See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/325357175

Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based Learning

Book · January 2018

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5

CITATIONS READS

28 2,034

1 author:

Dawn Morley
Bournemouth University
32 PUBLICATIONS 220 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Dawn Morley on 13 April 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Enhancing
Employability in Higher
Education through
Work Based Learning

Edited by Dawn A. Morley

Enhancing Employability in Higher Education
through Work Based Learning

[email protected]
 Dawn A. Morley
Editor

Enhancing
Employability in
Higher Education
through Work Based
Learning

[email protected]
Editor
Dawn A. Morley
Department of Higher Education
University of Surrey
Guildford, UK

ISBN 978-3-319-75165-8    ISBN 978-3-319-75166-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018938661

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and trans-
mission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover image © Tatiana Badaeva / Alamy

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer International
Publishing AG part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

[email protected]
 Preface

‘Enhancing employability in higher education through work based learn-

ing’ is written at a time when there is increased focus on integrating real
life work experience into degree courses. This repositioning of work based
learning has been accelerated by debate on the learning gain of students’
university experience through to employment. This book responds to this
refocus by presenting innovative initiatives within higher education cur-
riculum where work based learning is seen as a wide and transformative
pedagogy for students.
The book is intended to inspire and guide all university staff who are
instrumental in the integration of work and learning as part of students’
university experience.
For ease of accessibility the book is divided into sections: setting up
university infrastructures to support students in work based learning,
teaching at university to prepare students for work based learning, uni-
versity strategies to optimise students’ learning while in the work based
learning setting, supporting and supervising work based learning, using
the university experience for work based learning for future employabil-
ity and promoting students’ work based learning for international col-
laboration and employment.

[email protected]
vi Preface

Each section contains chapters that are drawn from a variety of disci-
plines and universities from across the UK. The chapters showcase unique
projects which detail the pedagogy and evaluation of their approach.

Guildford, UK Dawn A. Morley

[email protected]
 Contents

1 Introduction   1
Dawn A. Morley

Part I Setting Up University Infrastructures to Support

Students in Work Based Learning   11

2 Effective Management of the Tripartite Relationship

of Educational Providers, Participants and Employers
in Work Based Learning  13
L. Rowe, D. Moss, and N. Moore

3 Personalising Work Based Learning for a Mass and Diverse

Market  33
J. Peach and M. Mansfield

4 Managing Degree Apprenticeships Through a Work Based

Learning Framework: Opportunities and Challenges  51
L. Rowe

vii

[email protected]
viii Contents

Part II Teaching at University to Prepare Students for Work

Based Learning   71

5 Use of Simulation as a Tool for Assessment

and for Preparing Students for the Realities
and Complexities of the Workplace  73
M. Hughes and A. Warren

6 Utilising Interprofessional Learning to Engender

Employability  91
M. Coward and A. Rhodes

Part III University Strategies to Optimise Students’ Learning

While in the Work Based Learning Setting 111

7 Embedding Work Based Learning Opportunities into

an Undergraduate Curriculum Through Participation
in a Touring Dance Company 113
C. Childs

8 Student Experience of Real-Time Management of Peer

Working Groups During Field Trips 133
Dawn A. Morley, A. Diaz, D. Blake, G. Burger, T. Dando, S.
Gibbon, and K. Rickard

Part IV Supporting and Supervising Work Based Learning 151

9 Building Students’ Emotional Resilience Through

Placement Coaching and Mentoring 153
S. Eccles and V. Renaud

[email protected]
 Contents
   ix

10 The ‘Ebb and Flow’ of Student Learning on Placement 173

Dawn A. Morley

Part V Using the University Experience for Work Based

Learning for Future Employability 191

11 The Role of the Student Ambassador and Its Contribution

to Developing Employability Skills: A Creation
of Outward Facing Work Roles 193
H. Baker and K. Sela

12 Enhancing Psychology Students’ Employability Through

‘Practice to Theory’ Learning Following a Professional
Training Year 213
N. Winstone and R. Avery

Part VI Promoting Students’ Work Based Learning for

International Collaboration and Employment 235

13 Exploring the Power of High-Level Postgraduate

International Partnership Work Based Learning
Programmes 237
P. Weston, D. Perrin, and D. Meakin

14 Developing Global Citizenship: Co-creating

Employability Attributes in an International Community
of Practice 255
N. Radclyffe-Thomas, A. Peirson-Smith, A. Roncha, A.
Lacouture, and A. Huang

Index 277

[email protected]
 Notes on Contributors

Rachel Avery is a chartered research psychologist and Head of Psychology at

Caterham School—a leading independent, co-educational school. Rachel’s PhD
thesis explored the strategic use of attentional resources during learning which
has fueled continued research and practice in applied problem solving in
education.
Hollie Baker is an Outreach Manager in the Widening Participation and
Outreach Department at the University of Surrey and a Fellow of the Higher
Education Academy. As a Widening Participation practitioner, she is interested
in the role of work based learning to support the progression of students from
disadvantaged backgrounds.
Deborah Blake is a former student at Bournemouth University. She is
employed by Footprint Ecology and works on projects including monitoring the
Bird Aware Solent Initiative, obtaining data on recreational use at Ashdown
Forest and researching potential disturbance to the Severn Estuary SPA. She is
working towards obtaining Protected Species licences.
Grace Burger is a former student at Bournemouth University and master’s stu-
dent at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew; studying plant and fungal conserva-
tion. Grace is currently researching the biodiversity benefits of silvopastoral
farming in Peru and hopes to help bridge the gap between conservation and
agriculture in the future.

xi

[email protected]
xii Notes on Contributors

Cathy Childs is a Principal Lecturer in Dance at the University of Chichester

specialising in dance performance and pedagogy. Recent research includes Figure
and Rhythm (2015) a collaborative project with Pallant House Gallery and the
HEA funded (2016) pedagogic research, Dance Map—The Employability
Journey.
Melaine Coward is Head of the School of Health Sciences at the University of
Surrey. Her doctorate explored the methods by which reflection is taught to
undergraduate nursing students across the UK. This work has informed the cur-
ricula within her own School whilst also influencing work at a national level
with the NMC.
Thomas Dando is a former student at Bournemouth University currently
researching the role of herbivores in rewilding at the University of Sussex.
Thomas has previously conducted research on African wild dogs in South Africa
and worked with the IUCN’s small mammal specialist group, primarily focused
on African small mammal species.
Anita Diaz is an Associate Professor in Conservation Ecology at Bournemouth
University. She has a passion for engaging students in co-creating new
research knowledge that informs wildlife conservation. She founded SERTs
(http://www.cocreate4science.org/serts/) to inspire opportunities for authentic
partnership between students and staff in a range of subject areas.
Sue Eccles is Acting Deputy Head of the Centre for Excellence in Learning at
Bournemouth University. Her research is focused around the experiences of stu-
dents as they transition into, through and out of HE and how providing and
receiving coaching and mentoring impacts on students’ personal and profes-
sional development.
Suzanne Gibbon is a former student at Bournemouth University currently
returning to England after 18 months of work and travel in New Zealand,
Australia and S.E. Asia. On return she hopes to find work in conservation with
a key interest in human wildlife conflict and community engagement.
Adrian Huang is a lecturer on the BA Fashion Media & Industries and
Diploma in Fashion programmes, Faculty of Design, LASALLE College of the
Arts, Singapore. His professional experience spans the conceptualisation, ­making
and marketing of fashion products, and the teaching of industry-specific skills
and knowledge, particularly creative entrepreneurship.

[email protected]
 Notes on Contributors
   xiii

Mel Hughes is Principal Academic in Social Work at Bournemouth University

and academic lead for the BU PIER (Public Involvement in Education and
Research) Partnership. Her expertise is on developing evidence based approaches
for involving people with lived experience in user led research and health and
social work education.
Anais Lacouture who passed away recently, was an Associate Lecturer in
Fashion Merchandising in the School of Communication & Design at RMIT
University, Vietnam. With a professional background as merchandiser and mar-
keter for international luxury fashion brands, Anais was also an entrepreneur
and founder of a contemporary ethical fashion brand, Maison Kenji.
Madeleine Mansfield is a researcher and proactive advocate of work based
learning to support employability in higher education. As a lecturer, teaching
fellow and current Associate Dean, Madeleine has embedded and supported
multiple work based learning pedagogy projects within and across curricula, to
increase early career professional development and life-long learning.
Denise Meakin is Deputy Head of Centre for Work Related Studies, University
of Chester. She takes a lead role in accrediting businesses’ education programmes
to HE standards, and partnership and co-delivery arrangements. Her research
interests and publications include quality assurance in partnerships and negoti-
ated work based learning in HE.
Neil Moore is the MBA (WBIS) Programme Director, Centre for Work Related
Studies at the University of Chester. He leads the Chartered Manager and Senior
Leaders Master’s Degree Apprenticeship (MBA) programme. His research inter-
ests include organisational ambidexterity, resilience and research methodology.
He is an Associate Editor of the International Journal of Organisational Analysis.
Dawn A. Morley is a post doctorate researcher at Solent Learning and Teaching
Institute, and formerly of the University of Surrey, specialising in work based
learning and pedagogy. Her doctorate examined how student nurses learn in
practice and this has informed the HEE funded STEP (Strengthening Team
Based Education in Practice) project where Dawn acts as the external
consultant.
Danny Moss is Professor of Corporate and Public Affairs at the University of
Chester where he is Programme Leader for the Senior Leaders Master’s Degree
Apprenticeship programme, and Co-Director of the International Centre for
Corporate and Public Affairs Research. He is co-editor of the Journal of Public
Affairs.

[email protected]
xiv Notes on Contributors

Jeremy Peach is a Director of WBL at the University of Chester being involved

with this form of pedagogy both as a Senior Lecturer, specialising in flexible,
negotiated degrees and as a Head of Department for Social Work, Health and
Counseling.
Anne Peirson-Smith is an Assistant Professor in the Department of English,
City University, Hong Kong. With a background in PR, her research explores
fashion communication and the creative industries. Anne co-authored, Public
Relations in Asia Pacific: Communicating Beyond Cultures (John Wiley, 2009) and
Global Fashion Brands: Style, Luxury & History (Intellect Books, 2014).
David Perrin is Director of the Centre for Work Related Studies at the
University of Chester. He runs one of Europe’s largest work based learning
frameworks for undergraduate and postgraduate students. He has published
widely in the field, with specialism in the accreditation of prior learning.
Natascha Radclyffe-Thomas is an HEA National Teaching Fellow, a UAL
Senior Teaching Scholar and currently Course Leader BA (Hons) Fashion
Marketing at the Fashion Business School, University of the Arts London.
Natascha’s doctorate explored culturally-situated creativity and she has pub-
lished internationally on her pedagogic and fashion marketing research.
Vianna Renaud is a Placement Development Advisor for the Faculty of Media
and Communication at Bournemouth University. Her doctoral research is
exploring the impact of peer mentoring and coaching on managing the expecta-
tions and experiences of placement students. She is a Trustee for ASET and the
UK Regional Coordinator for IASAS.
Alison Rhodes is Head of the Education Department within the School of
Health Sciences at the University of Surrey. As a registered nurse, Alison’s enthu-
siasm for practice development soon became apparent and motivated her to
move into education. Her experiences have culminated in extensive professional
knowledge and expertise in all aspects of learning and teaching.
Kate Rickard is a former student at Bournemouth University who is following
an apprenticeship in Environment Conservation with Winchester City Council.
She has led projects working with students and the local community to improve
green spaces in their local area, and is helping to increase the biodiversity of the
Winchester District.
Ana Roncha is a post-doctoral research fellow in Enterprise, Collaborations
and Innovation at the Fashion Business School, University of the Arts London.

[email protected]
 Notes on Contributors
   xv

Ana’s PhD focused on innovation, business development and value creation

across fashion SMEs, and she has published internationally on the topics of
strategic brand management and business model innovation.
Lisa Rowe is Deputy Head, Centre for Work Related Studies at University of
Chester. Lisa has designed and launched the Chartered Manager and Senior
Leaders Master’s Degree Apprenticeships, working collaboratively with employ-
ers and professional bodies. Her current research interests include pedagogic
theory, degree apprenticeships, skills development and resilience.
Katherine Sela works as Research and Evaluation Manager in the Widening
Participation and Outreach Department at the University of Surrey. She has an
MSc in Social Research Methods and has worked on a funded project for the
National Union of Students and Leadership Foundation for Higher Education.
Angela Warren co-ordinates the PIER (Public involvement in Education and
Research) Partnership at Bournemouth University. Her work with service users
and carers aims to create activities which are meaningful for students’ learning;
providing opportunities to practice their skills in a safe environment, to prepare
them for placements and future practice.
Pip Weston is a Senior Lecturer in the Centre for Work Related Studies at the
University of Chester. She is link tutor and quality advisor for the University’s
strategic partnership with the Mountbatten Institute. She is enrolled on a pro-
fessional doctorate exploring the relationship between Thriving at Work and HE
WBL.
Naomi Winstone is a cognitive psychologist, Senior Lecturer in Higher
Education at the University of Surrey and HEA National Teaching Fellow. As a
Faculty Associate Dean for Learning and Teaching, she has worked with pro-
gramme teams to develop authentic pedagogies and assessments that draw upon
students’ placement learning.

[email protected]
 List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 The role of the work based learning tutor 38

Fig. 7.1 The development and three stages of the student learning
experience © c.childs 120
Fig. 7.2 2015–16 3Fall Dance graduate employment and further
study127
Fig. 7.3 2014–15 3Fall Dance graduate employment 128
Fig. 7.4 2009–10 Dance graduate employment 129
Fig. 10.1 Student nurse learning in practice 186

xvii

[email protected]
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Modules compromising Chester Business Master’s 21

Table 4.1 Profile of CMDA Cohorts 2016 and 2017 based upon
­projections 58
Table 7.1 3Fall Dance Company 2015–16 WBL schedule 121
Table 11.1 Activities participated in and future employability 202
Table 12.1 Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients for all study
variables: ‘Work and Organisational Psychology’ 225
Table 12.2 Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients for all study
variables: ‘Psychology and Education’ 225

xix

[email protected]
 1
Introduction
Dawn A. Morley

‘Enhancing employability in higher education through work based learn-

ing’ is written at a time of rapid change in higher education when univer-
sities are facing a deeper, and more commercial, accountability to their
students. A culture has been created that requires student degrees to
‘count’ and that, as result of their studies, students will have a value-­
added experience or ‘learning gain’ (BIS 2015, 2016) that takes them
forward into further study or employment. Globally, there is an increased
emphasis on the ‘student voice’, and academic debate on the rise of stu-
dent consumerism within higher education. Although this may vary
across the student population, Tomlinson (2017, p. 464) concludes that
from the students’ perspective “there are many shared concerns; particu-
larly around getting a beneficial and equitable ‘return’ and value from
higher education”.
Boden and Nedeva (2010, p. 41) identify that the ‘third mission’ of
universities, to serve wider society, has been replaced by a “relational to
functional” remit where “universities must now pursue direct, immediate

D. A. Morley (*)
Department of Higher Education, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK

© The Author(s) 2018 1

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_1

[email protected]
2 D. A. Morley

and demonstrable economic utility”. In the UK the changing relation-

ship between student and their higher education institution has been
formalised through significant policies such as the Teaching Excellence
Framework (BIS 2015, 2016) and the new degree apprenticeships (UUK
2016). Both explicitly link the success of degrees with the ability to gain
employment afterwards. This year, higher education has become increas-
ingly dominated by the employability agenda and the challenges of
enhancing students’ chances for post degree employment in line with
their educational investment.
Although the mechanisms to achieve ‘learning gain’ vary across the
international higher education landscape, universities have met these
increasing pressures by traditionally responding in two ways. The first
embeds employability skills within university curricula as taught compo-
nents of courses. The second increases students’ exposure to real life prac-
tice by either sending students out to work placements or increasingly
bringing the employers’ influence into higher education courses.
Despite the many initiatives to embed employability skills within cur-
ricula, evidence suggests that generic skills development in higher educa-
tion institutions is a less effective approach (Atkins 1999; Bridgstock
2009; Mason et al. 2009). Cranmer (2006) questions the development of
employment skills outside of the work environment and recommends the
policy of increasing work based learning and employer engagement in
courses.
Irrespective of previous policies to introduce employability into higher
education, universities are recognised for their tradition and expertise to
facilitate the creation of well-rounded and reflexive employees of the
future (UUK 2016). In the UK, it is not unusual for students to pursue
a career away from the knowledge content of their university courses.
Students, even in more vocational courses, are discovering that their
future professional roles are in a constant state of flux and the ability to
manage this can only be learnt from the integration of real life practice
and practitioners within their education.
This book argues for a move away from stand-alone placement experi-
ences for students in higher education to more sophisticated models
where work based learning is integrated and used creatively in academic
curricula. Boden and Nedeva (2010) advocate that the employability
agenda is only partly satisfied by ‘gaining a job’. Working towards employ-

[email protected]
 Introduction 3

ability involves the building of reflexive skills and attributes over longer
periods of time. This book addresses the need to engage university staff
and students in forward facing curricula that views future employability
skills as part of the teaching and experience of higher education.
The core to the success of employability lies in the recognition of work
based learning as a potentially transformative pedagogy where students
can accelerate their development and maturity in ways that their aca-
demic learning may not reach. It is, however, important that this aware-
ness acknowledges that work based learning is taught and supported in
different ways to academic learning. Previous models of ‘add on place-
ments’, that remained disconnected from the rest of the students’ learn-
ing, dilute the potential of holistic student development and increases the
risk of work and learning being viewed as two distinct entities accentuat-
ing a ‘theory- practice’ gap (Evans et al. 2010).
Under the right conditions, students’ learning can challenge estab-
lished practice in the workplace. Students can bring a fresh perspective to
a placement where they may be the catalyst for re questioning and analy-
sis of placement practice (Brown and Duguid 1991). Ellstrom (2001,
2011) provides an overview of the potential of students’ learning to repeat
practice (adaptive learning) or to augment practice (developmental or
innovative learning). Argyris and Schön (1974) describe this difference as
‘single loop’ and ‘double loop’ learning; the latter being where wider, more
creative solutions are sought on reoccurring issues. It is these types of
employability skills that will mark out successful employees of the future
and universities can be instrumental in creating these opportunities.
Schön (1983) argues that the complexity of professional decision mak-
ing also needs to accommodate for the unplanned circumstances of prac-
tice. Often work situations arise where professional conformity to
recognised theory does not allow solutions to “messes incapable of tech-
nical solution” (Schön 1983, p. 42). Schön (1983, p. 43) graphically
describes the choice as the safe high ground of familiar practice against
the swampy lowlands where practitioners “deliberately involve them-
selves in messy but crucially important problems and, when asked to
describe their methods of inquiry, they speak of experience, trial and error,
intuition, and muddling through”. By learning in work ­environments,
often less planned and controlled than the academic setting, students
have real opportunities to challenge and extend their performance.

[email protected]
4 D. A. Morley

By doing so students can appreciate the complexity and nuances of man-

aging themselves in an environment where their priorities are re-­orientated
to lifelong learning and the ability to move with greater confidence
between different work roles.
The chapters within the book showcase examples from UK higher edu-
cation work based learning practice that demonstrates an appreciation of
this wider perspective. For the purposes of this book, ‘work based learn-
ing’, has been defined broadly as student development that may be based
before, in and after students’ experiences in the ‘world of work’. By taking
this wider approach the chapters demonstrate the initiative and creativity
of academics in UK higher education who have recognised the signifi-
cance of real life practice to their students’ development and future
employability. Some chapters provide examples of extracting core learn-
ing for employability, that may be passed by unnoticed by a student while
on work placement, if it had not been made explicit in their work based
learning. Other chapters focus on students’ ‘work readiness’ and prepar-
ing them for work based learning in simulated settings as part of course
or online learning.
The examples presented within the book are supported by theory, care-
fully detailed practice pedagogy and evaluated so readers may benefit
from the book in their own institutions of higher education.

 ection I: Setting Up University Infrastructures

S
to Support Students in Work Based Learning
Section I, “Setting Up University Infrastructures to Support Students in
Work Based Learning” provides an appreciation of the wider university
infrastructures that support students’ work based learning through the
work of the Centre of Work Related Studies at the University of Chester
(UK). The three chapters discuss the challenges of running large scale
work based learning courses.
Chapter 2 examines the management of the tripartite relationship of
educational providers, participants and employers in a work based
postgraduate business programme. The chapter explores the challenges
faced by providers and the prevalent themes and issues surrounding
employer expectations of graduate employability and learner expectations

[email protected]
 Introduction 5

of the workplace. The authors illustrate how a clearer understanding of

stakeholder perspectives can enhance participant experiences, engage and
develop academic skillsets and support employers as they aim to nurture
and grow talent. Chapter 3 questions how large work based learning
courses can be personalised for a mass and diverse market with a course
that aims to develop workplace experiential learning and transferable
skills. This chapter highlights the logistical and pedagogical challenges of
such an approach, including the complexity of required support. Finally,
Chap. 4 comments on managing Degree Apprenticeships through a
Work Based Learning Framework. The opportunities and challenges of
implementing and managing an innovative Chartered Manager Degree
Apprenticeship within the new political reforms are explored. The author
considers the academic implications of adapting a business and manage-
ment degree to a workplace apprenticeship. It incorporates an evaluation
of one of the earliest cohorts with viewpoints taken from each stakeholder,
collectively identifying a complex range of themes and issues in design-
ing, supporting and further developing apprenticeship programmes.

 ection II: Teaching at University to Prepare

S
Students for Work Based Learning
Section II, “Teaching at University to Prepare Students for Work Based
Learning” showcases university teaching that enhances students’ insight
into the reality and nuanced nature of work based learning. The cognitive
psychologist, Gary Klein, (Fadde and Klein 2010) believes that expertise
in professional practice can be accelerated by focusing particularly on
skills that require improvement. In the two chapters included, students
from health disciplines immerse themselves in carefully managed ­teaching
environments that allow them to grow particular aspects of their
development.
The focus of Chap. 5 is on the use of simulation as a tool for assessing
students’ developing practice and for preparing students for the realities
and complexities of the workplace. Testimonies are incorporated from
academics, practitioners, service users and students regarding the efficacy
of simulation models in assessing practice and in enabling students to use
assessment and feedback (and feed forward) to improve their practice.

