World history topic 8: Independence movements (1800–2000)

This theme focuses on the emergence of new states in the 19th and 20th centuries. It explores the origins
and rise of independence movements, the reasons for their success, the challenges new states faced in
their first 10 years, and their responses. Some examination questions will require students to refer to two
movements, each chosen from a different region. For students to be able to make meaningful
comparisons across all aspects of the prescribed content, it is recommended that a minimum of three
independence movements should be studied. Please note that the focus of this topic is specifically on
movements seeking independence from a foreign power, so topics such as solidarity in Poland would not
be an appropriate example.

Suggested examples:

Please note that the examples provided here are suggestions only. Teachers are free to use examples
from this list or any other appropriate examples, depending on the particular needs and interests of the
teacher and students.

Africa and the Middle East: Ben Bella and Algeria; Nkrumah and Ghana; Kenyatta and Kenya; Mugabe
and Rhodesia/Zimbabwe
The Americas: José Martí and Cuba; San Martín and the former Viceroyalty of the River Plate; Bolivar
and Gran Columbia; Dessalines and Haiti

Asia and Oceania: Nehru, Gandhi and India; Jinnah and Pakistan; Somare and Papua New Guinea; Ho
Chi Minh and Vietnam

Europe: Kolokotronis and Greece; Kossuth and the establishment of dual monarchy in Hungary (1867);
Collins, de Valera and Ireland.

World History topic 12: The Cold War: Superpower Tensions and
Rivalries (20th Century)

The Cold War dominated global affairs from the end of the Second World War to the early 1990s. This
topic focuses on how superpower rivalries did not remain static but changed according to leadership
styles, the strength of ideological beliefs, economic factors and crises involving client states. The topic
aims to promote an international perspective on the Cold War by requiring the study of Cold War leaders,
countries and crises from more than one region of the world.

Suggested examples:
Please note that the examples provided here are suggestions only. Teachers are free to use examples
from this list or any other appropriate examples, depending on the particular needs and interests of the
teacher and students.

Examples of leaders:

Truman, Stalin, Khrushchev, Nixon, Mao, Castro, Brezhnev, Reagan, Gorbachev, Nasser, Brandt

Examples of Cold War crises:

Africa and the Middle East: Suez Crisis (1956); Congo (1960–1961); outbreak of Angolan Civil War
(1975)

The Americas: Cuban Missile Crisis (1962); US intervention in Chile (1973); Contra War (1981–1990)
Asia and Oceania: Chinese Offshore Island Crises (1954/1958); North Korean invasion of South

Korea (1950); Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979)

Europe: Berlin blockade (1948–1949), Berlin Wall (1958–1961); Hungary (1956); the Prague Spring
(1968); the USSR and Eastern Europe (1981–1989).

Prescribed subject 4: Rights and protest

This prescribed subject focuses on struggles for rights and freedoms in the mid-20th century. Two case
studies are prescribed, from two different regions of the world, and both of these case studies must be
studied. The first case study explores the civil rights movement in the US between 1954 and the passing
of the Voting Rights Act in 1965. The second case study explores protests against apartheid in South
Africa. It focuses specifically on the years 1948–1964, beginning with the election of the National Party in
1948 and ending with the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela and his co-defendants following the Rivonia
trial in 1964
Pre-20th Century Civil Rights Movement
Slavery and Abolition (1619–1865)

● 1619: The first African slaves were brought to the American colonies, marking the
beginning of institutionalised slavery in what would become the United States.
● Abolition Movement: A movement to end slavery that gained momentum in the early
19th century.
○ Key Figures:
■ Frederick Douglass: An escaped slave who became a prominent
activist, author, and public speaker.
■ Harriet Tubman: Former slave who became a "conductor" on the
Underground Railroad, leading many slaves to freedom.
■ Sojourner Truth: Former slave who became an outspoken advocate for
abolition, women's rights, and civil rights.
■ William Lloyd Garrison: Abolitionist who published the anti-slavery
newspaper "The Liberator."
○ Notable Events:
■ Underground Railroad: A network of secret routes and safe houses
used by enslaved people to escape to free states and Canada.
■ "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852): A novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe that
depicted the harsh realities of slavery and galvanised anti-slavery
sentiment in the North.

