beliefs, psychological
1016/j.anpedi.2014.03.020 maladjustment and social relationships: Are very
high as well as very low trusting children at risk?
Page 98 Shanta Kumari & Dr. Smita Gupta

Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(5), Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E.
595–610. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005 M. (2006). Impact of hostility and withdrawal in
-6740-9 interparental conflict on parental emotional
unavailability and children’s adjustment
Rotenberg, K. J., Qualter, P., Holt, N., Harris, R., difficulties. Child Development, 77(6), 1623–164
Henzi, S. P., & Barrett, L. (2014). When trust 1. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.20 06.0
fails: The relation between children’s trust beliefs 0963.x
in peers and their peer interactions in a natural
setting. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, Vranda, M. N. (2015). Promotion of mental health
42(6), 967–980. https://doi.org/10.1007 and well-being of adolescents in schools: A
/s10802-013-9835-8 NIMHANS model. Journal of Psychiatry, 18(5),
2-5.
Rutter, M., Yule, B., Quinton, D., Rowlands, O.,
Yule, W., & Berger, M. F. (1975). Attainment and
adjustment in two geographical areas: III. Some
factors accounting for areadifferences. British
J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y, 1 2 6 ( 6 ) , 5 2 0 – 5 3 3 .
h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 1 9 2 / b j p. 1 2 6 . 6 . 5 2 0

Sadri, G., & Robertson, I. T. (1993). Self-efficacy and

work-related behaviour: A review and meta
-analysis. Applied Psychology: An International
Review, 42(2), 139–152. https://doi.org /10.1
111/j.1464-0597.1993.tb00728.x

Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). Learned optimism. New

York: Pocket Books.

Shelton, K. H., & Harold, G. T. (2008). Interparental

conflict, negative parenting, and children's
adjustment: Bridging links between parents’
depression and children's psychological distress.
Journal of Family Psychology, 22(5), 712–724.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013515

Snyder, C. R. (1994). The psychology of hope: You

can get there from here. New York: Free Press.

Snyder, C. R. (2000). Handbook of hope. San Diego:

Academic Press.

Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1998). Social

cognitive theory and self-efficacy: Going beyond
t r a d i t i o n a l m o t iva t i o n a l a n d b e h av i o r a l
approaches. Organizational Dynamics, 26(4),
62–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-2616(98)
90006-7