[email protected]
6 D. A. Morley

Chapter 6 presents the case study of an undergraduate module where an

inter professional group of learners are taught to problem solve and reflect
on their group work. The teaching approaches have taken favour reflec-
tion and experiential learning to solve ‘problems’ together that may arise
within the clinical setting. In turn, this enhances the ability for students
to learn from one another to develop their understanding of their own
and other professions.

 ection III: University Strategies to Optimise

S
Students’ Learning While in the Work Based
Learning Setting
Section III, “University Strategies to Optimise Students’ Learning While
in the Work Based Learning Setting” presents two chapters where univer-
sities, in the diverse disciplines of dance and ecology, have created oppor-
tunities for real time professional practice for their students. In both
examples the opportunity for students to work in practice, through situ-
ations created by their own academics, gives them exposure to real life
work situations and experiences that they will only meet again in
employment.
In Chap. 7 work based learning opportunities are embedded into an
undergraduate curriculum through participation in a touring dance com-
pany. Using a module case study, the pedagogic approaches to work based
learning through real time practice with professional choreographers,
performing in theatres and gaining teaching experiences in schools and
colleges is explored. Challenges within the arts sector to gain e­ mployment
upon graduation have placed increasing emphasis on providing relevant
embedded experiences whilst studying. The shared objectives of the dance
performers, administrators and technicians give students the opportunity
to work creatively together at ‘3Fall Dance Company.’ In Chap. 8 under-
graduate ecology students experience the real-time management of field-
work during a ten day, cross university fieldtrip where student groups are
peer managed by a student team leader. The support of student group
leaders to autonomously manage their groups in an authentic work set-
ting accelerates leaders’ work readiness and employability skills. The

[email protected]
 Introduction 7

resultant disseminated leadership role, and exposure to professional

experts during the trip, further stimulates student leaders’ awareness of
their longitudinal professional development.

 ection IV: Supporting and Supervising Work

S
Based Learning
Section IV, “Supporting and Supervising Work Based Learning” presents
two unique ways that students’ needs are supported on placement. Schön
(1983) introduces coaching, rather than formal teaching mechanisms, to
explicitly assist students’ build on previous knowledge and develop a crit-
ical appreciation of practice (Gobbi 2012).
Chapter 9 explores how the combined approach of coaching and men-
toring supports media students on work placements in building emo-
tional resilience. Literature indicates that peer coaching amongst students
can have a positive impact on their academic performance and the chap-
ter explores the effectiveness of the Placement Development Advisor
(PDA) in supporting students’ development of emotional resilience in
order for students to become successful media professionals. Chapter 10
argues for a more integrated mentorship model where students are sup-
ported by both a named supervisor but also ‘helpful others’. When prop-
erly managed these individuals combine to support learning from
different aspects in a community of social learning and the author recom-
mends how an integrated model of student support can be applied to all
HE students learning on placement.

 ection V: Using the University Experience

S
for Work Based Learning for Future
Employability
Section V, “Using the University Experience for Work Based Learning for
Future Employability” discusses two examples of how students use their
work based learning experience in the context of the university setting.
The first contribution explores the role of the student in both internal

[email protected]
8 D. A. Morley

and external university work based learning opportunities and the effect
on the development of future employability skills for the students
involved. The second contribution demonstrates how students effectively
use their placement learning in their final academic year of their degree.
Chapter 11 examines the role of the student ambassador created in a
university Widening Participation and Outreach Department and the
contribution of this role to student employability skills. The student
ambassador role is a unique opportunity that enables students to experi-
ence work based learning in the context of the university where they are
an integral part of the department whilst both learning and working. This
chapter focuses on surveys and case studies of ambassadors who have
taken a professional training year, or have graduated and progressed into
employment, to understand the impact of their role on personal develop-
ment and employability. Chapter 12 explores how experiences during a
Professional Training (Sandwich) Year can be harnessed to support aca-
demic learning once students return to university study with an increase
in students’ self-reported preparedness for work. The authors detail how
a Reality-Based Learning model (Smith and Van Doren 2004) informs
instructional design in two Level 6 Psychology modules, employing
authentic activities and assessments, reflection and problem-based
learning.

 ection VI: Promoting Students’ Work Based

S
Learning for International Collaboration
and Employment
Section VI, “Promoting Students’ Work Based Learning for International
Collaboration and Employment” provides two chapters taken from the
differing disciplines of business and the creative industries where the
importance of providing an international dimension to work based learn-
ing is supported in two very different ways. The increased interest in
bringing internationalisation into student curricula is marked by the
work of policies such as The UK Strategy for Outward Mobility (Go
International 2017) which aims to increase the proportion of UK domi-
ciled students who access an international experience as part of their UK

[email protected]
 Introduction 9

higher education. Like the chapters included in this section, Go

International (2017) recognises that “studying, working or volunteering
abroad for even a short period as part of their university experience
enables students to develop many skills sought after by employers”.
Chapter 13 explores post graduate students’ reflections of their experi-
ential learning on a work based learning international internship pro-
gramme jointly developed by the University of Chester and the
Mountbatten Institute. Using data gained from student evaluations,
together with quotes obtained from students’ reflective learning logs, the
chapter explores students’ perceptions of what they perceive they have
gained from this experience which they can take forward into their future
careers. As such it provides a unique insight into the nature and value of
an international learning experience. In Chapter 14, the authors review a
transformative global classroom project that links undergraduate stu-
dents in the UK and Asia to facilitate cross-disciplinary peer collabora-
tion. The authors explore how international collaborations can simulate
some of the complexities of working in the modern creative industries
and highlight how social media platforms can facilitate blended learning
that seeks to develop both digital literacies and global citizenship.

References
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effec-
tiveness. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Atkins, M. J. (1999). Oven-ready and self-basting: Taking stock of employabil-
ity skills. Teaching in Higher Education, 4(2), 267–280.
Boden, R., & Nedeva, M. (2010). Employing discourse: Universities and gradu-
ate ‘employability’. Journal of Education Policy, 25(1), 37–54.
Bridgstock, R. (2009). The graduate attributes we’ve overlooked: Enhancing
graduate employability through career management skills. Higher Education
Research & Development, 28(1), 31–44.
Brown, J. S., & Duguid, P. (1991). Organisational learning and communities of
practice: Toward a unified view of working, learning and innovation.
Organisation Science, 2(1), 40–57.
Cranmer, S. (2006). Enhancing graduate employability: Best intentions and
mixed outcomes. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 169–184.

[email protected]
10 D. A. Morley

Department of Business, Innovation and Skills. (2015). Fulfilling our potential:

Teaching excellence, social mobility and student choice. London: BIS.
Department of Business, Innovation and Skills. (2016). Success as a knowledge
economy: Teaching excellence, social mobility and student choice. London: BIS.
Ellstrom, P.-E. (2001). Integrating learning and work: Problems and prospects.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12(4), 421–435.
Ellstrom, P.-E. (2011). Informal learning at work: Conditions, processes and
logics. In M. Malloch, L. Cairns, K. Evans, & B. O’Connor (Eds.), The Sage
handbook of workplace learning (pp. 105–119). London, California, New
Delhi, and Singapore: Sage.
Evans, K., Guile, D., Harris, J., & Allan, H. (2010). Putting knowledge to
work: A new approach. Nurse Education Today, 30, 245–251.
Fadde, P. J., & Klein, G. A. (2010). Deliberate performance: Accelerating exper-
tise in natural settings. Performance Improvement, 49(9), 5–14.
Go International. (2017). Homepage. Retrieved September 5, 2017, from
http://go.international.ac.uk/about-us
Gobbi, M. (2012). “The hidden curriculum”. Learning the tacit and embodied
nature of nursing practice. In V. Cook, C. Daly, & M. Newman (Eds.),
Work-based learning in clinical settings (pp. 103–124). London and New York:
Radcliffe Publishing.
Mason, G., Williams, G., & Cranmer, S. (2009). Employability skills initiatives
in higher education: What effects do they have on graduate labour market
outcomes? Education Economics, 17(1), 1–30.
Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action.
Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
Smith, L. W., & Van Doren, D. C. (2004). The reality-based learning method:
A simple method for keeping teaching activities relevant and effective. Journal
of Marketing Education, 26, 66–74.
Tomlinson, M. (2017). Student perceptions of themselves as ‘consumers’ of
higher education. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 38(4), 450–467.
Universities UK. (2016). The future growth of degree apprenticeships. Universities
UK.

[email protected]
 Part I
Setting Up University
Infrastructures to Support Students
in Work Based Learning

[email protected]
 2
Effective Management of the Tripartite
Relationship of Educational Providers,
Participants and Employers in Work
Based Learning
L. Rowe, D. Moss, and N. Moore

Introduction
An increasing concern amongst many graduate employers has been the
perceived poor quality of graduates entering employment. Some of the
most common employer criticisms include a lack of commercial aware-
ness, unrealistic work expectations and poor work readiness (Confederation
of British Industry (CBI) 2011; Chartered Association of Business
Schools (CABS) 2014). Moreover, many of the skills shortages observed
amongst undergraduate students, appear to be equally common amongst
postgraduate students, particularly given the forecast that one in seven
jobs will require a postgraduate qualification by 2022 (Wilson and
Homenidou 2012). The inference here is that the UK is likely to face a
significant graduate and postgraduate skills gap by 2022 unless corrective
action is taken. Growing concerns about business graduate skills are likely
to force many universities to re-examine and reconfigure the content of,
and their approach to, business education.

L. Rowe (*) • D. Moss • N. Moore

University of Chester, Chester, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2018 13

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_2

[email protected]
14 L. Rowe et al.

This chapter focuses on the increasingly problematic and challenging

postgraduate marketplace where universities not only face criticism
regarding the skills levels of their graduates but also where they also have
to work hard to attract the most talented students and graduates. Here
universities are not only competing against each other, but increasingly
face a growing challenge from a range of private sector providers and
employer-led graduate schemes. To gain a better understanding of if and
how postgraduate provision is evolving to meet the needs of employers in
the twenty-first century, we have adopted a ‘360 degree’, tripartite per-
spective on the postgraduate marketplace, exploring the interaction
between the key players—students, employers and universities/educa-
tional institutions. Arguably, it is only when all three perspectives are
brought together and understood fully, that it is possible to construct a
sustainable postgraduate strategy and effectively locate learning in the
workplace (Boud and Solomon 2001; Raelin 1997).
In addition, this chapter examines the experiences and challenges of
developing and managing an innovative 12 month intensive work based
Masters programme (the Chester Business Master’s—CBM), which is
located in the University’s Centre for Work-Related Studies (CWRS) and
draws heavily on the core principles of reflective learning based around a
negotiated learning contract. Here the strengths and weaknesses of the
programme are examined through the ‘tripartite lens’ of the students,
employer and university perspectives. The structure and key features of
the Chester Business Master’s (CBM) are explored in more detail in a
longitudinal case study presented later in this chapter.

Background Context
In exploring the experiences and lessons learned in developing and
delivering the CBM programme this chapter will provide insights into
the benefits and challenges that accrue from delivering a work based,
rather than traditional, postgraduate business curriculum. This
approach arguably can offer a recipe for reframing contemporary and
future postgraduate business strategies. More specifically this chapter
seeks:

[email protected]
 Effective Management of the Tripartite Relationship… 15

• To explore the changing drivers and patterns of demand for business

school postgraduate students in this context;
• To examine the relevance and potential of postgraduate work based
learning programmes and the introduction of workplace focused busi-
ness school curricula
• To demonstrate the benefits and challenges of adopting a work based/
workplace focused postgraduate curricula.

As a precursor to exploring the lessons that can be drawn from the

experience of the CBM programme we use the ‘tripartite lens’ to explore
the key debates relating to each of the key perspectives (i.e. employer,
student and university).

Employer Perspective

While it would be wrong to suggest that employers speak with a single

collective voice, it seems that employer representative bodies do broadly
condemn the work-readiness and capabilities of many graduates. Larger
employers in particular, have been outspoken about the apparent ‘skills
deficit’ amongst graduates and how this may impact on the competitive-
ness of British industry. According to CABS (2014), 89% of employers
feel that graduates are not ‘work-ready’ and that courses should have
work experience embedded within them, whilst four in five employers
rank employability skills above degree subject (CBI 2011). Employers
have highlighted the need to develop graduates’ soft skills including com-
munication and team working (Archer and Davison 2008; Hughes et al.
2013). Moreover, over 80% of employers concur that graduate skills are
often exacerbated by unrealistic work expectations and a worrying lack of
commercial awareness (CBI 2011).
While one might expect that the education system might be blamed
for not addressing skills deficits, there appears to be recognition within
the business literature that it is difficult to develop employability skills
within the mainstream academic curriculum. The consensus view is that
such skills, and the tacit knowledge associated with them, would be
developed more effectively within a live business environment (Ng and

[email protected]
16 L. Rowe et al.

Feldman 2009). Of course, universities have not been oblivious to such

criticisms and have attempted to adapt their offering to develop skills that
are more aligned to the needs of contemporary businesses. Measures,
such as including broader hard skills development, bringing in industry
projects and speakers to augment teaching (Forsyth et al. 2009; Wilson
2012) and engaging with businesses to review the curricula (Plewa et al.
2015), represent initiatives to enhance the ways in which graduates func-
tion in the workplace. However, it is not merely a case of handing over
the task of curriculum design to employers. There is a broad consensus
that some form of work experience is critical to developing individuals’
career related competencies (Murakami et al. 2009). Placements undoubt-
edly provide students with a valuable work experience opportunity that
can develop vocational skills and competencies, but in recent years under-
graduate placement opportunities declined to 7.2% (HESA 2014).
Likewise, CABS (2014) reported that less than 25% of organisations
were willing to offer business school students the opportunity to com-
plete an internship or placement because of the additional supervisory
workload with associated cost implications of placement (Weinstein
2007) exacerbated by the perceived lack of commitment from many of
today’s graduates (Jackson 2010; Byrom and Aiken 2014).
Examining the challenge of supplying talent to regional industry the
Wilson Review (2012, p. 9) advocated the establishment of a multi-­
dimensional ‘skills supply chain between universities and local business’
to meet the needs of local enterprise partnerships and retain talent within
regions. Such initiatives suggest that employers are often unaware of the
benefits of graduates and how to access them from their local university
(CABS 2014).
Moreover, Barber et al. (2004) found that employers often failed to
fully appreciate the scope of work that a placement student might bring
to their organisation. Similarly, Archer and Davison (2008) noted that
without senior management ‘buy-in’ placements were often seen as being
of minor importance and as incurring costs rather than adding benefits
(CABS 2014). This lack of support for a work placement agenda across
industry may accelerate the impending skills crisis, which is likely to be
further exacerbated by the projected workforce replacement demand for
13 million jobs by 2020, resulting from a need to fill retiring and career

[email protected]
 Effective Management of the Tripartite Relationship… 17

changer professional and managerial posts (Wilson and Homenidou

2012; HESA 2014).
In summary, from the employer’s perspective, the landscape particu-
larly as far as the availability of younger talented people is concerned,
does not look healthy. The message for employers is that they need to play
a more active role in shaping the agenda for both educators and graduates
entering the world of work.

Student Perspective

Relatively little research has been conducted into student expectations of

postgraduate study particularly in relation to programmes built around
work based experience. Yet perhaps not surprisingly in the light of higher
tuition fees, students now place a stronger emphasis on progression to
employment (Mark 2013). Indeed, the CBI (2011) found that 79% of
students believe that their course will improve their job opportunities
and the vast majority cite enhanced employment prospects as their main
motivation for completing a postgraduate programme. This emphasis on
enhancing employment prospects is reflected by research into postgradu-
ate student expectations and priorities. Here there is an understandable
concern about future employment prospects and a growing demand for
transferable, vocational skills, which are fully embedded within pro-
grammes (Purcell et al. 2009; Hall et al. 2009). The rise in the overall
financial burden of study has inevitably had a strong influence on student
expectations and concerns related to perceptions of poor value encom-
passing issues such as comparative time spent in industry over time spent
in the classroom (Byrom and Aiken 2014).
There is considerable evidence to suggest that where employers have
been involved in both course design and providing relevant work experi-
ence, there is significant improvement in the number of employment
offers received by students within six months of graduation (Williams
and Cranmer 2006). However, effective programme design, incorporat-
ing work experience, is still no guarantee of finding employment. Indeed,
evidence suggests that 1 in 10 either choose, or are forced, to seek employ-
ment overseas, and 1 in 3 leave regional homes to seek work in London

[email protected]
18 L. Rowe et al.

(HESA 2014). It is also significant that over 80% of graduates do not

welcome the idea of gaining employment within SMEs, despite the fact
that numerically SMEs constitute the largest potential employment sec-
tor (Highfliers 2016).
Although postgraduate students earn approximately £5500 p.a. more
than their peers (London School of Economics 2010), it appears that
those from disadvantaged backgrounds are often deterred from postgrad-
uate study because of cost issues (HEFCE 2013). However, it is mislead-
ing to assume that a rational economic model underpins decisions about
postgraduate study. There remains insufficient research into the views of
students with regard to the extent to which they believe postgraduate
courses help to develop employment skills, and hence represent ‘good
value for money’ (Tymon 2013).
Even where programmes do incorporate workplace experience many
participants struggle to cope with combining study and employment.
One inference here is that students on work based learning placements
often need high levels of pastoral and tutor support.
A further issue that has gained traction is the need for greater emphasis
on ‘peer support’ and ‘peer learning’. Weinstein (2007) and Helyer (2015)
identified that some work based programmes failed to plan for how stu-
dents can support each other. Since work based learning students spend
the majority of their time working in isolation, it is sometimes more dif-
ficult to establish networking bonds with their peers and engage in “social
capital development” (Pedler 2012, p. 318). Here Brown et al. (2014)
have suggested that such isolation can be partially addressed by setting up
Action Learning Groups in order to provide on-going peer support.
From a student perspective engagement in work based learning pro-
grammes, rather than more traditional postgraduate education, would
appear to address many of the concerns that students hold about the cost-­
benefit of engaging in a further programme of study. The lack of substan-
tive research into student perceptions of postgraduate, and particularly
work based learning, study makes it difficult to draw conclusions about
the perceived merits of each type of programme. What is clear is that
whatever the advantages of work based learning in terms potential
employability, such programmes are not entirely without significant chal-
lenges. Here issues of perceived ‘isolation’ and limited opportunities for

[email protected]
 Effective Management of the Tripartite Relationship… 19

peer networking and peer support, need to be addressed if the other ben-
efits of such programmes are to be realised.

University Perspective

Much of the literature relating to postgraduate study is critical of HEIs’

failure to prepare students for the workplace. What emerges from the
limited literature is the strong sense of instrumentality which emphasises
the cost and utility of university-based programmes, the skills deficit of
many graduates and the perceived value of workplace experience embed-
ded in programme design and delivery. What becomes clear is that in
attempting to juggle and balance these considerations, universities face
complex challenges in managing programme design and delivery while
simultaneously engaging with industry and recruiting and retaining
students.
Boud and Solomon (2001) focused on the introduction of work based
learning programmes and argued that they change the character of the
university-student learning-employer workplace ‘equation’. Such change
is manifest in many ways, perhaps most notably in terms of multiple
conceptual and practical challenges to institutional identity, structures
and work practices. Indeed, Boud and Solomon (2001) emphasise, that
with the introduction of work based learning, decisions about what is to
be learned and how and where learning will take place are no longer the
sole prerogative of the academic. Rather, a set of ‘learning partnerships’
involving universities, employers and the learner emerge and when taken
together these have the potential to facilitate the co-production of knowl-
edge. This raises some fundamental epistemological questions about the
ownership and location of work based learning and knowledge creation
processes.
A central theme within the literature is the pedagogical dimension of
work based learning development which highlights the link between
“explicit and tacit knowledge and theory and practice” (Raelin 1997,
p. 572). Emphasis has centred on individual learner-negotiated processes
drawing on learning models (Kolb 1984; Honey and Mumford 1986)
stressing the central importance of critical thinking and reflection (Gibbs

[email protected]
20 L. Rowe et al.