Civil War and Emancipation (1861–1865)

● Civil War (1861–1865): Fought primarily over the issue of slavery between the Northern
states (Union) and the Southern states (Confederacy).
○ Key Battles: Battle of Fort Sumter, Battle of Gettysburg, Battle of Antietam.
○ Geographical Context:
■ The Northern states, with an industrial economy, were largely anti-
slavery.
■ The Southern states, with an agrarian economy dependent on slave
labour, seceded from the Union to form the Confederacy.
● Emancipation Proclamation (1863): Issued by President Abraham Lincoln, declaring
all slaves in Confederate states to be free.
● 13th Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery in the United States.

Reconstruction Era (1865–1877)

● 14th Amendment (1868): Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalised in the
United States, including former slaves, and guaranteed equal protection under the laws.
● 15th Amendment (1870): Prohibited denying the right to vote based on race, colour, or
previous condition of servitude.
● Black Codes and Jim Crow Laws: Southern states enacted laws to enforce racial
segregation and disenfranchise African Americans, undermining Reconstruction efforts.

White Supremacist Organizations

Ku Klux Klan (KKK)

● Formation (1865): Founded in Pulaski, Tennessee, by six Confederate veterans,

including Nathan Bedford Forrest.
 ○ First Klan (1865–1871): Aimed to restore white supremacy by using terror and
violence against African Americans and their allies. It targeted black schools,
churches, and homes.
○ Activities: Lynching, arson, beatings, and intimidation to prevent African
Americans from exercising their civil rights.
○ Decline: Suppressed by the federal government through the Enforcement Acts
(1870–1871), which aimed to protect African Americans' voting rights and curb
Klan violence.
● Second Klan (1915–1944): Revived in 1915 by William J. Simmons, inspired by the film
"The Birth of a Nation."
○ Broader Focus: Expanded targets to include Jews, Catholics, immigrants, and
other minority groups.
○ Peak Influence: In the 1920s, the Klan had millions of members and significant
political influence in various states.
○ Decline: Membership dwindled due to internal scandals, financial troubles, and
effective opposition from civil rights organizations.

White League

● Formation (1874): Founded in Louisiana by white Democrats to maintain white

supremacy and Democratic control during Reconstruction.
○ Objectives: Use violence and intimidation to suppress black voting and
overthrow Reconstruction governments.
○ Notable Actions:
■ Coushatta Massacre (1874): The White League assassinated six
Republican officials in Red River Parish, Louisiana.
■ Battle of Liberty Place (1874): An armed insurrection in New Orleans
where the White League temporarily overthrew the Republican state
government before federal troops restored order.
● Decline: Like the Klan, the White League's activities were curbed by federal intervention,
but they laid the groundwork for the later establishment of Jim Crow laws.

Early 20th Century Civil Rights Movement

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and Early Efforts
(1909–1940s)

● NAACP (1909): Founded by W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, and others to fight for civil
rights through litigation, education, and lobbying.
○ W.E.B. Du Bois: Co-founder of the NAACP and a prominent intellectual,
sociologist, and writer.
○ Ida B. Wells: Journalist and activist who led an anti-lynching crusade in the
United States.
● Great Migration (1916–1970): Mass movement of African Americans from the rural
South to the urban North, seeking better economic opportunities and escaping racial
violence.
● Harlem Renaissance (the 1920s): Cultural movement celebrating African American
culture and achievements, centred in the Harlem neighbourhood of New York City.
Civil Rights Movement (1954–1965)
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

● Supreme Court Decision (May 17, 1954): Declared state laws establishing separate
public schools for black and white students unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v.
Ferguson (1896).
○ Chief Justice Earl Warren: Wrote the unanimous opinion stating that "separate
educational facilities are inherently unequal."
● Significance: Marked the beginning of the modern civil rights movement, inspiring
further actions against segregation and discrimination.