1988; Schön 1987). Other authors, such as Garnett et al. (2008), have
drawn on the notion of ‘intellectual capital’, using Stewart’s (1997) divi-
sion into ‘human capital’, ‘structural capital’ and ‘client capital’ as a basis
to explore the benefits of university-employer work based partnerships.
The extant literature also highlights changes in the conventional
HE-industry relationship and how these have led to challenges that have
the potential to impact on the future success, and perhaps even survival,
of some universities. A fundamental issue here is that despite universities
and employers having a stake in work force development, and in the ways
in which work based learning may evolve, they often struggle to collabo-
rate because there is “no common language between them” (Roodhouse
and Mumford 2010, p. 27).
Thus, the university perspective of work based learning exhibits a
strongly instrumental emphasis, focused on examining the most cost
effective ways in which universities can meet the needs of both employers
and students. There is also strong interest in pedagogical issues and in
particular, how universities can best offer the distinctive learner-­negotiated
processes associated with such programmes.
In the remainder of this chapter we use the tripartite lens to explore
how the issues outlined above play out in the context of the CBM pro-
gramme and identify the consequences for our understanding of work
based learning and the development of postgraduate programmes.

Case Study: Chester Business Master’s

The key aim of the programme was to address the core challenge faced by
most graduates seeking employment. Namely to provide them with the
opportunity to undertake an extended mainstream work placement expe-
rience; something which many employers cited as missing from the pro-
files of most graduate applications. The programme comprises of a
number of intensively taught business related modules that help prepare
students for the real world. Assessed project work is undertaken in two
extended 20 week work based placements, addressing the needs of
employers, participating students and the University in terms of meeting
employability, skills development and recruitment goals. As such, the

[email protected]
 Effective Management of the Tripartite Relationship… 21

Table 2.1 Modules compromising Chester Business Master’s

Modules Credit
Reflective learning module 20 credits
Business Environment module 20 credits
Placement based Business Consultancy project I 60 credits
Business Research Methods module 20 credits
Placement based Business Consultancy project II 60 credits

CBM provides an effective lens with which to examine the tripartite rela-
tionship. Its structure is summarised as follows (Table 2.1).
A longitudinal study was carried out to assess the effectiveness of the
CBM programme. Data was collected from two cohorts of students and
12 employers. The first student group comprised of 12 learners who grad-
uated in 2015 and the second comprised of 15 students who were partici-
pating on the programme in 2016. Hence those participating were either
inexperienced existing students or recently graduated new entrants to
fulltime work and therefore very different to the more experienced pro-
fessionals typically seeking to enhance their existing knowledge and skills
through work based learning programmes. Participants were surveyed
using a combination of telephone interviews and questionnaires.
Employers were predominantly based in the North-West region of the
UK. They varied in terms of their size, sector and experience of place-
ment provision. The most experienced had provided placements since the
inception of the programme whereas for others placement provision had
not been undertaken previously. In many cases larger organisations with
greater budgets were bound by complex recruitment procedures and
often operated their own internal graduate programmes; while smaller
organisations commonly struggled with resource scarcity and a lack of
funding knowledge that could help to create appropriate placement
opportunities. These factors impacted upon recruitment for placements,
with a 20% take-up rate aligning with previous research (CABS 2014).
In terms of the overall success of the programme not only was the
feedback from both students and employers extremely positive, also the
contributions and benefits to the regional economy were significant with
over 100 projects conducted for client organisations to date 25% of these
in SMEs. A total of £420,000 was paid in salaries and talent was retained

[email protected]
22 L. Rowe et al.

in the region. Less easily quantifiable contributions, but nevertheless

potentially significant, include increases in client revenue and efficiency
and potential jobs created and/or saved resulting from the consultancy
projects undertaken by placement students.
The following sections draw upon the data to explore each of the tri-
partite perspectives relating to CBM.

Employer Perspective

Responses from placement providers identified a number of key issues.

First employers expressed concern about the time and effort involved in
vetting and recruiting suitable placement students. Moreover, despite
their commitment to engage in and support the placement scheme, some
employers expressed frustration at the time and resources spent on reject-
ing poor candidates whose CVs and interview skills were of an unaccept-
able standard. This finding perhaps speaks of more fundamental issues
surrounding the UK HEIs and how they prepare students for work. In
contrast, other employers were surprised by the high calibre of candidates
presented for interview, as one managing director of a small distribution
company endorsed: “We decided to take two students, such was the calibre
of the candidates.”
Beyond the recruitment phase, some employers also identified the
additional challenge of managing the placement process. In particular,
the demands of monitoring and supporting placement students was rec-
ognised as a strain on resources and in more extreme cases was cited as an
issue that could lead to unexpected problems such as placements failing
mid-term.
The interview data collected after each placement indicated that
despite these challenges, employers recognised the benefits of ‘growing
their own talent’. Indeed managing director of a small refrigeration com-
pany commending the programme as the company had “gained a high
calibre and talented new recruit”. Some comments suggest that CBM had
helped to overcome many of the negative perceptions surrounding the
calibre and work-readiness of graduates. As one director of a small engi-
neering company said: “Our placement student has fully met, and in many

[email protected]
 Effective Management of the Tripartite Relationship… 23

ways, exceeded the expectations we had for the Masters programme. This has
been a very good experience and one we expect to make full use of in future
years.” Likewise, the response from large organisations was equally posi-
tive with a senior director from a global translation company comment-
ing: “Our intern has really hit the ground running. So far the quality and
level of her results far exceed our original expectations.”

Student Perspective

The experiences and feedback from students indicated that they found
the intensive 12-month structure of CBM extremely demanding. The
transition from undergraduate to Master’s level, coupled with entry into
the world of work, and the demands of greater reliance on autonomous
work based learning proved to be a very challenging experience for most
students.
A further issue that emerged was the high level of student expectation
about what the programme, and particularly what the placement, might
deliver. Despite comprehensive and clear pre-course information most
expected graduate level roles in their placement and a number expressed
some surprise when not selected to join their preferred company. Student
failure at placement interview was most often because, despite their
strong academic standing, students were sometimes unable to convince
employers of their suitability for the placement. Poor quality CVs and
underdeveloped interview skills also meant that some candidates failed
multiple interviews.
In addition, in common with other work based learning programmes,
the reduced taught contact hours found on CBM caused some initial
student concern and dissatisfaction as they struggled to come to terms
with adapting to a new mode of study alongside satisfying workplace
expectations. These concerns were most readily expressed by students
who had graduated from highly structured undergraduate programmes,
and who also had limited real world work experience.
Student concerns were partially addressed through additional tutor
liaison via email, telephone and Skype. Online facilitation was improved
and action-learning groups were introduced to increase peer support and

[email protected]
24 L. Rowe et al.

reduce student isolation. However, some students continued to find it

difficult to adapt and reaction to action learning groups was mixed: “I
had some really good one-to-one conversations with members of my group
when we had sessions together, but obviously the number of these meetings was
limited,” which was echoed another student who commented “more con-
tact time with my group would have been beneficial in terms of developing
my ideas”.
As the students progressed they began to recognise the value of the
programme. This was confirmed by unsolicited comments including:
“The programme has given me an insight into the real-life business world, as
well as getting the academic and theoretical understanding that you would
receive from a conventional Masters.” Notwithstanding the fact that a small
number of students found it difficult to adapt to, and benefit fully from,
the experience and opportunities that CBM offered, the majority did
benefit directly from their participation, both in terms of completing the
master’s degree and securing full time employment. Indeed over two
thirds of CBM alumni remained with the same employer and many
secured graduate level roles. Given that most students chose the pro-
gramme primarily to accelerate their career prospects, it is not surprising
that overall feedback was extremely positive, for example: “This pro-
gramme really has jump started my career and enabled me to obtain a role I
had never thought possible prior to undertaking CBM” and “As a result of the
programme I went on to gain graduate employment in my sponsoring
company.”

University Perspective

For universities, the success or failure of a new programme is invariably

gauged primarily in terms of the achievement of target recruitment and
fee income. One notable feature of programmes such as CBM is the
labour-intensive nature of the work involved in sourcing and managing
work placements, which inevitably limits the scope to markedly grow
student numbers. Such considerations often result in a somewhat ambiv-
alent view of this type of work based programme within increasingly
resource-constrained universities. This focus on achievement of academic
results and the recruitment of target numbers can clearly be found in

[email protected]
 Effective Management of the Tripartite Relationship… 25

university documentation and discussions about CBM and other work

based programmes.
Against the current background of financial austerity, it is perhaps not
surprising to find less emphasis on the development of soft skills sought
by employers in the workplace. As a consequence, it is not surprising that
there remains a significant and widening gap between university and
employer perceptions of work-readiness and the role that universities
should play in ensuring graduates possess necessary workplace skills.
Arguably, the university has benefited enormously from the kudos and
profile raising news coverage, case studies and word of mouth publicity
that the CBM programme has generated. However, while happy to bask
in the afterglow of the publicity some have questioned the longer-term
economic viability of such programmes if numbers cannot be grown sig-
nificantly. Here there seems to be limited recognition of the potential
‘halo effect’ of such programmes on wider student recruitment.
From the university and faculty perspective, a further potential benefit
lies in the under-exploited research potential from the 112 consultancy
projects that have been completed since the inception of the programme.
While many of the students expressed an interest in investigating the
knowledge transfer and publishing opportunities that could accrue from
their project work in reality this proved to be problematic for a number
of reasons. Most notably there were issues of commercial or other sensi-
tivities that prevented publication of data. In some cases, even though the
data may have had little or no immediate commercial value, host compa-
nies nevertheless, did not wish for information to be released into the
public domain. Thus, while the pool of work based projects might prove
a potentially valuable source of publishable research, like other aspects or
considerations with this type of work based programme, the issues are
not always straightforward and need to be considered ‘in the round’ tak-
ing account of the implications for all parties.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we have adopted a tripartite lens comprising student,
university and employer perspectives, to explore the benefits of adopting
a work based learning approach to the design of a contemporary business

[email protected]
26 L. Rowe et al.

Masters programme. Utilising this tripartite lens has helped to bring into
stark relief the sometimes differing expectations and interests of the three
key stakeholder groups involved in any business programme develop-
ment—the students as customers, the University as provider and employer
organisations as employers of programme graduates. Arguably, only when
all three perspectives are understood and taken into account will it be
possible to design or adapt programmes that best satisfy the needs and
interests of all three stakeholder groups.
As we have highlighted earlier, universities and HEIs are having to
operate in an increasingly resource constrained world in which financial
concerns have come to the fore and often dominate thinking to the exclu-
sion of any other considerations. Moreover, it seems clear that recent
growth in undergraduate student numbers has peaked and further sig-
nificant growth in numbers is unsustainable going forward because of
demographic trends and changing demands on the part of students and
employers. In short, against the backdrop of rising costs the market has
and is continuing to change and evolve as the ‘customer’ (students and
employers) for university services becomes more discerning and demand-
ing. Moreover, university and HE institutions are no longer only compet-
ing with each other to attract students, they are increasingly facing
competition from a growing number of commercial providers especially
in the more vocational subject fields such as business and management
and law.
Indeed, against the backdrop of the proliferation of work based or
work related programmes being offered by a combination of university
and private sector providers, which arguably has led to considerable
confusion in the marketplace as what exactly constitutes ‘work based
learning’. It is all the more important for universities/HE institutions
offering ‘genuine’ work based learning programmes to up their game in
terms of engaging closely with employers and potential participants to
reinforce and differentiate the distinctive nature of their programme
offering.
An important lesson to emerge from our experience of developing the
Chester Business Masters programme, which was built on a foundation
of careful tripartite engagement with employer organisations, students
and university management, was recognition of the particular skill sets

[email protected]
 Effective Management of the Tripartite Relationship… 27

needed by the staff charged with engaging with employer organisations in

particular. As was emphasised earlier in this is chapter, the success of any
reasonably sized work based learning programme relies on establishing
and managing a relatively large-scale work placement scheme required to
underpin a successful high yield programme. Here it was apparent that
developing and maintaining such an employer network requires the type
of ‘relationship management’ skills normally associated with a sales and
marketing professional, and is not a task that can be readily allocated to
a traditional academic member of staff, many of whom may lack any
such training or professional experience. Indeed, putting the wrong type
of person in such a role might prove extremely damaging to the success
and credibility of any work based learning programme such as the Chester
Business Masters, by reinforcing stereotypes that some employers may
hold of academic institutions as detached from the reality of day-to-day
of business operations and management.
A tripartite perspective also implies the need to take account of univer-
sity imperatives particularly with respect to the financial viability of any
programme provision. As was highlighted earlier, work based learning
programmes such as the Chester Business Masters can be extremely
resource intensive particularly in terms of identifying maintaining
employer placement networks and hence are unlikely to be capable of
attracting or sustaining the large taught cohort numbers associated with
more traditional postgraduate business provision. Hence it is difficult to
see how such work based learning programmes can be grown to form the
centrepiece of an all-new postgraduate strategy for the twenty-first
century.
Moreover, our study undoubtedly echoes many of the issues identified
earlier in the literature review, focusing notably on a mismatch of expec-
tations and demands of employers relating to the capabilities of graduates
emerging from HE institutions looking to enter the workforce; and
equally the expectations of many graduates who appear to be less than
adequately prepared to enter the world of work. To what extent universi-
ties and HE institutions as a whole can play a valuable role closing these
‘expectations gaps’, and whether work based learning programmes may
be one of the most effective ways to address such gaps is something on
which arguably the ‘jury is still out’. As we have sought to suggest in this

[email protected]
28 L. Rowe et al.

chapter, a key starting point in bridging these ‘expectation gaps’ lies in

facilitating much better communications between all key stakeholders;
employers, students and university management, to understand each
other’s perspective and identify any issues of conflict or ambiguity. This is
not just a question of having the ‘right’ mechanisms or channels for com-
munications, but also requires that the right people lead such communi-
cations and have the power to effect any necessary changes to the way in
which the relationships are managed and how any resulting work based
learning programmes operates. Where such individuals lack ‘power’ to
effect change can often prove a stumbling block particularly within uni-
versities because of the bureaucratic procedures often associated with
programme design and approval.
In principle at least, work base learning programmes such as the
Chester Business Master’s programme, if resourced effectively and appro-
priately can address many of the concerns raised by both employers and
students, particularly in terms of providing students with high quality
work experiences and thereby enhancing their workplace skills, and capa-
bilities. For employers, the programme has effectively served as some-
thing of a recruitment funnel ensuring they can effectively vet and trial
graduates in an extended workplace setting before committing to hiring
them. Equally, graduates can use their work placement to try out work-
place settings to ensure it is suited to their needs and lives up to their
expectations before accepting an employment offer. In this sense, this
type of work based learning programme is something of a ‘win-win’ for
both employers and potential graduate employees. However, as empha-
sised earlier, this type of programme, which offers a high degree of indi-
vidual counselling and support (CV writing, interview technique,
pastoral care and employment advice) cannot easily be replicated on a
large scale and as such will always tend to function as something of a
‘flagship’ programme, championing the cause of stronger tripartite
­relationships between employers, students and the Universities. While
perhaps not easily scalable, such work based learning programmes can
open the way for the development of a range of other possible collabora-
tions between the universities/HE institutions and industry that can help
tackle the ‘expectation gaps’ that have impacted negatively on graduate
employment and employer satisfaction statistics.

[email protected]
 Effective Management of the Tripartite Relationship… 29

In terms of future developments, the introduction of Degree

Apprenticeship programmes promises an additional opportunity for
employees to engage in both undergraduate and postgraduate education
and also facilitates the development of professional competence through
work based learning. However, whether the long held and deeply embed-
ded difficulties and challenges of managing the tripartite relationships
between students, employers and universities can be resolved satisfacto-
rily remains to be seen.

References
Archer, W., & Davison, D. (2008). Graduate employability: What do employers
think and want. UK: The Council for Industry and Higher Education.
Barber, L., Pollard, E., Millmore, B., & Gerova, V. (2004). Higher degrees of
freedom: The value of postgraduate study. Institute for Employment Studies.
Brown, A., Rich, M., & Holtham, C. (2014). Student engagement and learn-
ing: Case study of a new module for business undergraduates at Cass Business
School. Journal of Management Development, 33(6), 603–619.
Boud, D., & Solomon, N. (2001). Work-based learning: A new higher education?
London, UK: McGraw-Hill Education.
Byrom, T., & Aiken, V. (2014). Doing it differently: Re-designing the curricu-
lum to face the challenges of student work-based learning opportunities.
Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 4(3), 271–283.
Chartered Association of Business Schools. (2014). 21st century leaders building
practice into the curriculum to boost employability. Retrieved May 22, 2017,
from http://www.associationofbusinessschools.org/sites/default/files/­21st_
century_leaders_june2014_-_final_report.pdf
Confederation of British Industries. (2011). Education and skills survey: Building
for growth-business priorities for education and skills. Retrieved May 22, 2017,
from http://www.cbi.org.uk
Forsyth, H., Laxton, R., Moran, C., Banks, R., & Taylor, R. (2009). Postgraduate
coursework in Australia: Issues emerging from university and industry col-
laboration. Higher Education, 57(5), 641–655.
Garnett, J., Workman, B., Beadsmoore, A., & Bezencenet, S. (2008). Developing
the structural capital of higher education institutions to support work-
based learning programmes. In The Higher Education Academy Workforce
Development: Connections, frameworks and processes (pp. 18–30). Retrieved

[email protected]
30 L. Rowe et al.

May 22, 2017, from https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/system/files/wfd_devel-

oping_the_structural_capital_of_higher_education_institutions.pdf
Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods.
Oxford: Further Education Unit, Oxford Brookes University.
Hall, M., Higson, H., & Bullivant, N. (2009). The role of the undergraduate
work placement in developing employment competences: Results from a
5-year study of employers. In DECOWE International Conference (pp. 24–26).
Helyer, R. (2015). The work-based learning student handbook. Palgrave Macmillan.
High Fliers Research Ltd. (2016). The graduate market in 2016. London: High
Fliers Research Ltd. Retrieved May 22, 2017, from http://www.highfliers.
co.uk/download/2016/graduate_market/GMReport16.pdf
Higher Education Funding Council for England. (2013). Postgraduate education
in England and Northern Ireland: Overview report. Retrieved May 22, 2017,
from http://www.hefce.ac.uk/pubs/year/2013/201314/
Higher Education Statistics Agency. (2014). Free online statistics—Students and
qualifiers. Retrieved May 22, 2017, from https://www.hesa.ac.uk/stats
Honey, P., & Mumford, A. (1986). Using your learning styles (2nd ed.).
Maidenhead: Peter Honey.
Hughes, T., Sheen, J., & Birkin, G. (2013). Industry graduate skills needs.
Summary report for the National Centre for Universities and Business. CFE
Research, 2013. Retrieved May 22, 2017, from http://www.ncub.co.uk/
reports/cfe.html
Jackson, D. (2010). An international profile of industry-relevant competencies
and skill gaps in modern graduates. The International Journal of Management
Education, 8(3), 29–58.
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development. London: Prentice Hall.
London School of Economics Centre for Economic Performance. (2010). The
social composition and future earnings of postgraduates. Retrieved April 13,
2018, from https://www.suttontrust.com/research/the-social-composition-
and-future-earnings-of-postgraduates/
Mark, E. (2013). Student satisfaction and the customer focus in higher educa-
tion. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 35(1), 2–10.
Murakami, K., Murray, L., Sims, D., & Chedzey, K. (2009). Learning on work
placement: The narrative development of competence. Journal of Adult
Development, 16(1), 13–24.
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. (2009). How broadly does education contribute
to job performance? Personnel Psychology, 62, 89–134.
Pedler, M. (2012). Action learning in practice (4th ed.). London: Routledge.

[email protected]
 Effective Management of the Tripartite Relationship… 31

Plewa, C., Galan-Muros, V., & Todd, D. (2015). Engaging business in curricu-
lum design and delivery: A higher education institution perspective. Journal
of Higher Education, 70(1), 35–53.
Purcell, K., Elias, P., Atfield, G., & Behle, H. (2009). Plans, aspirations and
realities: Taking stock of higher education and career choices one year on. Findings
from the second Futuretrack survey of 2006 applicants for UK Higher
Education. Retrieved May 22, 2017, from https://www.hecsu.ac.uk/assets/
assets/documents/futuretrack/FT2_Nov09_links.pdf
Raelin, J. (1997). A model of work-based learning. Organisational Science, 8(6),
563–578.
Roodhouse, S., & Mumford, J. (Eds.). (2010). Understanding work-based learn-
ing. London: Gower.
Schön, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco, CA: Jossey
Bass.
Stewart, T. (1997). Intellectual capital: The new wealth of nations. London:
Nicholas Brealey.
Tymon, A. (2013). The student perspective on employability. Studies in Higher
Education, 38(6), 841–856.
Weinstein, K. (2007). Action learning: A practical guide. London: Gower.
Williams, G., & Cranmer, S. (2006). Employability skills initiatives in higher
education: What effects do they have on graduate labour outcomes? Education
Economics, 17(1), 1–30.
Wilson, R. A., & Homenidou, K. (2012). Working futures 2010–2020. UKCES
Sectoral Report. Retrieved May 22, 2017, from http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/15957/1/
working-futures-sectoral-report.pdf
Wilson, T. (2012). A review of business-university collaboration. Department for
Business, Innovation and Skills. Retrieved May 22, 2017, from https://www.
gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/32383/12-610-wilson-review-business-university-collaboration.pdf

[email protected]
 3
Personalising Work Based Learning
for a Mass and Diverse Market
J. Peach and M. Mansfield

Introduction
This chapter has been designed to contribute to practice in the field of
Work Based Learning (WBL). The focus is University of Chester’s unique
approach to WBL and the opportunities and challenges of a university-­
wide, centralised, credit bearing module for second year (Level 5) stu-
dents. The University of Chester, based in the North West of England,
has had the ‘Enhancing your Employability through Work Based
Learning’ module as part of its curricula for over 25 years. The module
provides an authentic learning experience to undergraduate students,
offering scaffolded and guided reflection via module assessment. The
overarching aims are to aid the development of transferable employability
skills, to support students in critically reflecting on them, to gain new
personal insights and to articulate the skills developed. Additionally,
through a process of engagement with both employers and tutors it is

J. Peach (*) • M. Mansfield

University of Chester, Chester, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2018 33

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_3

[email protected]
34 J. Peach and M. Mansfield

designed to increase student autonomy and responsibility. The module is

facilitated by over 60 academic colleagues supporting circa 1600 stu-
dents, representing around 70% of the Level 5 (second year) cohort.
This chapter critically explores academic issues involved in personalis-
ing learning by adopting an experiential reflective pedagogy. We explore
the logistical issues of managing such a large, professionally diverse, cross-­
faculty cohort of undergraduate students including the challenges of get-
ting buy in from faculties to support the venture and ensuring academic
rigour. In doing so it draws from student, employer and staff perspectives
to offer insights into promoting student work-readiness across diverse
disciplines, industries and pedagogic approaches in a common module
framework.

 ork Based Learning at the University

W
of Chester
UK universities are coming under increasing pressure from government
to strengthen university and employer engagement (The Dearing Report
1997; Wilson 2013; BIS 2016a) which emphasises a drive for institutions
to ensure they are developing employable graduates. The tracking of stu-
dent employability success may also come under greater scrutiny via the
potential implementation of long-term employment measures, via exter-
nal sources such as the HM Revenue and Customs (HMRC) in addition
to the proposed changes to the Destinations of Leavers from Higher
Education survey (DLHE). Far from employability reaching a level of
maturity within HEIs, the speed and prominence of the Teaching
Excellence Framework (TEF) (BIS 2015), implementation means the
agenda is very much in the spotlight (Tudor and Mendez 2014). Indeed,
the advent of subject specific TEF may raise the criticality of developing
student employability to even the most sceptical.
Over half of job vacancies between now and 2022 are predicted to
require high-level graduate skills and knowledge with graduates being
likely to be facing multiple careers in a Gig Economy (McKinsey Global
Institute 2016). This requires graduates who are agile, have an under-
standing of workplace requirements, can demonstrate transferable skills,

[email protected]
 Personalising Work Based Learning for a Mass and Diverse… 35

and a growth mindset (Raelin 2008). The ability to help enhance student
employability and meet these demands through WBL, aided through
authentic work experiences, are well documented (Johnson and Burden
2003; Helyer 2011; Helyer and Lee 2014). It provides the opportunity to
apply and develop knowledge, integrate theory with practice, explore
possible future career areas helping students to be better prepared and to
have better control of their own lives and employment (Wilson 2013).
The Shadbolt review of graduate employability in computer science high-
lights the particular importance of work experience in improving not
only employability, but also in shaping graduates’ expectations about the
world of work (Department for Business, Innovation & Skills 2016b).
A key approach to WBL at the University of Chester is through the
module ‘Enhancing your Employability through Work Based Learning’.
This is credit rated at twenty Level 5 (second year) credits with students
required to complete a work placement of at least 150 hours, normally
over a five-week period, timetabled to take place during May and June.
Assessment is in the form of a 4000-word report, in which students reflect
on their learning and development in placement and also produce a per-
sonal and professional development plan.
This module is designed for a mass market; in 2015/16 a total of 70%
of the university second year students undertook this module, represent-
ing all faculties, and accessed a placement at the same time. However, the
assessment of experiences and reflection of individual skill development
creates a personalised student learning experience. The module does not
focus on degree or profession-specific skill development, but instead
focuses on transferable skills and the notion of learning in the workplace.
It is our assertion that this better equips students for work and career
development in the short and longer term. However, the omission of
degree specific skill development is not without critics and can cause
debate with some students and academic colleagues.
Students are responsible for securing their own placement, which are
normally based in the UK, with support from a dedicated specialist
placement coordinator. Students may seek their own placement or apply
for opportunities actively sourced by placement coordinators, who also
act as a gatekeeper for placement providers. In 2015/16 the WBL team
secured 1069 placement opportunities from the business community.

[email protected]
36 J. Peach and M. Mansfield

Coordinators approve each placement to ensure it provides the opportu-

nity to develop workplace transferable skills and that the placement
organisation complies with health and safety polices and insurances.
Students may undertake a placement congruent with their studies or
wider career aspirations. For example, in 2015/16 over 200 students,
who were not undertaking a teaching qualification, embarked on a place-
ment in an educational setting. Students are able to secure a placement
anywhere in the UK. In 2015/16 circa 46% of students secured a place-
ment opportunity using their own contacts (usually based close to their
home) and this helps to provide a greater number, diversity and quality
of placement opportunities than could be met in the Chester locale
alone. In addition, as some students work to support themselves finan-
cially, they are able to utilise their own part-time work. In these instances,
however, students are encouraged to negotiate additional tasks that
extend their organisational knowledge and work-place skills.

Student Journey
Most students are introduced to the module in their first year (level four),
when a member of the WBL team, attends a programme lecture and
encourages them to start to prepare for their placement by updating their
CV, thinking about the type of placement they wish to undertake and
their preferred location.
In level five (second year) students from October to March students
are timetabled to attend a series of lectures, delivered by the WBL team,
in which the module is formally introduced and guidelines for placement
acquisition and academic requirements are explored. Each student is allo-
cated and given unrestricted access to a designated placement coordina-
tor, who has specialisms and networks in the students’ chosen area. Their
role is to help explore options for both placement and wider career
opportunities and prepare students for placement acquisition through
support with letter writing, telephone skills, CV development, and inter-
view skills. In addition, students are signposted to the Careers and
Employability Department.

[email protected]
 Personalising Work Based Learning for a Mass and Diverse… 37

All students are required to attend placement preparation workshops

in the first week of May. Students are then in their placement from May
to June. At the start of the placement (or prior, where possible) each stu-
dent must work with the placement provider to complete a Placement
Objectives Document. This is a formal agreement of the role, key objec-
tives and expected skill development outcomes. Assessment takes place at
the end of their placement and is a 4000 word report comprising of
three-part reflective critical analyses based on a set of graduate skills,
which employers report as gaps and are congruent with the Careers and
Employability model of a Chester Graduate, the TEF, QAA research, and
professional bodies’ approach to demonstrating competence. This report
is also designed to increase students’ ability to articulate transferable
skills.

Academic Tutors
WBL Academic Tutors are drawn from academic staff across the univer-
sity, and are responsible for the module supervision of up to 25 students
over a two month period. In brief, a tutor is expected to:

• Lead induction sessions in the first week of May. All resources are pro-
vided by the WBL team, which the tutor has the option to use.
• Communicate with, and be the main contact for, students and place-
ment providers during the placement period to:
–– Provide guidance
–– Resolve difficulties
–– Escalate the problem to the Director of WBL if required
• In the fourth week of June, complete a summative assessment (in
Grademark) using a prepared ‘rubric’ and undertake moderation of
another tutor’s assessment.

To help tutors fulfill their role they are able to attend staff development
sessions facilitated by the WBL team, where they are introduced to the

[email protected]
38 J. Peach and M. Mansfield

module, its requirements, their role, assessment process and assessment

criteria. A group of eight experienced WBL tutors undertake moderation
of all submissions and three external examiners provide additional
scrutiny.
The support from designated academic tutors is a key component of
the module and a critical success factor for student engagement. However,
the role is challenging and multifaceted, as may be seen in Fig. 3.1. Tutors
represent the university, acting as a key conduit between students, the
WBL team and placement providers.
This line of communication enables them to step in and resolve prob-
lems at an early stage, should they occur. Tutors also provide an essential
quality assurance and enhancement role, which is focused on academic
standards, such as that of assessment. They are also key to helping main-
tain standards within the placement itself, ensuring students are given
opportunities to develop transferable employability skills. This includes

Fig. 3.1 The role of the work based learning tutor

[email protected]
 Personalising Work Based Learning for a Mass and Diverse… 39

guiding placement providers and students with regards to particular

needs, managing their exceptions and perceptions. For example, students
can become concerned that their work role is not at the level they antici-
pated. This can be due to a myriad of reasons but often the concern is in
the initial days, where the placement provider is allowing time for train-
ing and familiarisation. Conversely, expectations of providers can be
unrealistic with regard to students’ understanding and level of skill.
Therefore, mediation and problem resolution through support and effec-
tive communication are key tutor skills.

Pedagogic Rationale
WBL, at University of Chester, provides an experience that serves as a
basis for meaningful critical reflection that is the pedagogic basis of the
module. The assessment process supports greater meaning and learning
to be derived by providing a bridge between the experience and theoreti-
cal conceptualisation. Students are required to undertake a process of
deliberate systematic critical reflection on a specific experience, the learn-
ing is then fed forward into an assessed, personal and professional devel-
opment plan, which as Schön (1984) highlights, helps facilitate
improvement of practice and leading to positive outcomes (Sherwood
and Horton-Deutsch 2012). The process resonates with Smith and
Martin’s (2014) research which shows the congruence between the skills
of reflection and being a professional. The assessment process asks stu-
dents to move beyond questions such as ‘What did I do?’ and ‘Can I do
it differently next time?’ to ask ‘Who am I?’ and ‘Is this who I want to be?’
(Johns 2002). It is to try, as Brookfield (1998) has argued, to uncover and
question deeply held assumptions that have been both socially and per-
sonally developed within a specific cultural context.
The challenges of developing reflective practice in higher education are
well documented (Brockbank and McGill 1998; Johns 2002; Smith and
Martin 2014). Meaningful engagement from students unused to express-
ing their thoughts, feelings and perceived weaknesses to an unknown
audience can cause some students to feel sensitive, vulnerable and adopt
potential defensive behaviours (Helyer 2015). For some, simply the

[email protected]
40 J. Peach and M. Mansfield

process of writing in the first person, so they have ownership, is challeng-

ing as they have been conditioned by academic conventions to only write
in the third person. However, changes in the job and graduate employ-
ment market requires a change from being a passive recipient of knowl-
edge through didactic methods of instruction, to a growth mindset, the
acceptance of self-responsibility in the learning process and gaining mas-
tery of knowing how to learn (Rogers 1969), of which reflexivity is a key
part (Brockbank and McGill 1998; Maudsley and Strivens 2000). In
short, being a reflective practitioner enhances what may be brought to a
job role and career development (Schön 1984; Billett 2011).
There is much research to support the notion that critical reflection is
enhanced when students are given the time, space and tools by which
they can reflect (Kolb and Kolb 2005) and it is a collaborative venture.
Dewey and Schön transferred reflection as a concept of habitual wonder-
ing to a systematic examination of an event or problem (Farrell 2012). As
such, to aid the development of critical reflection students are introduced
to concepts such as reflection-in-action, and reflection-on-action, central
to Schön’s (1984) thinking, and models based on the work of Kolb
(1984), Gibbs (1998) and Boud et al. (1985). These provide a framework
with which to structure both their thinking and their assessment. Whilst
critical reflection in reality is often messy and non-linear, unlike the neat
learning models may suggest, they provide a useful access point for all
students and enable the personalised activity of reflection to be structured
in pedagogically robust way. With guidance from tutors students are able
to select and use whichever framework best suits the context of their
placement and experiences.
Within the WBL module students develop a Personal and Professional
Development Plan (PPDP) for their future development. Within a
‘Specific Measurable Agreed Realistic and Timed’ framework, these
‘SMART’ goals have a long association within critical reflective practices
(Brown et al. 2016) and importantly they provide a focus, and structure
for implementation. The developmental nature of the process has become
an essential part of WBL at University of Chester. This reflection-for-­
action (Kneale 2002) seeks to empower students to participate more fully
in the development of their learning. It gives some control over what and
how they learn it that is intended to foster notions of lifelong learning

[email protected]
 Personalising Work Based Learning for a Mass and Diverse… 41

(Quality Assurance Agency 2009). Ongoing engagement with PPDP via

personal tutors in the final year of study is encouraged, to support mean-
ingful engagement in academic skill development and employability
(Head and Johnston 2012; Croot and Gedye 2006).
As students are encouraged to be autonomous and active learners, the
key part of being a WBL tutor is the ability to listen and guide rather
than instruct (Helyer 2015). Situated learning is supported via engage-
ment and interaction with ‘expert partners’ in the form of employers and
module tutors (Rogoff et al. 1996). This creates opportunities for stu-
dents to master both job specific and transferable skills. In line with
Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of social learning, Brown et al. (1989, p. 34)
refer to this type of learning as cognitive apprenticeship where students
are able to “acquire, develop and use cognitive tools in [an] authentic
domain activity through social interaction and the social construction of
knowledge.”

Evaluation
Each year the WBL team at the University of Chester undertakes detailed
evaluation of the module from stakeholder feedback including module
tutors, students and placement providers. This evaluation draws from
evaluation questionnaires distributed to stakeholders and is supported by
semi-structured interviews using nonprobability sampling with represen-
tatives from each stakeholder group.
Whilst it is often, anecdotally, reported that ‘all students work’ this
isn’t the case for the University of Chester with only around 50% under-
taking some form of part time work alongside their studies. For those
that engage in work experience it is often limited to low skilled experi-
ence. Crucially the module requires students to reflect on their experi-
ences and articulate their skills. This, according to a Little (2007) and
Graduate Recruiters is critical to students competing for graduate levels
job on leaving university, whilst the number of graduate vacancies is
expected to rise the employment market for graduates is challenging and
competitive (Helyer and Lee 2014). A significant number of students
report greater self-confidence, personal and professional growth through

[email protected]
42 J. Peach and M. Mansfield

meaningful engagement with the module. In 2015/16, module e­ valuation

showed 72% of students reporting that they had learnt new skills and
knowledge as a result of the module and 78% recommending the module
to other students.
Many students reported that they felt daunted about securing a place-
ment and having to ‘push’ themselves, but 70% of students found the
learning support helpful. Some students require significant support as
they are not yet work ready. In 2015/16, the WBL team dealt with circa
50 students with issues that required urgent and ongoing attention. In
addition, there is an increasing number of students with health chal-
lenges, in particular mental health, some of which do not manifest them-
selves until the student is in placement and away from the safe supportive
university environment. Whilst all students are adult learners, the WBL
team and academic tutors are always mindful of the duty of care we owe
all students and act quickly to resolve problems. Thankfully, students
reported that they valued the placement team support they were given
and felt they had developed resilience, which in turn helped them develop
personally and professionally.
Whilst international students’ English language skills are more than
sufficient to gain a place at University, for some these are not consid-
ered as sufficient or satisfactory for the workplace by employers. For
these students a workplace simulation in the form of a consultancy
project, supervised by a member of staff, has been created. This ensures
all students have access to the same opportunities for experiential
reflection.
The centralised structure, in which the WBL framework and staff sit
enables the team to maximise student opportunities, act quickly to resolve
problems through teamworking and shared networks, consistency of
decision making and cost effectiveness. However, it can lead to lack of
involvement and understanding of the module across the university. As
such the team have to spend time communicating and internally market-
ing the programme to colleagues. There is a perennial issue of recruiting
sufficient numbers of academic tutors who have interest in WBL and
have space within their own workloads to devote sufficient time to sup-
port students and assess work. Tutor workshops are designed to explore
operational elements but also the underlying philosophical issues of

[email protected]
 Personalising Work Based Learning for a Mass and Diverse… 43

WBL. Engaging tutors in how they perceive their role in the work based
learning process is significant as the pedagogy may be very different from
that they have experienced or value.
In 2015/16 feedback was obtained from 466 Placement Providers and
the analysis provides further evidence of the multiple benefits gained by
students and employers (Johnson and Burden 2003; Helyer and Lee
2014). The vast majority of placement providers, (92% of respondents)
thought that having a student on placement helped bring a fresh perspec-
tive to an organisation and challenged their thinking by being able to
look in detail at a particular process informed by theory or a particular
demographic, which aligns to Wenger’s (1998) ideas concerning com-
munities of practice. The direct result of the experience led a number to
offer further paid or other unpaid work experience opportunities to stu-
dents. This was further supported by 98% of placement providers who
suggested that their experience of hosting a student was a positive one
due to the attitude shown by students and the relationship they had
developed with the university.

Very rewarding and eye opening experience.

We have hosted six placements now, and they have all been fantastic; they
have really engaged and participated, and everybody has gained from their
involvement in our organisation.
[The student] was a breath of fresh air and has been a fantastic addition to
our team, we will be sorry to see her leave.

The perception of WBL as a mechanism for skill development was

supported with 99% of placement providers agreeing that WBL helps
prepare students for employment by developing key skills that they either
did not have or lacked confidence in. The skills were also re-enforced
through formal mechanisms such as the pre-placement meetings, the
structured format of agreeing roles and responsibilities and through the
appraisal, which 96% of placement providers found to be highly benefi-
cial to the learning process.
Employers also highlighted that they were able to influence the cur-
riculum, albeit in a small way, and enjoyed the involvement in student’s
development and supporting learning. In addition, they asserted that

[email protected]
44 J. Peach and M. Mansfield

students helped bring a different perspective on their company and

­influenced practice, in some case the placement was a partnership of
mutual learning.

I think it is brilliant scheme that allows students an opportunity to think about

their future options.
This year has been a fantastic experience. One student in particular has
really excelled herself and will be offered future work with us.

It is critical for universities to engage with employers and build strong

relationships to maximise mutual partnership value (Brook and
Corbridge 2016). Clearly to meet these demands it cannot be confined
to career departments and job seeking skills, it needs to be a much more
integral part of the curriculum if it is to succeed, which is an advantage
of University of Chester’s approach. WBL supports the concept of cor-
porate social responsibility and helps the university play a significant
role in the local and wider economy. Organisations, often SMEs and
charities, speak about the crucial developmental work our students
undertake through WBL. This is through the work of the WBL team,
who work throughout the year to develop and maintain strong relation-
ships with placement providers. Our 2015/16 evaluation showed that
96% of providers found that the communication from the University
prior to the placement was clear and sufficient and 97% found that
issues occurring during the placement were resolved to their satisfac-
tion. This is critical as it both ensures ongoing engagement with WBL
(96% wishing to host a student in 2016/17 and/or recommending
doing so to their colleagues or other organisation) and also opens up
other opportunities for the organisations and the university, such as
knowledge transfer or research projects. It is also worth noting that
placement providers welcome being involved in formally planning work
and the written agreement that sets out all party’s roles and responsibili-
ties and proving a formal opportunity for providers to feedback on per-
formance is welcomed and aligns to good practice.

We are delighted with the positive contribution made by the Chester University
placement this year to a major public awareness project. Their work quality
and commitment was a significant factor in the success of the project.

[email protected]
 Personalising Work Based Learning for a Mass and Diverse… 45

Helyer and Lee (2014) highlight that a key factor in the usefulness of
work experience is the duration; cited by Lowden et al. (2011) as prefer-
ably 6 months or longer. Also, sandwich placements tend to aid stu-
dents’ employability after their degrees, evidenced by the STEM
accreditation reviews published in May 2016 (HEFCE 2016). Whilst
the programme and activities of WBL at University of Chester is a year-
long, the placement activity is only five weeks. This is not a specifically
referred to in written feedback but anecdotal evidence suggests that this
allows sufficient learning to take place, is long enough to appreciate the
organisation yet does not overly disrupt employers’ activities, create an
overreliance on the student or indeed disrupt teaching. Organisations
that are able and willing often take advantage of the opportunity to
extend the WBL placement, albeit outside the module boundaries,
however many do not. The notion of greater integration into the cur-
riculum in the first year (Level 3 or 4) and in their final year (often but
not exclusively Level 6) is the next stage of WBL development at
University of Chester, as this may help better prepare students for the
module, their employability needs and subsequently provide more
opportunity for them to reflect on and build on their placement and
learning with tutor support.
Being an assessed, mandatory, and credit bearing approach not only
validates work based learning but also helps promote and facilitate stu-
dent learning. Additionally, for the University of Chester it can enhance
pedagogy by providing a different student experience where learning is
situated and socially mediated (Eames and Bell 2005) which can provide
an authentic learning experience that challenges comfort zones of tutors,
students and employers. Given this, it is a tripartite symbiotic relation-
ship that has been engendered. There are mutual and multiple benefits
for the university, for employers and for students.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Our ongoing evaluation of the module has led to incremental changes
and refinements in the approach. Through our own reflections and evalu-
ations, we consider the pre placement preparation of students as a crucial,

[email protected]
46 J. Peach and M. Mansfield

but often underappreciated part of the success of WBL at Chester.

Feedback, which is gained annually from all stakeholders, demonstrates
that the value of preparation in each stage of the process. This is because
our approach supports the development of the following:

Learning How to Learn

The curriculum is predominantly derived from context of application of

the learning (i.e. the workplace) as well as learners’ current knowledge
and experience. The pedagogy is also experiential in nature, centred on
the application of learning in the workplace and evidence-based assess-
ment of progress and achievement. However, this type of pedagogy may
be unfamiliar to students and support in ‘learning how to learn’ is vital
and therefore supported via tutor input.

Orientated into the Workplace

Gaining an understanding of organisational behaviour such as cultures,

structures, and how to manage their entry into their work role and work
team in addition to staying safe and healthy at work.