Re-inforcing segregation laws in the Southern United States (1955–1970)

The Gray Commission: formally known as the "Virginia Committee on Public Education," was
established in response to the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education decision, which
mandated the desegregation of public schools. Named after its chairman, Virginia State Senator
Garland Gray, the commission played a significant role in shaping Virginia's approach to
resisting school integration. Here are the key points about the Gray Commission:

● Formation and Purpose: The Gray Commission was created in 1954 by the Virginia
General Assembly to develop a strategy for the state in response to the Brown decision.
Its primary purpose was to find ways to maintain segregated schools while appearing to
comply with the Supreme Court's ruling.
● Report and Recommendations: In November 1955, the Gray Commission issued its
report, which included several recommendations aimed at preserving segregation:
○ Pupil Placement: It recommended the creation of a Pupil Placement Board,
which would have the authority to assign students to schools. This was intended
to maintain segregation by using non-racial criteria to place students, thereby
circumventing direct desegregation.
○ Local Option: The Commission suggested allowing localities to decide whether
to desegregate their schools. This "local option" approach was designed to slow
the process of integration and maintain segregation where local officials were
opposed to desegregation.
○ Private School Tuition Grants: It proposed the establishment of state-funded
tuition grants for parents who chose to send their children to private, segregated
schools. This would enable white families to avoid integrated public schools.

● Massive Resistance: was a campaign initiated in the 1950s in the Southern United
States to resist the desegregation of public schools following the Supreme Court's
decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which declared state laws
establishing separate public schools for Black and white students to be unconstitutional.
● Origins: The term "Massive Resistance" was coined by Virginia Senator Harry F. Byrd,
Sr. in 1956. Byrd and other Southern politicians vehemently opposed the Brown v. Board
of Education ruling and sought to prevent its implementation by any means necessary.
● State-Level Legislation: Several Southern states passed laws and amendments to
prevent desegregation. These included pupil placement laws (which gave local officials
discretion over school assignments), tuition grant programs (to support private
 segregation academies), and laws that allowed the closure of public schools facing
desegregation orders.

● The Southern Manifesto was a document written in 1956 by a group of Southern

congressmen and senators in the United States Congress. It was a formal declaration of
opposition to the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954),
which ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. Here are the
key aspects of the Southern Manifesto:

Context and Purpose: The Southern Manifesto was crafted in response to the Brown
decision, which mandated the desegregation of public schools. Many Southern
politicians were outraged by this ruling and sought to express their disapproval and
encourage resistance to its implementation.

The concept of interposition refers to the idea that states have the right to interpose
themselves between the federal government and their citizens to stop federal actions they deem
unconstitutional. In the context of the Brown v. Board of Education decision, several Southern
states enacted resolutions to denounce the Supreme Court's ruling as an illegal encroachment
on state laws and declared it null and void. Specifically, the following eight states took such
actions:

● Alabama
● Arkansas
● Florida
● Georgia
● Louisiana
● Mississippi
● South Carolina
● Virginia

They enacted an interposition to denounce the Brown v. Board of Education decision, as an

illegal encroachment of state laws, and declared it null and void.

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956)

● Rosa Parks (December 1, 1955): Arrested for refusing to give up her bus seat to a
white person in Montgomery, Alabama.
● Boycott: Led by Martin Luther King Jr., lasted for over a year, resulting in the Supreme
Court ruling that segregation on public buses was unconstitutional (Browder v. Gayle,
1956).

Little Rock Nine (1957)

● Integration of Central High School: Nine African American students (enrolled by

NAACP) enrolled in the previously all-white school in Little Rock, Arkansas. They were
met with violent mobs and were prevented from entering by the Arkansas National
Guard, which had been ordered to block their entry by Governor Orval Faubus.
 ○ Federal Intervention: President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent federal troops to
enforce integration and protect the students from violent mobs. On September
24, 1957, he issued Executive Order 10730, which federalized the Arkansas
National Guard and sent the 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock to enforce the
students' entry into the school and maintain order.

Sit-ins and Freedom Rides (1960–1961)

● Sit-ins: Nonviolent protests at segregated lunch counters, starting with the Greensboro
sit-in at a Woolworth's store in North Carolina (February 1, 1960).
● Freedom Rides: Organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and the Student
Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), interracial groups rode interstate buses
into the segregated South to challenge the non-enforcement of Supreme Court rulings
banning segregation in interstate travel.