Developing Resilience

Whilst some thought is given to the benefits of WBL it is often primarily

concerned with the placement activity. It is our view that the pre-­
placement activities of securing a placement is of equal recognition.
Whilst this may concern practical issues of, for example getting the req-
uisite Disclosure and Barring Service check, in reality the subtle differ-
ence to Chester’s approach is to support the students to secure a placement.
As such searching for opportunities, developing their CV, letter of appli-
cation and interview technique is highly developmental and replicates the
process many students will undertake pre or post-graduation. However,
the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties and developing emo-
tional resilience can require support and many students would benefit

[email protected]
 Personalising Work Based Learning for a Mass and Diverse… 47

from greater help and advice. This is an ongoing challenge for the WBL
team, and is likely to increase in difficulty as the diversity of our student
body increases.
An often unseen benefit of the module is that it aids the concept of
corporate social responsibility, a key part of the University of Chester’s
vision and mission statements. Organisations, often SMEs and those in
the third sector, speak about the crucial developmental work students
undertake through WBL, and as such a symbiotic relationship is engen-
dered with benefits to all stakeholders.
We consider ongoing development of the module critical, and are
already reviewing how WBL may be enhanced in a number of ways.
Firstly, we are seeking to offer more bespoke placements for students in
highly specialised studies and reviewing how support for securing such
placements may be further enhanced. Secondly, we are looking to enrich
the application process, particularly in supporting students in writing
competency based applications and preparing for interviews and assess-
ment centres. Thirdly, we are exploring the introduction of effective com-
munities of practice through action learning sets, and the more effective
utilisation of personal and professional development plans. We hope that
further engagement by personal academic tutors and support depart-
ments at the university will help ensure plans are supported and realised.
In summary, students consistently report that they gain great confi-
dence in the workplace and key transferable academic skills and excel-
lent academic results, with 96% of students successfully completing the
module in 2015/16. The use of standardised frameworks and models
successfully allows the WBL team to ensure pedagogic consistency across
diverse academic disciplines, employment opportunities and student
experiences.

References
Billett, S. (2011). Curriculum and pedagogic cases for effectively integrating
practice-­based experiences. Sydney: Australian Learning and Teaching Council.
Boud, D., Keogh, R., & Walker, D. (1985). Reflection: Turning experience into
learning. Oxford: Routledge.

[email protected]
48 J. Peach and M. Mansfield

Brockbank, A., & McGill, I. (1998). Facilitating reflective learning in higher edu-
cation. Buckingham: SRHE/Open University Press.
Brook, C., & Corbridge, M. (2016). Work-based learning in a business school
context: Artefacts, contracts, learning and challenges. Higher Education, Skills
and Work-Based Learning, 6(3), 249–260.
Brookfield, S. (1998). Critically reflective practice. Journal of Continuing
Education in the Health Professions, 18(4), 162–184.
Brown, G., Leonard, C., & Arthur-Kelly, M. (2016). Writing SMARTER goals
for professional learning and improving classroom practices. Taylor and Francis
Online. Retrieved April 4, 2017, from http://dx.doi.org.voyager.chester.ac.
uk/10.1080/14623943.2016.118712
Brown, J., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture
of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32–42.
Croot, D., & Gedye, S. (2006). Getting the most out of progress files and per-
sonal development planning. Journal of Geography in Higher Education,
30(1), 173–179. Retrieved January 9, 2017, from http://www.tandfonline.
com.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/doi/abs/10.1080/03098260500499857
Dearing, R. (1997). Higher education in the learning society: Report of the national
committee of enquiry into higher education. London: HMSO.
Department of Business, Innovation and Skills. (2015). Fulfilling our potential:
Teaching excellence, social mobility and student choice. London: BIS.
Department of Business, Innovation and Skills. (2016a). Success as a knowledge
economy: Teaching excellence, social mobility and student choice. London: BIS.
Department of Business, Innovation and Skills. (2016b). Computer science degree
accreditation and graduate employability: Shadbolt review. London: BIS.
Eames, C., & Bell, B. (2005). Using sociocultural views of learning to investi-
gate the enculturation of students into the scientific community through
work placements. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology
Education, 5, 153–169.
Farrell, T. S. C. (2012). Reflecting on reflective practice: (Re)visiting Dewey and
Schon. Tesol Journal, 3(1), 7–16. Retrieved December 27, 2016, from http://
onlinelibrary.wiley.com.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/doi/10.1002/tesj.10/abstract
Gibbs, G. (1998). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods.
London: Further Education Unit.
Head, K. S., & Johnston, J. H. (2012). Evaluation of the personal development
portfolio in higher education: An explorative study. Nurse Education Today,
32(8), 857–861.
HEFCE. (2016). Graduate employment and accreditation in STEM. Retrieved
February, 2017, from http://www.hefce.ac.uk/skills/gradstemreview/stemreview/

[email protected]
 Personalising Work Based Learning for a Mass and Diverse… 49

Helyer, R. (2011). Aligning higher education with the world of work. Higher
Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 1(2), 95–105.
Helyer, R. (2015). Learning through reflection: The critical role of reflection in
work-based learning (WBL). Journal of Work-Applied Management, 7(1),
15–27.
Helyer, R., & Lee, D. (2014). The role of work experience in the future employ-
ability of higher education graduates. Higher Education Quarterly, 68(3),
348–372.
Johns, C. (2002). Guided reflection: Advancing practice. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing.
Johnson, S., & Burden, T. (2003). Young people, employability and the induction
process. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
Kneale, P. (2002). Developing and embedding reflective portfolios in geography.
Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 26(1), 81–94.
Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2005). Learning styles and learning spaces:
Enhancing experiential learning in higher education. Academy of Management
Learning & Education, 4(2), 193–212.
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development. London: Prentice-Hall.
Little, B. (2007). Learning and employability, series one: Employability and work-
based learning. York: Higher Education Academy.
Lowden, K., Hall, S., Elliot, D., & Lewin, J. (2011). Employers’ perceptions of
the employability skills of new graduates. Glasgow: University of Glasgow
SCRE Centre and Edge Foundation Mountbatten Institute.
Maudsley, G., & Strivens, J. (2000). Promoting professional knowledge, experi-
ential learning and critical thinking for medical students. Medical Education,
34(7), 535–544.
McKinsey Global Institute. (2016). Independent work: Choice, necessity, and the
gig economy. Retrieved February 21, 2017, from www.mckinsey.com/mgi
Quality Assurance Agency. (2009). Personal development planning: Guidance for
institutional policy and practice in higher education. Retrieved January 8, 2017,
from http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Personal-
development-planning-guidance-for-institutional-policy-and-practice-in-
higher-education.pdf
Raelin, J. A. (2008). Work-based learning: Bridging knowledge and action in the
workplace. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Rogers, C. (1969). Freedom to learn: A view of what education might become.
Columbus, OH: Charles Merill.

[email protected]
50 J. Peach and M. Mansfield

Rogoff, B., Matusov, B., & White, S. (1996). Models of teaching and learning:
Participation in a community of learners. In D. Olson & N. Torrance (Eds.),
The handbook of cognition and human development (pp. 388–414). Oxford,
UK: Blackwell.
Schön, D. A. (1984). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action.
New York: Basic Books.
Sherwood, G. D., & Horton-Deutsch, S. (2012). Reflective practice transforming
education and improving outcomes. Indianapolis: Sigma Theta Tau
International. Retrieved December 27, 2016, from https://ebookcentral.
proquest.com/lib/openuk/reader.action?docID=3383922
Smith, S., & Martin, J. (2014). Practitioner capability: Supporting critical
reflection during workbased placement—A pilot study. Higher Education
Skills and Work-Based Learning, 4(30), 284–300.
Tudor, S., & Mendez, R. (2014). Lessons from covey: Win-win principles for
university-employer engagement. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based
Learning, 4(3), 213–227.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wilson, T. (2013). The social revolution. Keynote Speech at ASET Annual
Conference, Greenwich University, London, 3–5 September 2013.

[email protected]
 4
Managing Degree Apprenticeships
Through a Work Based Learning
Framework: Opportunities
and Challenges
L. Rowe

Introduction
The Higher Education Institute (HEI) employer interface has attracted
much attention in recent years, particularly in light of current dissatisfac-
tion with graduate work-readiness. Concurrently, pressure upon new
entrants to the workplace is accelerating through an unprecedented pace
of change in technology, requiring currency of employability skills and
resilience for individuals to adapt, thrive and perform effectively in an
increasingly unpredictable global environment. In 2014 a new form of
apprenticeship was proposed in England to simultaneously address these
skills shortages whilst offering a genuine alternative to undergraduate
degree programmes. Hailed as “the greatest opportunity ever seen for
anyone concerned with skills and employment” (Jeffrey 2016, p. 1) early
HEI adopters have already successfully collaborated with employers to
launch business management degree apprenticeships with initial cohorts
nearing completion of their first year.

L. Rowe (*)
University of Chester, Chester, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2018 51

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_4

[email protected]
52 L. Rowe

The chapter proposed here is therefore highly significant for two rea-
sons. The first is to inform HEI practice and pedagogic development,
particularly in terms of work based learning degree apprenticeship design
and delivery within the new political apprenticeship reforms, which are
attracting renewed interest across the globe. This is one of the first evalu-
ations to be published upon this type of programme, affording a unique
opportunity to explore how pedagogic approaches to building graduate
employability can be improved.
Secondly it considers the effectiveness of the emerging generation of
work based business degree apprentices in terms of performance, reten-
tion and engagement as a result of well-developed employability skills.
This degree apprenticeship challenges academically led, full time provi-
sion with a 20% off the job learning model. An explicit employer led
focus cumulates in a separate synoptic end point assessment, altering the
fundamentally traditional approach to embedding employability skills
into something far more tacit in nature, through negotiated projects,
reflective learning and employer mentoring.
In order to examine the effectiveness of this new pedagogic approach,
the chapter focuses upon the design and development of a business man-
agement degree apprenticeship. It explores current literature concerning
work based learning pedagogy and reflective practice, the role of the
employer as a mentor and the development of employability skills. It
incorporates an exploratory case study based upon one of the earliest
cohorts in England, collectively identifying a complex range of themes
and issues for each stakeholder in designing and developing degree
apprenticeships.
The chapter concludes with recommendations for HEIs who wish to
take advantage of this new and fast changing political agenda through their
own development of similar, highly innovative and lucrative initiatives.

Background
The introduction of degree apprenticeships is one of the biggest changes
in HE for decades providing a sustainable prospect to simultaneously
develop relevant talent and a viable alternative to traditional programmes,

[email protected]
 Managing Degree Apprenticeships Through a Work Based… 53

and an opportunity to improve social mobility (City and Guilds 2015;

Jeffrey 2016; Institute of Apprenticeships (IfA) 2017). One of the earliest
launched is the Chartered Manager Degree Apprenticeship (CMDA),
creating a lucrative opportunity for many business schools. The first
cohorts commenced in September 2016 with a rapid acceleration of
3000 by 2018 predicted and a Senior Leaders Master’s Degree
Apprenticeship imminent (Universities United Kingdom (UUK) 2017).
An aspiration to develop educational systems to meet the needs of
employers and the wider economy is driving this change (Lee 2012; Wall
and Perrin 2015). Despite record levels of graduates in the UK it has long
been argued that educators do not provide relevant and efficient learning
for transfer to the workplace leading to poor graduate work-readiness and
under-developed transferable skills (Archer and Davison 2008; Hughes
et al. 2013; Chartered Association of Business Schools 2014). The funda-
mental concept of degree apprenticeships is that higher qualifications are
designed, and subsequently delivered in partnership with employers and
professional bodies, solving employability and professional competence
issues. Funding is embedded into a levy from April 2017 for large employ-
ers with a payroll exceeding £3 million, whilst smaller organisations
receive notable support, representing a huge opportunity for universities
(BIS 2016). In spite of challenges facing the sector, HEIs who are pre-
pared to evolve and adapt to create high quality programmes and infra-
structures will be able to benefit from, and indeed largely influence the
success of the levy (Morley 2017; Hill 2017).

 urriculum Design—Embedding Employability

C
Skills
The challenges in embedding employability skills directly into main-
stream academic curriculum are widely evidenced, along with the recog-
nition that arguably more relevant and practical opportunities to develop
tacit and professional knowledge readily exist within live business envi-
ronments (Archer and Davison 2008; Hughes et al. 2013; Billett 2014).
The fundamental concept of degree apprenticeships requires closer
engagement with employers and professional bodies to directly tackle

[email protected]
54 L. Rowe

employability and professional competence issues. Although this presents

an entirely unique opportunity to embed employability strategies through
collaborative design and delivery, there are resource implications for
employers who will need to provide additional support and guidance to
apprentices. The implicit expectation is that managers will need to
develop and adopt new approaches to support and manage colleagues as
they progress through programmes, combining work-related study with
full time employment.
In an era of unprecedented change and mobility classed as the fourth
industrial revolution, employees are entering a relentless and rapidly
changing workplace, where seemingly stable jobs can quickly evolve or
dissipate in lieu of emergent competencies within a “knowledge intensive
economy” (Bridgstock 2009, p. 31; CIPD 2012; Kossek and Perrigino
2016).
Consequentially employers are less concerned with trained graduates,
forcing adaptive pedagogic development with greater emphasis upon
assessment of non-technical, transferable skills (Harvey 2003; Jackson
2016).
Research into skills development and deployment in early careers
could better support HEI pedagogy but it largely focuses upon mid-­
career development, leaving early professional journeys relatively under-
explored (Trede et al. 2012; Jackson 2016). Consequently, a more holistic
concept of employability emerges, cultivated through an extensive range
of practical and theoretical competencies which informs skilled practice
and identity, in turn contributing towards performance (Hinchliffe and
Jolly 2011; Pegg et al. 2012). Similarly the CMDA standard focuses
keenly upon performance through knowledge, skills and behaviours
whilst overtly referencing underpinning psychological conditions (CMI
2015; UK Commission for Employment and Skills (UKCES) 2016).
Crucially 80% of apprentices’ time must be spent ‘on the job’ creating
opportunities for skills driven curricula. Responsibility for sustainable
and adaptive workforces can no longer remain the preserve of HE, but
compression of study may place an unprecedented burden upon appren-
tices, particularly in “high prestige occupations” which includes manage-
rial and leadership positions (Kossek and Perrigino 2016, p. 780). The
synoptic end point assessment may lead to a disjointed sequential process

[email protected]
 Managing Degree Apprenticeships Through a Work Based… 55

which could create an excessively sharp distinction between the degree

and professional competence assessment, also risking HEI income (Schön
1987; Lee 2012).

Work Based Learning Pedagogy

It is widely accepted that our modern learning society demands a culture
promoting opportunities for lifelong learning, developing conceptual,
helicopter and analytical thinking skills. Reduced demand for technically
trained graduates has led to a preference for reflective employees who can
analyse, critique and synthesise experiences, developing themselves
accordingly (Harvey 2003). The emphasis is upon empowering and
enhancing learners to demonstrate a range of qualities, particularly the
ability to think and work ‘outside the box’ (Wisher 1994). This require-
ment for learners to self-develop skills is forcing HEIs to adapt from the
deep-rooted continuum of ‘process based’ teaching towards experiential
and reflective learning, classic hallmarks of work based learning designed
in collaboration with employers (Kolb 1984; Raelin 1997; Boud and
Solomon 2001; Smith and Paton 2014). Indeed, the term ‘work based
learning’ draws upon notions of ‘lifelong learning’, ‘employability’ and
‘flexibility’ and can “embrace all forms of learning that are generated or
stimulated by the needs of the workplace…” (Unwin and Fuller 2003,
p. 7). The differences found in ways in which work based learning is
referred to and understood may arguably be a product of the more densely
populated work based learning ‘landscape’ in recent years, with an
increasingly diverse range of academic and training institutions and
employer organisations engaged in a variety of different partnership
arrangements. Here, for example, the idea of ‘flexibility’, which is seen as
a central characteristic of work based learning programmes has implica-
tions for the type of learning arrangements, settings and associated modes
of delivery, levels and assessment methods. By inference, work based
learning may take a variety of different forms in response to the learner
and learning organisation’s needs.
Authors such as Boud and Solomon (2001) have set out some defining
characteristics of work based learning programmes, which emphasise the

[email protected]
56 L. Rowe

importance of the HE–organisational partnership as a setting for mutual

learning benefits to both the organisation and HE institution, as well as
the individual learner. Other defining characteristics include: the negoti-
ated nature of the learning contract, the flexibility and often customisa-
tion of the learning pathway for each participant that reflects the
individual’s existing capabilities and learning needs in the workplace, the
work-driven nature of the curriculum, and the fact that most learning
takes place in the workplace setting rather than in the ‘classroom’.
UK work based learning has largely remained the preserve of nursing,
medicine and social work despite Western economic performance’s
implicit link to human capital and knowledge stock which requires devel-
opment of interactive pedagogy and experiential learning (QAA 2017).
Since business school occupational disciplines require some of the most
advanced cognitive skills, initiatives to integrate lifelong self-learning
through reflective, transformative practice are critical to ensure skills cur-
rency and employability (Cranmer 2006). However this requires a radi-
cally different pedagogy incorporating learner space and time for project
supervision, critical thinking and problem solving, subsequently creating
resourcing and timetabling problems within confined HEI systems
(World Economic Forum 2009; Kossek and Perrigino 2016).
On the job learning is already one of the most effective training prac-
tices, second only to in-house training with line manager coaching (CIPD
2012). Self-development requires encouragement of far broader positive
attitudes with a ‘can do’ approach in order to develop a professional iden-
tity, career security and growth, but the context in which skills will be
established and verified is largely beyond HEI control (Bridgstock 2009;
Pegg et al. 2012; Jackson 2016; UKCES 2016). Individual roles and proj-
ects may not have academic credibility or parity and there are risks con-
cerning manipulation of content and lack of objectivity (Lester and
Costley 2010). Conversely employer expectations of intercultural inter-
actions between students resulting in cross-pollinated ideas have not
materialised, largely because work based learners have less regular oppor-
tunities to access HEI skills development interventions (Bishop and
Hordern 2017).
Apprentices are more reliant upon workplace supervision, the quality
of which may vary with opportunities to learn affected by organisational

[email protected]
 Managing Degree Apprenticeships Through a Work Based… 57

type, size and sector, intangible cultures and norms (Billett 2014; Jack
and Donnellan 2010). Some may benefit from committed role model
mentors, who can effectively enable and influence, allowing seamless
integration of curricula and workplace. In addition the UK continues to
suffer from weak management practice with 2.4 million untrained ‘acci-
dental managers’ and just 28% of new graduates receiving any training
but it is unclear how this, coupled with an increasingly consumerist
approach towards employment and education, might affect degree
apprenticeships (Accenture 2015; CMI 2017). Ironically, the new gen-
eration of degree apprentices may accrue more relevant management
qualifications than their superiors upon whom their development relies.
Given the vast array of complexities facing HEIs, it is unsurprising that
many will seek to eliminate the pedagogic challenges discussed by design-
ing “academy-based” rather than “academy-aligned” degree apprentice-
ship programmes (Dalrymple et al. 2014, p. 78).

Case Study
Overview

This case study is a reflective narrative of a HEI’s experience of delivering

the CMDA within an existing work based learning framework, building
upon an earlier review of apprenticeship development (Rowe et al. 2016).
Data gathered during June and July 2017 was based upon the first cohort
of eight first year CMDA apprentices and four employers. This com-
prised documented evidence and semi-structured interviews with aca-
demics, apprentices and employers. Anecdotal data from other HEIs and
employers strengthens the validity of findings.
Recent reports suggest that the CMDA will attract nearly 3000 appren-
tices by 2018, forming 36% of all apprenticeship standards (UUK 2017).
60 enterprising HEIs are currently engaged in degree apprenticeship
activity, but development is incremental, due in part to internal chal-
lenges of embedding new processes and procedures. Pedagogies vary but
there is growing evidence of learner-centered curricula developing
through experiential learning and reflective practice.

[email protected]
58 L. Rowe

Case Study Findings

A profile overview and projections for cohorts 1 and 2 already reveal

some interesting variances shown in Table 4.1. Growth is predominantly
regional, aligning with current research (UUK 2017) although some
national interest is developing. This is due to the programme’s work based
design incorporating block workshop delivery supported by electroni-
cally based learning materials. It also supports employability skills devel-
opment, aligning with additional professional body qualifications beyond
other more traditional frameworks.