The Greensboro Sit-in

1. The Beginning: On February 1, 1960, four African American students from North
Carolina A&T State University—Ezell Blair Jr. (now Jibreel Khazan), David Richmond,
Franklin McCain, and Joseph McNeil—sat at the "whites-only" lunch counter at
Woolworth's in Greensboro, North Carolina. They politely asked for service, were
denied, but remained seated until the store closed.
2. Rapid Spread: The courage of the Greensboro Four inspired similar sit-ins across the
country. Within days, the movement spread to other cities in North Carolina and then to
other states. Thousands of students participated, demonstrating the power of collective
action.
3. National Impact: The Greensboro sit-in received widespread media coverage, drawing
attention to the Civil Rights Movement. It energized other activists and led to the
formation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), which played a
crucial role in organizing future protests and voter registration drives.
4. Economic Pressure: The sit-ins applied economic pressure on businesses that
enforced segregation. Many establishments eventually desegregated their facilities due
to declining sales and public pressure.
5. Legacy: The success of the Greensboro sit-in was a turning point in the Civil Rights
Movement. It not only challenged the status quo but also demonstrated the effectiveness
of peaceful protest and the potential for young people to drive social change.

The Freedom Riders (1961)

The Freedom Riders were civil rights activists who, in 1961, rode interstate buses into the
segregated Southern United States to challenge the non-enforcement of Supreme Court
decisions that ruled segregated public buses unconstitutional. These activists, both Black and
white, aimed to test the Supreme Court's ruling in Boynton v. Virginia (1960), which declared
segregation in interstate bus and rail stations unconstitutional.

1. Formation and Objectives:

○ Organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and later joined by the
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).
○ Intended to desegregate public transportation and facilities in the South, ensuring
compliance with federal laws.
2. Initial Ride:
 ○The first Freedom Ride left Washington, D.C., on May 4, 1961, with 13 riders
(seven Black and six white). The group planned to travel through Virginia, the
Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, ending in New Orleans, Louisiana.
3. Violence and Resistance:
○ Riders faced severe violence and resistance, particularly in Alabama. In
Anniston, one bus was firebombed, and riders were attacked by a mob. In
Birmingham and Montgomery, riders were brutally beaten.
○ Law enforcement often either ignored or was complicit in the violence against the
riders.
4. Federal Intervention:
○ The violence against the Freedom Riders drew national attention and forced the
federal government to act. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy sent federal
marshals to protect the riders and urged the Interstate Commerce Commission to
enforce stricter regulations against segregation.
5. Impact and Legacy:
○ The Freedom Rides successfully drew international attention to the civil rights
movement and the severe racism in the United States.
○ Their efforts led to the desegregation of interstate travel facilities.
○ The bravery and resilience of the Freedom Riders inspired future civil rights
actions and contributed to the passage of civil rights legislation.

Key Figures:

● James Farmer: One of the founders of CORE and an organizer of the Freedom Rides.
● John Lewis: A prominent civil rights leader and SNCC member who participated in the
Freedom Rides.
● Diane Nash: A leader in the Nashville Student Movement and later involved in
coordinating the Freedom Rides.

The Albany Movement (1961)

The Albany Movement, which began in 1961 in Albany, Georgia, was a significant civil rights
campaign focused on ending segregation and gaining voting rights for African Americans. It was
a collaborative effort involving local activists, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
(SNCC), and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), with notable leadership
from figures like Martin Luther King Jr. and Ralph Abernathy.