Recruitment

Despite encouraging projections the institution remains cautious given

the challenges highlighted and this mood continues to be reflected across
the sector (UVAC 2017). HEIs are well versed in the vagaries of funding,
and delivery expense ratios creating a circumspect response to time con-
suming, resource intensive programme development. Design and deliv-
ery of employer led degrees is problematic with painfully slow adaptation
of outwardly facing processes inhibiting enterprise. Many are under-
standably reticent with one Russell Group respondent saying: “We will
wait and see how you and others fare.” Even the most experienced work
based learning providers have been surprised at the inability to forecast
apprenticeship numbers and the protracted timeframes required to
develop relationships and programmes with employers. Application pro-
cesses have been further complicated by employer led HRM recruitment
and training policies as well as the traditional view of apprenticeship hir-
ing cycles, forcing HEIs to adapt from their protracted marketing

Table 4.1 Profile of CMDA Cohorts 2016 and 2017 based upon projections
Age Geographical
Cohort Levy Number Gender range Status spread
2016–2019 75% levy 8 88% female 18–47 75% new 0–10 miles
employees
2017–2020 87% levy 58 48% female 18–36 17% new 6–46 miles
employees

[email protected]
 Managing Degree Apprenticeships Through a Work Based… 59

campaigns and compress processes to meet demand. Entry requirements

may be compromised without clear alignment of HEI and employer
selection criteria.
The initial cohort has led to a cohesive employer HEI interface, transi-
tioning smoothly in most instances. However, there is potential for resur-
gent issues to develop as cohorts grow. Whilst some employers recognise
the opportunity to recruit new talent, the earliest providers confirm a
trend to reconfigure internal training policies to recoup levies, highlight-
ing concerns that existing training and development programmes may
merely transfer into degree and master’s apprenticeships, failing to address
a stalled social mobility agenda (CBI 2016). The majority of participants
are employed within levy paying organisations, which have been quick to
recognise the opportunity. As one oil terminal operations director said:
“The new degree apprenticeship has given members of my senior management
team the chance to gain a formal academic qualification and professional
registration credibility without impacting on their ability to carry out their
work commitments.”
A growing complication is the portability of qualifications from more
experienced applicants. Whilst a work based framework can accommo-
date transfer of prior accredited and relevant learning (APCL), it is more
difficult to award credit for prior experiential learning (APEL) whilst also
meeting professional body and apprenticeship standards. Applicants
without prior work based learning experience must take core reflective
and project planning modules to successfully complete the programme,
classed as new learning within funding rules. A highly complex cohort is
emerging with varying entry points, APCL claims and payment sched-
ules. The requisite Level 2 Maths and English qualifications for appren-
ticeship completion has elicited a belligerent response from several senior
employees.
Local school support for degree apprenticeships has been sporadic,
with many maintaining focus upon University league tables. Even so
there is no shortage of applicants with over 200 registrations by July 2017
for just 17 new opportunities. Indeed, there is a general lack of entry-­
level opportunities with very limited CMDA vacancies available nation-
ally, perhaps because of an emerging disconnect between the standard
and the likely employee status of school leavers. Whilst degrees are viewed

[email protected]
60 L. Rowe

as a mechanism to equip aspiring graduates, apprenticeships require

embedded skills development, here aligning only to employees who are
enabled to practice management and leadership.
Early adopters of degree apprenticeships are not necessarily unhappy
with this outcome. For now, the CMDA is more aligned to an executive
education model, diversifying programme portfolios and allaying fears
over the dilution of other courses. Additionally, the applicant pool has
created an unintentional database. Rather than viewing apprentices and
undergraduates as separate entities, a more cohesive marketing strategy
can broaden opportunities and strengthen access for non-traditional stu-
dents amidst a decreasing youth population (UUK 2017). The soaring
popularity of management frameworks has led to criticism of the IfA’s
commitment to boosting social mobility, and as increasing numbers find
out about this unprecedented opportunity, competition for depleted
vacancies means that the oft cited ‘ladder of opportunity’ remains chal-
lenging to access (HM Government 2013; Department for Education
2017).

Resources

Reliance upon funding and short recruitment cycles herald a departure

from guaranteed, front-loaded income, creating a significantly different
cash flow, with more risk-averse institutions unwilling to resource vulner-
able activity. Pressurised academics have little opportunity to disrupt their
existing activities, making it difficult to garner cross faculty and depart-
mental support for shared delivery models. End point contractual agree-
ments are expensive and risky given the difficulty in forecasting starts and
retention rates, plus there are additional costs for professional body
administration, business development and workplace visits. Such con-
straints have led to demands for economies of scale, raising the prospect
of larger class sizes which may ultimately threaten key components of
work based learning practice including individually negotiated learning
modules, breadth of assessment methods, reflective practice and the pro-
vision of full formative feedback. Despite extensive experience in deliver-
ing work based learning pedagogy, many cross-functional departments

[email protected]
 Managing Degree Apprenticeships Through a Work Based… 61

require strategic adaptation to student facing mechanisms, resulting in

difficult conversations over the status of stakeholders. Indeed as one NHS
Trust succinctly put it: “Let us be clear. These are our employees first, not
students.”

Curriculum Design

Whilst Degree Apprenticeships clearly have huge potential to provide a

significant income stream, their inception is difficult and time-­consuming
work. Many employers and apprenticeship standards require alignment
to professional bodies but the synoptic end point assessment means that
skills and competencies remain a risky separate entity. A robust work
based learning framework naturally focuses upon skills development and
can be tailored to adapt to employer needs, thus reducing this risk. A less
attractive option is to re-draft traditional module content, resulting in a
plethora of learning outcomes to ensure that both practical and theoreti-
cal competencies are tested.
In addition to the practicalities of assessment, it is important that cur-
riculum design supports employers who are contributing towards the
cost of apprenticeships, paying salaries and committing to 20% off the
job learning. Here employers are beginning to recognise the advantages
of HEIs committed to work based learning pedagogies, resulting in pro-
grammes which “are not too invasive” (large manufacturing SME).
Negotiated, experiential project content, designed in collaboration with
employers provides tangible outcomes, attracting superb feedback from
employers. One multinational manufacturing company said: “The work
that the apprentices have completed here is of such a high standard that I am
now in a position to move this forward and put the plans into practice. I
really did not expect work of this standard so early into their programme.” A
micro SME was similarly positive about their apprentice’s projects: “This
gives us an opportunity to do things that we wouldn’t ordinarily have the
time, or the skills to do. It has taken us several steps forward and the benefits
are significant.”
The first cohort has attracted a diversity of age and backgrounds,
which has led to some incredibly successful and cohesive workshops to

[email protected]
62 L. Rowe

date: “I think the different perceptions, expectations, probably helped it be

quite a dynamic session, with strong engagement. Young and old were able to
compare time management strategies quite well—different calls on their time
and different strategies, but spinning ideas off each other.” Two modules are
specifically designed to develop apprentices’ skills and capabilities associ-
ated with reflective processes and to encourage the vision necessary for
action planning. These attributes have already been evident through each
apprentices’ personal and professional development within each module,
and critically through their proactive generation of experiential learning
opportunities, demonstrating their understanding of the potential for
the workplace to become a catalyst for learning. The highly experienced
programme leader has congratulated the cohort, confirming already that:
“They have really grasped the principle that they need to learn as well as pro-
duce.” Even during the first module there was a general move “from activ-
ists to leaders” (Honey and Mumford 1986), with relevant skills
development evidenced through a personal SWOT analysis and 360
degree feedback in subsequent Level 4 modules. Critical appraisal and
reflective essays are key assessment methods, based upon common m ­ odels
and components of reflection (e.g. Gibbs 1988; Johns 2006; Driscoll
2007). This framework effectively challenges the apprentices to critically
analyse situations, reducing criticism leveled at graduates regarding their
tendency toward descriptive writing. The experience of leading projects
and development of reflective practice to drive employability skills is evi-
dent: “I worked alongside five other apprentices on an integrated marketing
communications campaign, developing helpful theoretical and practical
knowledge. We worked effectively as a team and I have enhanced my project
planning skills.”

Workplace Supervision

Degree study alongside full time employment creates a tough learning

environment requiring resilience, determination and drive. Punishing
workloads and external influences including health, redundancy and fam-
ily have weakened retention rates to just 75% in year one. Previous work
based learning modes have sustained the ability to negotiate completion
rates, but compressed models reduce contractual commitments, meet

[email protected]
 Managing Degree Apprenticeships Through a Work Based… 63

funding rules and expedite fee payments. A sustained effort to retain and
engage learners and employers is of paramount importance, both in uni-
versity and in the workplace. The CMDA standard addresses this to some
extent in the implicit requirement to identify and assign employer men-
tors, however the reality of monitoring this will be challenging as cohorts
grow. Within this cohort the role of the mentor is well defined, forming a
distinct role from HR Managers to Managing Directors, depending on
organisational size. All had maintained direct line management responsi-
bility, supporting development through appraisals, project development
and HEI liaison. As in the classroom, generational disconnect has not been
an issue with one MD saying: “The degree of enthusiasm that I think you get
is of course part of being eighteen. It’s very, very motivating for the company.”
Clearly the quality of employer recruitment processes will to some
extent predicate the success of the programme but reliance upon their
support of academic progress and project development remains largely
untested to date. Personal academic tutors and managers may
­interchangeably assume apprentice-mentoring roles whilst in smaller or
less hierarchical structures, a variety of workplace staff may formally or
informally mentor. Some HEIs have already built an academic mentor
support system into their apprenticeships, and others are developing
employer training sessions and guidance packs. Although on-site visits
are resource intensive, they have formed a valuable opportunity to surface
priorities and issues at the earliest stage, particularly with all stakeholders
present to discuss progress, mentoring, project content and programme
administration. These visits serve to support and encourage apprentices
to take ownership of their career development. The negotiation of bespoke
projects requires skilled navigation of individual agendas through open
dialogue to facilitate appropriate content and meet academic rigour. As
one employer put it: “It’s really good to be involved and great to forge rela-
tionships with you. The degree is for both of us and we should support her”.

Conclusion
This is the first publication to consider the efficacy of the design and devel-
opment of a work based business management degree apprenticeship. In
evaluating the pedagogic design of the CMDA, it offers a useful framework

[email protected]
64 L. Rowe

for others to consider, whilst raising awareness of potential challenges and

benefits. Indeed, both are considerable, particularly in the light of lucrative
funding opportunities, but there must be careful consideration given to
resourcing, particularly client and programme management as cohorts
grow and profiles inevitably change to potentially challenge undergraduate
provision. Such diversification of HE delivery fits perfectly into work based
learning frameworks, providing efficient and relevant learning across a
variety of contexts and faculties. The opportunity to work with employers,
radically update and develop curricula and practice, and subsequent
involvement with cutting edge research activity cannot be underestimated.
These transformative teaching strategies support employability, social
mobility and widening participation of HE, evidenced by some of the
earliest adopters already scoring highly in teaching excellence framework
measures (CMI 2017). Indeed, the earliest emergent data suggests that
there is better distribution of higher apprenticeship learners across
HEFCE’s five participation of local areas (POLAR) quintiles than tradi-
tional HE programmes (UVAC 2017). Rich and overwhelmingly positive
employer and academic feedback is testament to the effectiveness of the
curricula and the issues surrounding employability have largely dissipated,
as a result of the employer leading future graduate skills development.
Local talent will be easier to retain as the opportunity to study and work
locally becomes more attractive. The employer’s role as mentor has also
been successful to date, with clear cost benefits derived from tripartite rela-
tionships and innovative project completion.
There is a cautionary note however, for whilst many of the challenges
raised in the literature appear to have been successfully overcome in this
pilot study, findings were based upon a small cohort and may not be
representative of a larger sample size, longitudinal study or more diverse
cohort profile. Much of its success has resulted largely from an enhanced
HEI employer interface and sustained academic collaboration with
employers and apprentices. Resourcing is a critical issue here and further
constraint through rising numbers will bring pressure to bear upon pro-
gramme teams. It is acknowledged therefore that some of the issues
raised within the literature may not yet surfaced and the findings cannot
be generalised across other disciplines. More longitudinal research is
needed, with larger sample sizes across a range of disciplines and peda-
gogic frameworks.

[email protected]
 Managing Degree Apprenticeships Through a Work Based… 65

Despite such limitations, the prediction for degree apprenticeship

growth is predicted to increase across the UK by 650% in 2017/18. It
would be unwise to ignore this agenda and universities who grasp the
challenge now by investing in the development of work based learning
frameworks are likely to see significant and sustained benefits (UUK
2017).

Recommendations
Several recurrent themes have emerged from early adopters of the
CMDA resulting in key recommendations for future degree apprentice-
ship development. Of primary importance is resourcing, in the first
instance ­requiring a centralised apprenticeship function with a project
board or strategy group comprising senior staff to oversee progress,
agree direction and fully map end to end processes for degree appren-
ticeship design and delivery. This ensures engagement from a number of
cross institutional departments to ensure efficient and responsive prog-
ress for activities including improvement of employer engagement and
employer facing mechanisms, cross-faculty development of frameworks
and programmes to enable sharing of core work based learning mod-
ules, the sharing of resources for all administrative processes and a cohe-
sive and comprehensive marketing offer incorporating a range of access
routes into HE.
At faculty level there is a need to engage enterprising, employer facing
practitioners to design and deliver programmes in collaboration with
employers and professional bodies through the implementation of work
based learning frameworks. This new pedagogic approach requires aca-
demic support with apprenticeship portfolios, engagement with end
point assessors and the provision of guidance for new trailblazer groups
in subject specific areas. Creation and publication of supportive strategies
for employers is also recommended, comprising mentoring guidance
and/or training for employers. There is also a necessity for academics to
begin researching and publishing data based upon findings as pro-
grammes develop and grow, and to collaborate with other HEIs already
delivering work based learning apprenticeships to ensure that best prac-
tice is shared across the sector.

[email protected]
66 L. Rowe

References
Accenture UK Graduate Employment Survey. (2015). Retrieved July 26, 2017,
from https://www.accenture.com/t20150706T235021__w__/usen/_acnme-
dia/Accenture/Conversion-Assets/DotCom/Documents/Global/PDF/
Dualpub_17/Accenture-UK-University-Grad-Research-2015.pdf
Archer, W., & Davison, J. (2008). Graduate employability. The Council for
Industry and Higher Education.
Billett, S. (2014). Integrating learning experiences across tertiary education and
practice settings: A socio-personal account. Educational Research Review, 12,
1–13.
BIS. (2016). Apprenticeship levy: How it will work. London: Department for
Business, Innovation and Skills. Retrieved July 26, 2017, from www.gov.uk/
government/publications/apprenticeship-levy-how-it-will-work/apprentice-
ship-levy-how-it-will-work#accessing-money-paid-under-the-apprentice-
ship-levy
Bishop, D., & Hordern, J. (2017). Degree apprenticeships: Higher technical or
technical higher (education)? Gatsby Charitable Foundation.
Boud, D., & Solomon, N. (Eds.). (2001). Work-based learning: A new higher
education? Buckingham: SRHE and Open University.
Bridgstock, R. (2009). The graduate attributes we’ve overlooked: Enhancing
graduate employability through career management skills. Higher Education
Research and Development, 28(1), 31–44.
Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. (2012). Learning and talent
development survey. London: CIPD.
Chartered Manager Institute. (2015). All you need to know about the new
Chartered Manager Degree Apprenticeship. Retrieved July 26, 2017, from
http://www.managers.org.uk/insights/news/2015/november/all-you-need-
to-know-about-the-new-chartered-manager-degree-apprenticeship?sc_
trk=follow%20hit,{86CB756B-AB02-44E6-995A-305C69252B29},
accidental+manager
Chartered Manager Institute. (2017). Higher education providers awarded gold
medals for teaching excellence. Retrieved July 26, 2017, from http://www.
managers.org.uk/insights/news/2017/june/further-education-institutions-
awarded-gold-medals-for-teaching-excellence?sc_trk=follow%
20hit,{86CB756B-AB02-44E6-995A-305C69252B29},tef
City and Guilds Group Industry Skills Board. (2015). Making apprentice-
ships work—The employers’ perspective. Retrieved July 26, 2017, from

[email protected]
 Managing Degree Apprenticeships Through a Work Based… 67

www.cityandguilds.com/~/media/Documents/Courses-and-Quals/
Apprenticeships/Making%20Apprenticeships%20Work_Full%­20report_
web%20 version%20pdf.ashx
Confederation of British Industries. (2016). Radical rethink required for appren-
ticeship levy: Business concerned about levy but committed to skills. Retrieved
April 13, 2018, from http://educationandskills.cbi.org.uk/reports
Cranmer, S. (2006). Enhancing graduate employability: Best intentions and
mixed outcomes. Studies in Higher Education, 31, 169–184.
Dalrymple, R., Kemp, C., & Smith, P. (2014). Characterising work-based learn-
ing as a triadic learning endeavour. Journal of Further and Higher Education,
38(1), 75–89.
Department for Education. (2017). Apprenticeship framework starts and appren-
ticeship standard starts by level. Retrieved December 16, 2017, from https://
data.gov.uk/dataset/fe-data-library-apprenticeships
Driscoll, J. (2007). Practising clinical supervision: A reflective approach for health-
care professionals. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods.
Oxford: Further Education Unit, Oxford Brookes University.
Harvey, L. (2003). Transitions from higher education to work. A briefing paper
prepared by Lee Harvey (Centre for Research and Evaluation, Sheffield
Hallam University), with advice from ESECT and LTSN Generic Centre
colleagues. Retrieved July 26, 2017, from http://bit.ly/oeCgqW
Hill, S. (2017). Universities can help make a success of the apprentice-
ship levy. Retrieved April 13, 2018 from https://wonkhe.com/blogs/
universities-can-help-make-the-apprenticeship-levy-a-success/
Hinchliffe, G. W., & Jolly, A. (2011). Graduate identity and employability.
British Educational Research Journal, 37(4), 563–584.
HM Government. (2013). The future of apprenticeships in England: Implementation
plan. Retrieved July 26, 2017, from https://www.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/253073/bis-13-1175-future-
of-apprenticeships-in-england-implementation-plan.pdf
Honey, P., & Mumford, A. (1986). Using your learning styles. Maidenhead: Peter
Honey.
Hughes, T., Sheen, J., & Birkin, G. (2013). Industry graduate skills needs.
Summary report for the National Centre for Universities and Business, CFE
Research. Retrieved July 26, 2017, from http://www.ncub.co.uk/reports/cfe.
html

[email protected]
68 L. Rowe

Institute for Apprenticeships. (2017). The institute 6 months on: Purpose, vision
and corporate objectives. Retrieved December 16, 2017, from https://www.
instituteforapprenticeships.org/about/the-institute-6-months-on
Jack, G., & Donnellan, H. (2010). Recognising the person within the develop-
ing professional: Tracking early careers of newly qualified child care social
workers in three local authorities in England. Social Work Education, 29(3),
305–318.
Jackson, D. (2016). Re-conceptualising graduate employability: The impor-
tance of pre-professional identity. Higher Education Research and Development,
35(5), 925–939.
Jeffrey, C. (2016). Is your vision the same or similar to mine—Can you see what I
see? Association of Employers and Learning Providers. Retrieved July 26,
2017, from www.aelp.org.uk/ news/aelp-blog/details/is-your-vision-the-
same-or-similar-to-mine-can-you/
Johns, C. (2006). Engaging reflection in practice: A narrative approach. London:
Wiley-Blackwell.
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development. London: Prentice Hall.
Kossek, E. E., & Perrigino, M. B. (2016). Resilience: A review using a grounded
integrated occupational approach. The Academy of Management Annals,
10(1), 729–797.
Lee, D. (2012). Apprenticeships in England: An overview of current issues.
Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 2(3), 225–239.
Lester, S., & Costley, C. (2010). Work based learning at Higher Education level:
Value, practice and critique. Studies in Higher Education, 35(5), 561–575.
Morley, D. (2017). Degree apprenticeships are a ray of light in a gloomy sector.
Times Higher Education. Retrieved August 5, 2017, from https://www.
timeshighereducation.com/blog/degree-apprenticeships-are-ray-light-
gloomy-sector
Pegg, A., Waldock, J., Hendy-Isaac, S., & Lawton, R. (2012). Pedagogy for
employability. York, UK: Higher Education Academy.
Raelin, J. (1997). A model of work-based learning. Organisational Science, 8(6),
563–578.
Rowe, L., Perrin, D., & Wall, T. (2016). The Chartered Manager Degree
Apprenticeship: Trials and tribulations. Higher Education, Skills and Work-
Based Learning, 6(4), 357–369.
Schön, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco, CA: Jossey
Bass.

[email protected]
 Managing Degree Apprenticeships Through a Work Based… 69

Smith, A. M., & Paton, R. A. (2014). Embedding enterprise education: A ser-

vice based transferable skills framework. The International Journal of
Management Education, 12(3), 550–560.
The Chartered Association of Business Schools. (2014). 21st century leaders
building practice into the curriculum to boost employability. Retrieved July
26, 2017, from http://www.associationofbusinessschools.org/sites/default/
files/21st_century_leaders_june2014_-_final_report.pdf
The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. (2017). Quality assuring
higher education in apprenticeships: Current approaches. Retrieved July 26,
2017, from http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Quality-
assuring-higher-education-in-apprenticeships-2017.pdf
Trede, F., Macklin, R., & Bridges, D. (2012). Professional identity develop-
ment: A review of the higher education literature. Studies in Higher Education,
37(3), 365–384.
United Kingdom Commission for Employment and Skills. (2016). Employer
skills survey 2015: UK results. Retrieved July 26, 2017, from https://www.gov.
uk/government/publications/ukces-employer-skills-survey-2015-uk-report
Universities United Kingdom. (2017). Degree apprenticeships: Realising oppor-
tunities. Retrieved July 26, 2017, from http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/
policy-and-analysis/reports/Documents/2017/degree-apprenticeships-realis-
ing-opportunities.pdf
University Vocational Awards Council. (2017). Policy, partnership and practice:
Degree apprenticeships, higher education, skills and work-based learning. UVAC
National Conference, 21 November, Birmingham.
Unwin, L., & Fuller, A. (2003). Expanding learning in the workplace: Making
more of individual and organisational potential. National Institute of Adult
Continuing Education (England and Wales), Leicester.
Wall, T., & Perrin, D. (2015). Žižek: A Žižekian gaze at education. London:
Springer.
Wisher, V. (1994). Competencies: The precious seeds of growth. Personnel
Management, 26(7), 36–39.
World Economic Forum. (2009). Educating the next wave of entrepreneurs:
Unlocking entrepreneurial capabilities to meet the global challenges of the 21st
century. 2009 Report, World Economic Forum, Switzerland. Retrieved July
26, 2017, from www.ncge.org.uk/publication/educating_the_next_wave_
of_entrepreneurs.pdf

[email protected]
 Part II
Teaching at University to Prepare
Students for Work Based Learning

[email protected]
 5
Use of Simulation as a Tool
for Assessment and for Preparing
Students for the Realities
and Complexities of the Workplace
M. Hughes and A. Warren

Introduction
The focus of this chapter is the use of simulation as a tool for assessing
students’ developing practice and for preparing students for the realities
and complexities of the workplace. The chapter draws on a range of adult
learning theories and literature exploring experiential learning and reflex-
ivity and models of effective assessment and feedback which enable stu-
dents to develop their knowledge, skills and practice in the workplace, for
example, the use of ‘feed-forward’ (Duncan et al. 2013) in both formative
and summative assessment. The benefits of incorporating simulation
activities and stakeholder involvement into professional degree pro-
grammes as a way of preparing students for the realities and complexities
of the workplace and as a tool for fostering deeper learning, insight,
reflexivity and criticality for future employability are considered.

M. Hughes (*) • A. Warren

Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2018 73

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_5

[email protected]
74 M. Hughes and A. Warren

The chapter sets out examples of simulation activity in social work,

adult nursing and paramedic science programmes at Bournemouth
University and incorporates testimonies from academics, practitioners,
service users and students regarding the efficacy of simulation models in
assessing practice and in enabling students to use assessment feedback
and feed forward to improve their practice. Three models of simulation
are explored, each one involving stakeholders (service users and carers)
who have first-hand experience of the scenario the simulation activity is
based on and who form part of the assessment and feedback process. The
chapter draws on the experiences and reflections of the authors who coor-
dinate the work of the BU PIER (Public Involvement in Education and
Research) partnership in the Faculty of Health and Social Sciences at
Bournemouth University.

Professional Context
The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) Standards for pre-­
registration nursing education and the updated standards for education
which were put out for consultation in 2017, specify the requirement for
service users and carers to be involved in the structure, design and deliv-
ery of programmes, alongside inclusion in the selection process and
assessment of students. The updated 2017 standards are clear in the need
for programmes to involve service users and carers in a range of activities
and for students to have the opportunity to ‘receive constructive feedback
throughout the programme from a range of relevant stakeholders, includ-
ing service users and carers to aid reflective learning’ (R3.12 NMC 2017).
The opportunity to engage in simulation based learning is also identified
(R3.5 NMC 2017).
Similarly, in 2014, the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC
2014) introduced a standard of education and training which requires
service users and carers to be meaningfully involved in programmes they
approve (currently 16 professions including social work in England, para-
medic science, physiotherapy and occupational therapy in England, Scotland
and Wales); a requirement which had been in place for social work educa-
tion, under previous regulators, since 2003 and is anticipated to underpin
standards developed by the new regulator for social work from 2018.

[email protected]
 Use of Simulation as a Tool for Assessment and for Preparing… 75

Within our own faculty, this has led to an extensive range of activity
with service users and carers contributing to curriculum design and re-­
validation, admissions processes, simulation and role plays, assessments
of students’ work, group facilitation and contributing to and delivering
lectures. In a study the BU PIER partnership conducted to explore the
impact of involvement on social work students’ subsequent practice
(Hughes 2017) social workers identified four types of impact: enhanced
awareness of the lived experience, taking on board suggestions of good
practice from service users and carers, developing a more critical ‘real life’
understanding, and a culture of recognising service users and carers as
experts.
In this study, and in a separate thematic analysis of over 2000 student
evaluations of BU PIER partnership activities between 2014 and 2016, it
was evident that students particularly valued opportunities to consult
and engage in conversations with service users and carers outside of the
practice setting and to receive feedback from service users and carers on
their knowledge, skills and competencies. Students identified three types
of learning from having this contact: increased knowledge; improved
practice (how best to intervene) and enhanced emotional resilience (abil-
ity to cope with and explore emotionally challenging subjects). Involving
service users in health and social work education was shown to directly
contribute to a student’s ability to meet the professional requirements of
their disciplines and in preparing them for employment.

Simulation
One such activity commonly used across health and social work pro-
grammes is that of simulation where a practice scenario or experience is
re-created or imitated to enable a student to put their learning into action,
to practise skills, and to be assessed.
A number of benefits of simulation have been identified within the
wider literature such as authenticity and realism, an ability to foster
deeper learning, reflexivity and criticality and to enhance students’ skills,
confidence and self-efficacy (Pearson and McLafferty 2011; Duffy et al.
2013; Osborne et al. 2016; Cant and Cooper 2017). Liaw et al. (2012),
however, identified from their study that whilst simulation activity

[email protected]
76 M. Hughes and A. Warren

increased student confidence, this didn’t correlate with enhanced clinical

performance. They express caution that simulation could lead to an over-­
estimation of self-confidence.
The activity of simulating practice experiences is underpinned by adult
learning theories which suggest that for adults to learn effectively, learn-
ing needs to draw on previous experiences and be purposeful and relevant
to their life (Knowles 1990). Simulations are commonly used in health
and social work education prior to students undertaking practice learning
as part of preparation and assessment of readiness (Duffy et al. 2013;
Katz et al. 2014) or to introduce more complex scenarios that students
have yet to encounter, providing them with experiences from which they
can learn and reflect.
Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning model identifies four distinct stages
of learning from experience or learning from doing. To achieve an effec-
tive simulation activity which enhances knowledge, skills and confidence,
students need to be supported to engage in all four stages of Kolb’s learn-
ing cycle: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptu-
alisation and active experimentation. As with Argyris and Schön’s (1974)
reflective cycle, the learning comes from being able to reflect in and on
action rather than just the action itself. Argyris and Schön (1996, p. 21)
described this process as “thinking on your feet” and “keeping your wits
about you” which is necessary for employment in professions dealing
with risk and complexity.
There are simulation models which do not use service users which have
been shown to prepare students for aspects of employment. Kostoff et al.
(2016), for example, organised opportunities for pharmacy students to
practise using the SBAR communication tool (situation-background-­
assessment-recommendation/request) over the telephone with nursing
students to develop skills in communicating between team members in
urgent situations.
Conducting role plays with the part of the service user played by actors
is another example, and has long been a tradition in social work and
nursing education (Mooradian 2007; Bogo et al. 2011; Logie et al. 2013;
Katz et al. 2014; Olson et al. 2015; Manning et al. 2016). Using actors
or staff has the benefit of creating a more standardised patient or service
user experience for assessment purposes. Such models lend themselves
particularly well to OSCEs (Objective Structured Clinical Examinations)

[email protected]
 Use of Simulation as a Tool for Assessment and for Preparing… 77

commonly used in health programmes and by the NMC to test the com-
petence of nurses and midwives and more recently adapted for use in
social work (Katz et al. 2014). Studies have identified the benefits of
using actors or staff to create more complex scenes for health and social
work education such as trauma and emergency response scenarios
(Manning et al. 2016; Olson et al. 2015) and a chaotic home environ-
ment (Mole et al. 2006) whilst still providing opportunities for students
to create and respond to real life scenarios and to interact with people
playing the roles of service users or families. Manning et al. (2016) how-
ever conclude that learner engagement is dependent on the simulation
actors and scenarios being realistic and believable.
Increasing, particularly in health programmes, are the use of virtual
patients or computer generated mannequin simulations (Washburn et al.
2016; Loomis 2016; Nimmagadda and Murphy 2014) which have
proven to be effective in enabling students to develop and practice medi-
cal interventions, improve diagnostic accuracy, clinical skills and inter-­
professional and team working (Washburn et al. 2016). Technology
enhanced simulations ensure a standardised measure of assessment, pro-
vide multiple opportunities for students to practice and develop their
skills and remove the ethical and logistical challenges of involving service
users in scenarios which may impact on their own wellbeing (Washburn
et al. 2016).
The benefits of involving service users however, is in the authenticity of
the lived experience and in the role the service user then plays in assessing
the students’ performance and providing feedback and feed forward. The
same can be said for any professional programme seeking to engage stake-
holders such as customers or employers in simulation activities. Duffy
et al. (2013) found that when moving from a model of using drama stu-
dents to service users in assessed social work role plays, students and aca-
demics expressed concern regarding the lack of standardisation and
unpredictable nature of the role plays but following the activity, identi-
fied this as one of the main strengths of the model. Students could
respond to the real reactions and emotions of service users and assessors
could observe these responses. This enhanced the authenticity of the
practice being assessed and, as such, was effective in preparing students
for the realities of the workplace where interventions are not always
predictable.

[email protected]
78 M. Hughes and A. Warren

 ssessment Models—Feedback and Feed

A
Forward
Assessment of students’ knowledge, skills and competence is a fundamen-
tal part of the learning process (Boud 1999) and for preparing students
for employability in their chosen profession. For professional programmes,
in particular, assessment provides a framework by which students can
demonstrate evidence toward eligibility for professional registration.
More recently, literature has focused on dissatisfaction of students with
the quality and nature of assessment and feedback provided in higher
education (Boud and Molloy 2013; Race 2014), leading to attempts to
engage students more actively in the assessment process with a focus on
feed forward which students can use to improve and enhance their knowl-
edge and practice (Baker and Zuvela 2013). Emphasis is on collaborating
with students to foster growth and development; an approach more con-
gruent with adult learning theories which promote autonomous learning
and enabling learners to think for themselves (Hughes 2013) rather than
more traditional didactic models of learning where the academic or
teacher is seen as the person who imparts knowledge to a passive learner.
As Crisp et al. (2006) acknowledge, however, university regulations
often assume that assessment is undertaken by academic staff, which
overlooks the increasing practice and benefits of involving stakeholders
such as practitioners, student peers and service users. Crisp et al. (2006),
Duffy et al. (2013) and Anka and Taylor (2016) all report on studies
where educators have raised concerns about incorporating service user
feedback in their assessment citing that service users may be too tolerant
of poor performance or base their feedback on popularity rather than
competence. MacLean et al. (2017), following a review of 19 studies
using simulated patients in nursing education, concluded that whilst
there is a strong evidence base for involving service users in evaluating
students’ practice in simulation activities, they found little evidence of
this happening.
The surfacing of power relations in the assessment process and the way
by which service users inform final decisions are necessary if we are to
avoid tokenistic involvement which fails to impact on the quality and

[email protected]
 Use of Simulation as a Tool for Assessment and for Preparing… 79

relevance of the feedback or the final outcome. Methods we have sought

to achieve this are outlined within the following case studies.

Case Study One: Social Work

The first case study is taken from a social work preparation for profes-
sional practice unit where students engage in an assessed role play with a
service user or carer in a simulated home visit setting. Sessions are based
in the Faculty’s skills suite where bays are set up as lounge, kitchen and
bedsit environments. Students are required to demonstrate basic inter-­
personal skills (use of appropriate questions, empathy, building a rapport
and active listening) whilst breaking difficult news. Scenarios include
informing a service user or carer that the care provider is going to change,
that the support group they attend is closing, or that they are leaving and
there isn’t yet a replacement. Each of the scenarios was developed by the
service users and carers themselves, based on examples which were real or
realistic to their own lived experience.
When developing the assessment activity with service users, we dis-
cussed the concerns about the emotional impact of re-living real experi-
ences. Service users were encouraged to choose scenarios which were
realistic rather than real, in order to protect themselves. The service users
taking part however all chose scenarios which had happened to them as
they identified this as a way of improving the experience for others. In
hindsight our own desire to ‘protect’ whilst demonstrating a duty of care,
could be explained by issues of power and control and perhaps an assump-
tion on our part regarding a person’s perceived vulnerability. People with
lived experience have a range of expertise and experience they can draw
on and become involved for many different reasons. One service user
said: ‘I feel that my opinions and my experience is valued. I am unable to
work as a nurse due to my health and this is my way of still being involved
and contributing to the caring professions’.
Having conducted the assessed role plays over four years our evalua-
tions show a number of advantages of the scenarios being based on real
experiences. Service users and carers incorporate the lived experience
into their feedback to the student ‘when that happened to me I….’ ‘what

[email protected]
80 M. Hughes and A. Warren

I found helpful in the way you did it was….’ ‘In real life, it wasn’t possible
for the service to…’. Students consistently evaluate the linking of the
feedback and assessment to actual experience as valuable in their own
understanding and development. For example, as two BA first year stu-
dents reported:

I found the role play participation really useful. It helped me with my confi-
dence and it was useful having tips on how to improve
I realised the importance of communication, how body language, eye contact
and choice of words can make a big difference

As discussed in relation to adult learning theories, it makes the learn-

ing purposeful and relevant.
In terms of emotional impact, we have yet to experience a situation
where a service user has identified a detrimental effect of taking part in
assessed simulations but a number of steps are taken to ensure that service
users have control over the process and are supported. Service users
choose the scenario themselves, they attend a preparation session, and
have the opportunity to shadow a session before taking part so they are
aware of their role and the support available. A de-briefing session is con-
ducted at the end of the morning and the number of role plays conducted
by each person is limited to five. The unit facilitator is present in the
room throughout but is not part of the role play process so is able to
respond to concerns or queries if needed.
Adequate preparation, support and de-briefing are consistently high-
lighted in the literature regarding service user involvement (Skoura-Kirk
et al. 2013; Naylor et al. 2015). Service users involved in this activity
report being valued and a respected part of the process which avoids con-
cerns raised in the literature of the service user being an invisible part of
the process or considered an outsider (Rhodes 2012; Skoura-Kirk et al.
2013; Anka and Taylor 2016),
The role play forms part of an assessment of the students’ safety and
readiness to undertake direct practice in the first year of their qualify-
ing programme. As part of the simulation activity and overall assess-
ment, students receive immediate verbal feedback from the service user
and observer (a social work practitioner) at the end of the ten minute

[email protected]
 Use of Simulation as a Tool for Assessment and for Preparing… 81

role play and students are given the opportunity to discuss their per-
formance. This provides the opportunity for the student to reflect on
both the activity itself and the feedback and feed forward received by
considering the impact of their practice on the service user and on
identifying how they can use this to inform their own developing
practice.
The discussions enable the student to engage in the stages of Kolb’s
experiential learning model by facilitating their reflective observation,
abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation. The aim is to cre-
ate a conversation with the first question being to the student—so how
do you feel that went? Both the observer and the service user are able to
support the student to self-evaluate, as recommended by Boud (1995) as
a way of fostering autonomy and self-directed learning, in addition to
providing feedback and sharing their own perspectives such as how it felt
to be the service user during the intervention.
The activity provides the student with the opportunity to practice an
intervention, be assessed and gain feedback from a qualified social worker
and someone who has used social work services, gain experience in hav-
ing their practise observed and develop their own skills in receiving and
being open to constructive feedback. Once the student has left, the prac-
titioner and the service user decide on whether to award a pass based on
set criteria in terms of inter-personal skills demonstrated during the
interview and openness to receiving the feedback and ability to reflect
after. If, for example, a student demonstrates some skills required but
made mistakes, their awareness of this and ability to identify what they
would do differently, can lead to a pass mark, whereas a student who is
defensive to the feedback or struggles to acknowledge the impact or what
they would do differently, will receive a fail and given opportunity to re-­
submit following further guidance.
Service user involvement in simulation and assessment is not without
its challenges. The social work role play scenario outlined here is con-
ducted separately with three cohorts of social work students (MA, BA
and PG Dip Social work) totalling around 80 students per year. The
input described and the infrastructure required to support it, is signifi-
cant. Social work programmes in the UK receive funding to involve ser-
vice users in the delivery of social work education as well as funding for

[email protected]
82 M. Hughes and A. Warren

skills days, enabling us to put these resources in place. For larger cohorts
of students on other programmes, this has proved much more difficult to
achieve as the next scenario demonstrates.

Case Study Two: Adult Nursing

In an adult nursing programme, students conduct a simulated handover

in a hospital bedside setting. In this activity, students undertake a nurse,
student nurse or assessor role and are provided with written feedback
from the service user after the activity. Particular emphasis is placed on
the students’ effective and accurate sharing of information in a manner
which demonstrates industry requirements for increased patient centred
focus in health care, alongside better communication, as identified in the
Francis Report (2013) and the independent inquiry into the care pro-
vided at Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust between 2005 and
2009.
Whilst having the same access to the Faculty skills suite, in this case a
simulated hospital ward, and to service user coordinator support, the
nursing programme has cohorts of around 350 students per year through
two intakes and over two campus sites, all of who undertake the assessed
activity as part of the Therapeutic Communication in Adult Nursing
unit. The challenge has been to create an activity which is meaningful for
students’ learning and provides accurate and rigorous assessment of their
skills at this stage of their programme. As with the example from social
work, the success of this unit can be attributed to the collaboration
between the lead academic, the service user coordinator and the service
users involved.
Due to large numbers, students undertake the activity in groups of
three taking on a nurse, student nurse or assessor role. This has raised
concerns regarding parity of experience with the nurse role being
most active. Opportunities for discussing the feedback with the
patient-service user are limited due to time constraints placing more
emphasis on the need for clear and constructive written feedback and
assessment. In the initial cycles of the activity we realised that there
were disparities in the length, style and tone of the feedback being

[email protected]
 Use of Simulation as a Tool for Assessment and for Preparing… 83

provided by the service users with some being particularly negative

and critical; an experience which contradicts some of the concerns
previously expressed about service users being too tolerant of poor
practice.
As part of our own processes of reflecting in and on action, we have
made a number of changes to significantly improve the learning experi-
ence for students and the quality of the assessment process, in most
cases based on the feedback provided to us by the service users them-
selves who made suggestions on how the activity could be improved.
These included clarifying expectations and professional requirements
regarding student competence at each stage of the course, amending the
feedback forms so they are more concise and easier to complete and
delivering workshops to enable service users to develop skills and feel
more confident in giving constructive feedback. This led to some notice-
able improvements including the service users demonstrating increased
confidence in giving feedback; both in completing the form and in
offering ‘real time’ verbal feedback immediately after the assessment.
Despite these challenges, the simulation activity remains particularly
well evaluated by students. Many comment on how the activity has
afforded them the opportunity to practise their skills in a safe environ-
ment, with time to reflect before they begin their next placement. Along
with the acquisition of assessment and handover skills, students gain a
greater awareness of the specific needs of the individual and how the
manner in which they conduct the assessment may need to be modified
e.g. always facing a patient who has a hearing impairment, in order for
them to lip read.
The activity is evaluated by students as a meaningful learning experi-
ence which has an impact on their future practice. This is demonstrated
by the following comments:

I found the activity useful as it felt real. Definitely it gave an understanding of

real hospital assessment; what to pay attention to and how to approach indi-
vidualised care of the patient’s needs. Our patient showed us understanding to
take over to practice, ideas to reflect upon.
I will remember this for the rest of the course. It helped me understand some
areas of improvement that could help me in practice.

[email protected]
84 M. Hughes and A. Warren

Case Study Three: Paramedic Science

The final example is from our BSc Paramedic Science programme where
applicants to the course undertake a simulated activity as part of their inter-
view day. Simulations are based on an OSCE model, as previously dis-
cussed, as applicants undertake a series of assessed simulations where they
are required to respond to different scenarios. One of the OSCE stations or
simulations is conducted by service users with others conducted by practis-
ing paramedics and academics from the course. The use of simulations as
part of the admissions process is new to paramedic science and our faculty.
It originated from a review of the admissions process within paramedic sci-
ence and the need to ensure that processes were leading to recruitment of
the best applicants. The team observed that many applicants were able to
‘say the right thing’ at interview by listing their skills, professional values
and qualities, but weren’t always able to put these into practice once on the
course. The purpose of using simulations in the assessment of candidates
was to give applicants this opportunity to demonstrate what they could do.
The simulation with service users is conducted by two members of the
BU PIER partnership who alternate between the service user or assessor
role. Whilst the scenario was initially suggested by the programme lead
(‘you are required to inform the person that their pet has died’), this was
changed by the service users as part of the planning process to informing
the service user that a relative had been involved in a road traffic accident.
The programme lead reflected that his intention had been to incorporate
a light hearted scenario; however the service users involved wanted it to
be more realistic and felt that the applicants should be assessed in relation
to how they managed the potential impact on the person they were shar-
ing the news with.
In preparation for the new admissions format, those involved con-
ducted a run through with academics, practitioners and six service users;
with current students taking on the applicant roles. Piloting the ­simulations
enabled those involved to make changes to the format and structure of the
day such as the simulation timings being changed from 10 minutes with
two minutes to record their assessment to seven minutes with three min-
utes to record, the paper work was amended to make completion easier
and the scenario was changed as mentioned above. Students fed back on
the format by comparing it to their own admissions experience. They

[email protected]
 Use of Simulation as a Tool for Assessment and for Preparing… 85

preferred the focus on applicants’ people skills as opposed to their knowl-

edge as they believed this was a more effective measure of potential. The
academic team reflected on how the use of simulation as part of the admis-
sions process (in addition to a group activity), also enabled them to
observe an applicant’s openness to feedback and ability to cope with a
challenging situation. It was evident from all involved that the opportu-
nity to pilot the activity had been fundamental to the design process.

 sing Simulation as Part of the Assessment

U
Process
From all three case studies, key themes emerged regarding the benefits of
using simulation as a tool for assessment. Students reported that engag-
ing in simulations and receiving feedback opened their eyes to the reality
of practice situations, provided opportunities to practice and make mis-
takes without the immediate pressure of being in the workplace, and to
develop a less simplistic view of the practice field they wish to go into
once qualified. A survey of paramedic science applicants found that
whilst some reported that the simulations were unexpected, many com-
mented on having valued the challenge, particularly if they felt they had
performed well. Specific comments included “it felt exciting” and “it gave
me a glimpse into the job”.
In all three case study examples, there has been feedback from some
students preferring to have more detailed information on the nature and
content of the scenario in advance so they could prepare. In our experi-
ence however, this has led to students ‘over-preparing’ by writing ques-
tions and in some cases trying to script the session. The benefits cited by
academics and service users are that students have to be responsive to a
scenario and how it unfolds and that this is a more realistic reflection of
what would happen in practice.
Where an assessment of a simulated activity involves observing stu-
dent reactions and responses to unplanned scenarios, we have found that
managing expectations and providing a clear assessment framework
enables students to adequately prepare and to engage positively in the
simulation activity even when they may not be able to predict what
happens.