Key Events and Strategies:

1. Initiation and Goals:

○ The movement began in November 1961, led by the local community and
students from Albany State College. The primary goals were to desegregate
public facilities and ensure voting rights for African Americans.
○ The movement aimed to challenge segregation laws and practices in Albany
through nonviolent protests, sit-ins, and marches.
2. Involvement of Martin Luther King Jr.:
○ Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC were invited to join the movement to bring
national attention and support. King’s involvement highlighted the significance of
the movement and aimed to bolster its impact.
3. Police Chief Laurie Pritchett’s Strategy:
 ○ Police Chief Laurie Pritchett employed a strategy of nonviolent mass arrests to
control the protests without creating violent confrontations that would draw
negative media attention.
○ Pritchett studied previous civil rights campaigns and deliberately avoided the use
of excessive force, thus preventing the kind of media coverage that had spurred
national outrage and federal intervention in other cities.
4. Mass Arrests and Legal Tactics:
○ Thousands of protesters, including King and Abernathy, were arrested. The jails
in Albany and surrounding areas were filled, creating a logistical challenge for the
movement.
○ Local authorities used legal manoeuvres such as injunctions to prevent further
demonstrations, aiming to legally stymie the movement’s activities.

Challenges and Outcomes:

1. Internal Disagreements:
○ Internal conflicts within the movement regarding strategy and objectives existed.
Different factions had varying priorities, which led to a lack of cohesion and
diluted the movement’s effectiveness.
2. Lack of National Attention:
○ The strategy of nonviolent mass arrests and avoidance of violent confrontations
by local authorities resulted in less dramatic media coverage. This limited the
movement’s ability to garner widespread national support and pressure.
3. Impact on the Civil Rights Movement:
○ Despite these challenges, the Albany Movement was crucial in providing lessons
for future civil rights campaigns. The experiences gained in Albany influenced the
strategies used in later successful campaigns, such as the Birmingham
Campaign in 1963.
○ King and other leaders learned the importance of focusing on specific,
achievable goals and the power of dramatic, nonviolent confrontation to attract
national attention and support.

Cultural and Social Impact:

1. Role of Music:
○ Songs played a vital role in the movement, with spirituals and protest songs like
"We Shall Overcome," "This Little Light of Mine," and "Ain't Gonna Let Nobody
Turn Me Around" being sung during marches and rallies. These songs helped to
unify, motivate, and uplift the spirits of the participants.
2. Community Involvement:
○ The Albany Movement saw extensive participation from the local African
American community, including students, clergy, and ordinary citizens. The
widespread involvement highlighted the deep desire for change and the
collective effort to challenge systemic racism.

Birmingham Campaign (1963)

The Birmingham Campaign was a significant civil rights movement led by the Southern
Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Alabama Christian Movement for Human
Rights (ACMHR) in Birmingham, Alabama, during the spring of 1963. It aimed to bring national
attention to the brutal, systemic racism in one of America's most segregated cities.

● Protests and Boycotts: Organized by the Southern Christian Leadership Conference

(SCLC) to desegregate Birmingham, Alabama.
○ Children's Crusade (May 1963): Involved thousands of African American
children, many of whom were arrested, drawing national attention to the brutality
of segregation.
○ Impact: Media coverage of violent responses to peaceful protests increased
national support for civil rights.

Key Events and Strategies:

1. Initiation and Goals:

○ The campaign was initiated to challenge Birmingham's rigid segregation and
discriminatory practices in public places, employment, and schools.
○ Birmingham was chosen due to its notoriety as a deeply segregated city with a
history of racial violence and a strong opposition to desegregation, symbolized by
Public Safety Commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor.
2. Leadership:
○ Led by Martin Luther King Jr., Ralph Abernathy, and local leader Fred
Shuttlesworth, the campaign aimed to use nonviolent direct action to provoke a
crisis that would force the federal government to intervene and enforce civil rights
laws.
3. Nonviolent Direct Action:
○ The campaign began on April 3, 1963, with sit-ins, economic boycotts, and
marches to pressure businesses and the local government to desegregate.
○ Protesters were trained in nonviolent resistance, a strategy that aimed to
highlight the injustice of segregation through peaceful disobedience.
4. "Project C" (Confrontation):
○ The campaign escalated with "Project C," which involved planned mass arrests
to fill the jails and draw attention to the civil rights cause.
○ Despite facing arrests, intimidation, and violence, protesters maintained their
nonviolent stance.

Notable Events:

1. Good Friday Arrest:

○ On April 12, 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. and Ralph Abernathy were arrested for
violating a court injunction against protesting. During his time in jail, King wrote
the seminal "Letter from Birmingham Jail," defending the strategy of nonviolent
resistance and the urgency of the civil rights movement.
2. Children's Crusade:
○ In early May, the campaign saw the involvement of thousands of children and
teenagers in the protests, known as the Children's Crusade.
○ On May 2, hundreds of students left school to march downtown, facing arrests.
The next day, Bull Connor ordered police to use high-pressure fire hoses and
police dogs against the young protesters, resulting in shocking images that were
broadcast nationwide.
3. Media Impact:
 ○ The brutal response to the Children's Crusade was widely covered by national
media, causing outrage and garnering support for the civil rights movement from
across the country.
○ The images of children being attacked by dogs and water hoses became iconic
symbols of the struggle for civil rights.

Outcomes and Impact:

1. Negotiations and Agreements:

○ The intense pressure and negative publicity eventually led to negotiations
between civil rights leaders and Birmingham's business leaders.
○ On May 10, 1963, an agreement was reached to desegregate public facilities,
remove discriminatory hiring practices, release jailed protesters, and establish a
biracial committee to address further racial issues.
2. Federal Government's Response:
○ The violence and resistance faced in Birmingham caught the attention of
President John F. Kennedy, who began drafting comprehensive civil rights
legislation.
○ The Birmingham Campaign was instrumental in leading to the Civil Rights Act of
1964, which outlawed segregation in public places and banned employment
discrimination.
3. Broader Civil Rights Movement:
○ The success of the Birmingham Campaign demonstrated the power of nonviolent
direct action and the effectiveness of involving media to highlight injustices.
○ It inspired other civil rights actions and campaigns across the South and solidified
Martin Luther King Jr.'s leadership in the movement.

March on Washington (1963)

● "I Have a Dream" Speech (August 28, 1963): Delivered by Martin Luther King Jr.
during the march, calling for an end to racism and civil and economic rights.
● Significance: Helped to build momentum for civil rights legislation, demonstrating
widespread support for the movement.

Civil Rights Act (1964)

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a landmark law in the United States that outlawed
segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination based on race, color,
religion, sex, or national origin. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed it into law, marking a major
victory for the Civil Rights Movement and addressing decades of racial inequality and
discrimination.

Key Provisions:
● Title I: Prohibited unequal voting requirements, laying the groundwork for the Voting
Rights Act of 1965.
 ● Title II: Ended segregation in public accommodations like hotels, restaurants, and
theatres.
● Title III & IV: Empowered the federal government to enforce desegregation in public
facilities and schools.
● Title VI: Banned discrimination in federally funded programs.
● Title VII: Outlawed employment discrimination and established the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC).

Impact:
The Act ended legal segregation in public places, promoted equal employment opportunities,
and paved the way for future civil rights legislation. Despite facing significant opposition,
especially from Southern legislators, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 remains a cornerstone of
American civil rights law, reshaping the nation's social and legal landscape.

● Legislation (July 2, 1964): Prohibited discrimination based on race, colour, religion,

sex, or national origin in employment and public accommodations.
○ Key Provisions: Title II (public accommodations), Title VII (employment
discrimination), and Title VI (federally funded programs).
● Significance: Major legislative victory for the civil rights movement, enforcing
desegregation and equal rights.

Selma to Montgomery Marches (1965)

● Bloody Sunday (March 7, 1965): Peaceful marchers were violently attacked by law
enforcement at the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama.
○ Impact: Led to national outrage and increased support for voting rights
legislation.
○ Subsequent Marches: Two more marches were held, culminating in a
successful march from Selma to Montgomery under federal protection.

Voting Rights Act (1965)

● Legislation (August 6, 1965): Prohibited racial discrimination in voting, banning literacy

tests and other discriminatory practices.
○ Key Provisions: Section 5 required preclearance for changes to voting laws in
certain jurisdictions with a history of discrimination.
● Significance: Ensured greater voter participation and representation for African
Americans, marking a significant milestone in the fight for civil rights.