[email protected]
86 M. Hughes and A. Warren

Transferability
Examples used throughout this chapter have been drawn from health and
social work programmes and the work of the BU PIER partnership in
involving service users in simulation activities. Learning from these expe-
riences is transferable as stakeholder involvement in simulation as a
method of assessment and of enhancing preparation of students for the
workplace is of relevance across disciplines and industries. A number of
themes can be identified regarding what purpose the simulation has, how
it informs student learning and subsequent professional practice and in
how it can be used to assess students’ competence and ability to put into
practice what they have learnt.
Simulating professional and practice experience provides students with
the opportunity to learn from experience and to gain feedback and be
supported to engage in reflective learning. The experience is enhanced if
it is realistic. Involving stakeholders such as service users, customers,
practitioners and employers gives credibility and authenticity to the sce-
nario and results in students engaging and committing more fully to the
activity than when they feel it is fake or unrealistic. Using simulation as
an assessment tool enables assessors to observe the students’ practice in
action and base their assessment on what they do, not what they say or
think they do. It enables students to engage and learn from practice sce-
narios which they may not yet have had the opportunity to experience
and to be supported to self-evaluate and gain feedback from that
experience.

References
Anka, A., & Taylor, I. (2016). Assessment as the site of power: A Bourdieusian
interrogation of service user and carer involvement in the assessment of social
work students. Social Work Education, 35(2), 172–185.
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effec-
tiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Classics.
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1996). Organisational learning II: Theory, method and
practice. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.

[email protected]
 Use of Simulation as a Tool for Assessment and for Preparing… 87

Baker, D. M., & Zuvela, D. (2013). Feed forward strategies in the first-year
experience of online and distributed learning environments. Assessment and
Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(6), 687–697.
Bogo, M., Regehr, C., Logie, C., Katz, E., Mylopoulos, M., & Regehr, G.
(2011). Adapting objective structured clinical examinations to assess social
work students’ performance and reflections. Journal of Social Work Education,
47(1), 5–18.
Boud, D. (1995). Meeting the challenges. In A. Brew (Ed.), Directions in staff
development (pp. 203–213). Buckingham: SRHE & Open University Press.
Boud, D. (1999). Situating academic development in professional work: Using
peer learning. International Journal for Academic Development, 4(1), 3–10.
Boud, D., & Molloy, E. (2013). Rethinking models of feedback for learning:
The challenge of design. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education,
38(6), 698–712.
Cant, R. P., & Cooper, S. J. (2017). Use of simulation-based learning in under-
graduate nurse education: An umbrella systematic review. Nursing Education
Today, 49, 63–71.
Crisp, B., Green Lister, P., & Dutton, K. (2006). Not just social work academ-
ics: The involvement of others in the assessment of social work students.
Social Work Education, 25(7), 723–734.
Duffy, J., Das, C., & Davidson, G. (2013). Service user and carer involvement in
role-plays to assess readiness for practice. Social Work Education, 32(1), 39–54.
Duncan, N., Prowse, S., Wakeman, C., & Harrison, R. (2003/4). “Feed-­forward”:
Improving students’ use of tutors’ comments. University of Wolverhampton,
Learning and Teaching Projects 2003/4:127–132. Retrieved April 13, 2018, from
http://wlv.openrepository.com/wlv/bitstream/2436/3778/1/Feed-forward%20
pgs%20127-132.pdf
Francis, R. (2013). The Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust public inquiry:
London: The Stationary Office.
Health and Care Professions Council. (2014). Service user and carer involve-
ment in education and training programmes. Retrieved September 19, 2017,
from http://hpc-uk.org/Assets/documents/10004167SUCstandardwebsitein
formation
Hughes, M. (2013). Enabling learners to think for themselves: Reflections on a
community placement. International Journal of Social Work Education, 32(2),
213–229.
Hughes, M. (2017). What difference does it make? Findings of an impact study
of service user and carer involvement on social work students’ subsequent
practice. Social Work Education, 32(2), 203–216.

[email protected]
88 M. Hughes and A. Warren

Katz, E., Tufford, L., Bogo, M., & Regehr, C. (2014). Illuminating students’
pre-practicum conceptual and emotional states: Implications for field educa-
tion. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 34, 96–108.
Knowles, M. (1990). The adult learner: A neglected species (4th ed.). London:
Gulf.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experiences as a source of learning and
development. London: Prentice Hall.
Kostoff, M., Burkhardt, C., Winter, A., & Shrader, S. (2016). Instructional
design and assessment: An inter-professional simulation using the SBAR com-
munication tool. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 80(9), 57.
Liaw, S. Y., Scherpbier, A., Rethans, J.-J., & Klainin-Yobas, P. (2012). Assessment
for simulation learning outcomes: A comparison of knowledge and self-­
reported confidence with observed clinical performance. Nurse Education
Today, 32, 35–39.
Logie, C., Bogo, M., Regehr, C., & Regehr, G. (2013). A capital appraisal of the
use of standardized client simulations in social work education. Journal of
Social Work Education, 49, 66–80.
Loomis, J. A. (2016). Expanding the use of simulation in nurse practitioner
education: A new model for teaching physical assessment. Journal for Nurse
Practitioners, 12(4), 151–157.
MacLean, S., Kelly, M., Geddes, F., & Della, P. (2017). Use of simulated patients
to develop communication skills in nursing education: An integrative review.
Nursing Education Today, 48, 90–98.
Manning, S. J., Skiff, D. M., Santiago, L., & Irish, A. (2016). Nursing and
social work trauma simulation: Exploring an interprofessional approach.
Clinical Simulation in Nursing, 12, 555–564.
Mole, L., Scarlett, V., Campbell, M., & Themessl-Huber, M. (2006). Using a
simulated chaotic home environment for preparing nursing and social work
students for interdisciplinary care delivery in a Scottish context. Journal of
Interprofessional Care, 20(5), 561–563.
Mooradian, J. K. (2007). Simulated family therapy interviews in clinical social
work education. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 27, 89–104.
Naylor, S., Harcus, J., & Elkington, M. (2015). An exploration of service user
involvement in the assessment of students. Radiography, 21, 269–272.
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC). (2017). Education framework:
Standards for education and training for all UK providers of nursing and
midwifery education. Draft for consultation. Retrieved August 22, 2017,
from https://www.nmc.org.uk/globalassets/sitedocuments/edcons/ec4-draft-
education-framework--standards-for-education-and-training.pdf

[email protected]
 Use of Simulation as a Tool for Assessment and for Preparing… 89

Nimmagadda, J., & Murphy, J. I. (2014). Using simulations to enhance inter-

professional competencies for social work and nursing students. Social Work
Education, 33(4), 539–548.
Olson, M. D., Lewis, M., Rappe, P., & Hartley, S. (2015). Innovations in social
work training: A pilot study of interprofessional collaboration using stan-
dardized clients. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher
Education, 27(1), 14–24.
Osborne, V. A., Benner, K., Sprague, D. J., & Cleveland, I. N. (2016).
Simulating real life: Enhancing social work education on alcohol screening
and brief intervention. Journal of Social Work Education, 52(3), 337–346.
Pearson, E., & McLafferty, I. (2011). The use of simulation as a learning
approach to non-technical skills awareness in final year student nurses. Nurse
Education in Practice, 11, 399–405.
Race, P. (2014). Making learning happen. A guide for post-compulsory education
(3rd ed.). London/California/New Delhi/Singapore: Sage Publications Ltd.
Rhodes, C. A. (2012). User involvement in health and social care education: A
concept analysis. Nurse Education Today, 32, 185–189.
Skoura-Kirk, E., Backhouse, B., Bennison, G., Cecil, B., Keeler, J., Talbot, D.,
& Watch, L. (2013). Mark my words! Service user and carer involvement in
social work academic assessment. Social Work Education, 32(5), 560–575.
Washburn, M., Bordnick, P., & Rizzo, A. (2016). A pilot feasibility study of
virtual patient simulation to enhance social work students’ brief mental
health assessment skills. Social Work in Health Care, 55(9), 675–693.

[email protected]
 6
Utilising Interprofessional Learning
to Engender Employability
M. Coward and A. Rhodes

Introduction
Interprofessional Learning (IPL) has become part of the culture within
the School of Health Sciences at the University of Surrey whereby our
educational provision extends across a wide range of healthcare profes-
sions (Paramedic Practice, Nursing, Midwifery and Operating
Department Practitioners) at both undergraduate and postgraduate
levels. This shift in culture has not happened overnight and is still
evolving through the delivery of our modules. The approaches to
taught undergraduate module delivery capture our curriculum philos-
ophy, which will be illuminated further by sharing our experiences of
delivering one of our Professional Preparatory modules ‘Innovation
and Leadership’. Our experiences and application of IPL as a pedagogy
has supported an evaluation that has informed our curriculum devel-
opment. However, to fully appreciate IPL and its impact on learning,

M. Coward (*) • A. Rhodes

University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2018 91

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_6

[email protected]
92 M. Coward and A. Rhodes

it is worthy of exploration as a concept to establish what the term and

its component parts actually mean and its effect on the future employ-
ability of students.

Views on Interprofessional Learning

A significant viewpoint from the Centre for Advancement of
Interprofessional Education (CAIPE 2002) concluded that the term
‘interprofessional’ denotes a situation where individuals from different
professions utilise knowledge and skills to bring about change and
improvement to practice. The term IPE has a multitude of definitions
which Barnsteiner et al. (2007) note all encompass the following terms:
common learning, shared learning, multiprofessional learning, multipro-
fessional education, collaborative education, multidisciplinary education
and interdisciplinary education. This list should be seen as an enabler for
learners to be ready to integrate into a workforce, thus increasing their
employability.
Historically, learning within one’s own profession has been common
place but over time the professions have become aware of pedagogies that
generate learning and teaching strategies that are inclusive across all pro-
fessions. The World Health Organisation (WHO 2010) identified that
the pool of healthcare professionals has been diminishing and developed
a framework to guide strategies/pedagogies for interprofessional educa-
tion (IPE). They visualised the development of healthcare workers
through IPE to create a ‘collaborative practice-ready workforce’ which in
turn would generate “collaborative practice” leading to “optimal health
services” (WHO 2010, p. 18). Leading on from this, Barr and Low
(2011) through their work developed insights into values and behaviours
that are commensurate with equality, parity and synergistic learning;
which have informed our approaches to this pedagogy.
Since 2009, UK Professional Regulators for medicine, nursing and
allied health professions have advocated the provision of IPE on all pro-
fessional preparatory programmes (NMC 2010; GMC 2009; HCPC
2014).

[email protected]
 Utilising Interprofessional Learning to Engender Employability 93

Being cognisant of the Francis report (2013) further highlights the

importance of interprofessional working and leadership in assuring the
most effective care. The Francis Report (2013) highlighted the devastat-
ing impact on the quality of patient care when interprofessional commu-
nication and care breaks down. Utilising an interprofessional approach
during professional preparation empowers the future workforce to dem-
onstrate their readiness to work in effective ways and has become an
essential component of recruitment criteria to enable employers to embed
the recommendations from Francis (2013) into their organisations.

The Pedagogy of Interprofessional Learning

The basis of our IPL framework is ‘Learning Partnerships’ across profes-
sions, whereby learning and working together engenders a sharing rela-
tionship that can be transferred to any team in any setting. These
approaches to learning partnerships prepare our students for the reality of
clinical practice where interprofessional approaches ensure safe patient
care (Francis 2013; Basit et al. 2015). We would go as far to say that IPL
is a pedagogy in its own right, that strives to achieve excellence in care,
decision making and is solution focused through connectedness and col-
laboration. Learning from one another and about one another enables us
to reflect on our actions as educators, often with students, in order to
evaluate and inform our future educational practice. In doing this, we are
evolving our pedagogy through ongoing improvement and development,
making it flexible, student centred and patient focussed. This collective
approach enhances learning through the application of Bloom’s Cognitive
Taxonomy (1964), enabling the sharing of learning, understanding,
application and effective knowledge acquisition to develop through a
structured approach. The application of Bloom (1964) constructively
enables transformation within learners, sharing knowledge and generat-
ing understanding together. This approach supports the three domains of
learning, as described by Bloom (1964): Cognitive (knowledge), Affective
(self ) and Psychomotor (skills) to be challenged and developed within the
interprofessional group. This approach should also mirror the practice

[email protected]
94 M. Coward and A. Rhodes

setting where professionals work together to enhance the patient experi-

ence (NHS 2014).
Through this educational strategy, the interconnection between learn-
ing interprofessionally and the application through a practice/theory/
practice approach makes the learning journey meaningful, whereby life-­
long learning (Jarvis 2006a) becomes more significant and achievable.
Supporting students to develop an innovation for practice whilst utilising
relevant evidence encourages them to embrace both the practical and the
theoretical components of their professional programme. This in turn
helps to produce a future workforce of healthcare staff who are able to
consider service enhancement and improvement as part of their everyday
practice. We believe that in our culture of IPL, criticality and reflective-
ness are key elements to develop greater quality improvement and
employability, which is reflected in the NMC consultation for the
Standards of Proficiency for Registered Nurses (NMC 2017).

Our Adaptation of Interprofessional Learning

At the heart of our curricula, is our students, recognising their diversity
but also their contribution to the IPL process and the transformative and
experiential journey (Phillipi 2010) that all of our students take.
Therefore, IPL is a journey of discovery and engagement across a number
of professions leading to the ultimate goal of becoming a healthcare reg-
istrant who is employed to work within an interprofessional healthcare
team.
Through this learning journey, the analysis, synthesis and evaluation of
values, knowledge and behaviours can be undertaken in the context of
many professions to discover how roles and responsibilities can form an
approach to interprofessional collaboration. Their team working, self-­
reflection and consideration are paramount to the success of this peda-
gogy (Bloom 1964).
In order to achieve a learning environment mindful of working collab-
oratively to ensure best patient outcomes, our philosophical stance within
the School of Health Sciences is grounded in humanism (Rogers et al.
2013) built around values (both personal and professional), professional

[email protected]
 Utilising Interprofessional Learning to Engender Employability 95

knowledge and behaviour (the ability to learn and apply theory to pro-
fessional practice) to establish greater inclusivity within the realms of
IPL. In addition to this, our philosophy acknowledges the social and
collaborative nature of learning and is influenced by the social construc-
tivist’s viewpoint described by Dewey (1933), and latterly applied to the
health professions by Schön (1987). These key theorists are highlighted
and discussed in taught sessions to help students appreciate the roots of
reflection within professional education. To acknowledge the students as
adult learners, opportunities are given to develop an understanding of
the theories that can be utilised and translated into practice. This
approach ensures that students are not constrained by models of reflec-
tion and develop critical and creative thinking skills to enhance their
practice (Coward 2011). These approaches integrated through our cur-
riculum have proven fundamental in supporting students to achieve
their learning goals within an interprofessional group and our students
are noted for their thoughtful approaches to their clinical practice by
mentors.
Supporting the IPL process, students are valued as adult learners
(Knowles 1980) and as such humanistic strategies are adopted to support
new ways of thinking and deep learning (Moon 2004; Schön 1987; Rolfe
et al. 2001). Humanism embraces the individual along with their experi-
ence and unique understanding shaped through their life course (Jarvis
2006b). The ideas generated within their interprofessional groups may be
challenged by facilitators but students are encouraged to think freely.
This approach enables critical thinking rather than constraining them to
the ideas of the academic with whom they are working. The facilitators,
teaching staff within the school, role model and approach of experiential
or discovery learning that enables staff to share their own reflections in
order to help students understand how they might learn from their own
practice experiences (Dewey 1938; Bolton 2014). Staff therefore openly
role model their own success with reflection.
These approaches steer students to the concept of reflection, learning
from thoughtful doing, rather than giving them a method of thinking
with subheadings, as is offered by so many models of reflection (Coward
2011). These strategies form a meaningful framework that has made our
IPL approach worthy of sharing. We believe this approach develops life-

[email protected]
96 M. Coward and A. Rhodes

long criticality that can be recontextualised (Bradbury et al. 2010) within

any interprofessional team and clinical environment and therefore is
essential to future employability.

Introduction to the Innovation and Leadership

Module
To contextualise the module in terms of the curriculum, the Innovation
and Leadership module is designed to occur in the second year of the BSc
programme at a time when students are also studying other profession
specific modules and undertaking an elective placement in a clinical area
of their choice. The timing of this module is significant, as newly acquired
knowledge and experience through the first year and professionally
focused knowledge from second year modules, can be applied within the
realms of this IPL strategy.
The module runs weekly over the course of three months split
between ‘whole group’ core lectures and learning sets. The core lectures
capture the underpinning concepts of leadership but more importantly
leadership in the context of team working extending into change man-
agement. The learning sets (12–14 in total depending on student num-
bers) enable smaller group working in interprofessional groups
facilitated by an academic member of staff. However, each set is subse-
quently split further into even smaller interprofessional groups of 6–8
students. Through the core lectures and the learning sets, the students
engage in the works of Tuckman (1965) and Belbin (1981) and are
asked to undertake a self-­assessment of their role within their team
(learning set) but to also appreciate and understand how a team func-
tions. Belbin presented team roles and descriptions: Plant, Resource
Investigator, Co-ordinator, Shaper, Monitor Evaluator, Team Worker,
Implementer, Completer and Specialist. This self-assessment forms an
important part of the critical analysis of the IPL learning set and their
contribution to the team’s effectiveness through an analytical apprecia-
tion. The students start to generate a deep understanding of what their
role is within this arena and observe the traits of others within the
learning set.

[email protected]
 Utilising Interprofessional Learning to Engender Employability 97

The ethos of the module is to encourage students to engage in a unique

learning experience, considering their own and other team member’s
roles leading to self-insight, reflection and ultimately, an awareness of the
diversity in interprofessional teams. Through the learning sets students
identify an innovation, problem or an area of practice that requires devel-
opment and/or improvement.
The module encourages reflection and reflexivity (as a pedagogical
method and an assessment form), whereby explicit and tacit knowledge
(Gulick 2016; Brummell et al. 2016) can be shared, celebrating suc-
cesses and identifying areas for further enquiry in order to engender
deep learning. This approach is deliberate in order to nurture students to
develop a critical stance within their professional practice, intrinsically
developing their motivation to seek an understanding of complex situa-
tions and not become complacent or potentially unsafe. Our approach
to reflection involves both staff and students with an aim to deepen
everyone’s consideration of their professional roles which is worthy of
further exploration.

Contemporary Reflection
A non-traditional approach to reflection in healthcare education has been
creatively developed within the School to support students to become
reflective and thoughtful practitioners. Students are coached in the pur-
poses of reflection, learning from experience (Dewey 1938), developing
knowledge from these experiences (Carper 1978) and then applying their
knowledge in order to demonstrate sound approaches to their practice
(Benner 1984). This reflective approach discourages students from access-
ing traditional ‘models of reflection’ but supports them to trust their
thinking by being thoughtful. Students are asked to embrace the word
‘significant’, noting what they see that matters to them in the first instance
but to then translate that to develop their practice. Bolton (2010) high-
lights the need for professionals (and students of the professions) to
explore what might be significant and open their eyes, literally to make
sense of what is in front of them. In ensuring that they pick up on what
they ‘notice,’ the students are being encouraged to trust their own view of

[email protected]
98 M. Coward and A. Rhodes

professional practice. This is an attempt in encouraging them to become

more independent thinkers with the ability to rationalise their viewpoints
and judgements. Rather than waiting for a mentor or educator to ask
them to make a change, they will in fact utilise their knowledge and
­experience in order to consider what might be different. Within this mod-
ule, students are actively encouraged and supported to trust themselves
and speak up, within a safe environment whilst engaging in their learning
sets but with consideration to the care setting in which they practice.
From the outset of the module, students are encouraged to keep a for-
mative reflective journal to provide a ‘think place’ for their experiences
but to also form part of their assessment (Moon 2004). The reflective
journal element of the module, is seen as enabling them to consider all of
their experiences whilst learning, in order for them to ‘sort’ what may or
may not be relevant.

Interprofessional Learning Sets

All students across all professions attend the core lectures within this
module but the uniqueness of this IPL strategy is the learning sets. The
large group is split into smaller IPL learning sets with a membership
reflecting nursing (adult, mental health and child), midwifery, paramedic
and operating department practitioner students. The logistics of design-
ing the interprofessional groups is complex but they are viewed positively
by students who evaluate the module on completion