Post-1965 Developments
● Continued Struggle: The civil rights movement continued to address economic
inequality, police brutality, and other forms of systemic racism.
● Black Power Movement: Emerged in the late 1960s, emphasizing racial pride,
economic empowerment, and self-defence.
○ Key Figures: Stokely Carmichael, Malcolm X, the Black Panther Party.
American History and Geography During the Civil War
● Northern States (Union): The industrial economy, more urbanized, opposed the
expansion of slavery into new territories and states.
● Southern States (Confederacy): The agrarian economy was heavily dependent on
slave labour for the production of cotton, tobacco, and other cash crops.
● Geographical Divide: The Mason-Dixon Line symbolized the boundary between free
(Northern) and slave (Southern) states.
● Economic Differences: The North's industrial economy and the South's reliance on
agriculture and slavery created deep economic and social divides.

Homework:

Since “Plessy vs Ferguson” practically denied that segregation discriminated against black
people, it seemed as the the judicial system still did not seem as though they truly understood
the inherent harm and inequality still present. They stated that the segregation was “in nature of
things”, which reinforced this notion that the societal judgement was understandable, and more
importantly (or worse), justifiable.

According to Source A, the main goals of Jim Crow laws were to control and discipline free
African Americans, whom white Southerners deemed incapable of self-regulation without
constraints. These laws aimed to prevent perceived threats of violence and maintain strict racial
separation and white supremacy.

They enforced segregation in schools, public facilities, and social interactions, using laws, jails,
and the constant threat of severe punishment to uphold these measures. Jim Crow laws were
justified as part of the "natural order" and the "Southern way of life," ensuring that African
Americans remained powerless and subordinated within society.

Martin Luther King Jr. was undeniably a central figure in the Civil Rights Movement. Still, it is
important to recognize that he was not the only force driving the movement forward. As all four
sources in this paper emphasize, King's contributions were significant, yet the efforts of many
other individuals and groups also shaped the movement.

Sources A and D highlight King's powerful speeches, particularly the iconic "I Have a Dream"
speech delivered during the March on Washington. These speeches garnered widespread
attention and served as a rallying cry for those involved in the movement. King's ability to inspire
through his words played a crucial role in mobilizing supporters and drawing national and
international attention to the struggle for civil rights.
Moreover, King's advocacy for non-violent protest was instrumental in maintaining the moral
high ground for the movement. This approach, as Source A notes, attracted support from
various segments of society, including "liberal whites," which facilitated the formation of a broad
coalition of different groups working together for a common cause. One notable example of non-
violent protest that gained substantial publicity was the Birmingham campaign, referenced in
Source C. The brutal response of Bull Connor and his police force to peaceful protesters
shocked the world and further underscored the moral legitimacy of the civil rights cause. King's
arrest during this campaign led to his writing of the "Letter from Birmingham Jail," a seminal
document that continues to inspire activists and reinforce the importance of non-violent
resistance.

Source A argues that King's strategy of non-violent protest provided the Civil Rights Movement
with a viable and effective means of achieving its goals. While the NAACP had made significant
legal strides, such as the landmark victory in overturning school segregation, it was the direct
action championed by King and others that generated the public attention necessary to sustain
the movement and push for further progress.

However, as Source D points out, it would be overly simplistic to credit King alone as the driving
force behind the movement. Many courageous individuals also played pivotal roles in advancing
the cause. For instance, Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus sparked
the Montgomery Bus Boycott, a critical moment in the movement's history. Additionally, as the
1960s progressed, some within the Black community grew frustrated with the pace of change.
They felt that non-violent tactics, while effective in some respects, were not addressing the
deep-seated issues of housing, employment, and ongoing discrimination. Leaders like Malcolm
X and groups such as the Black Panthers voiced these concerns and advocated for a more
militant approach to achieving civil rights.

In conclusion, while Martin Luther King Jr. was undoubtedly a key driving force in the Civil
Rights Movement, his efforts were part of a broader, more complex struggle. The achievements
of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 are testament to his impact, but
they also reflect the contributions of numerous other individuals and groups who played
essential roles in the fight for equality. For some, King's philosophy of non-violent protest was
seen as a hindrance to progress, illustrating the diversity of thought and strategy within the
movement.

To what extent did the external factors rather than the internal factors contribute to the growth of
the independent movements: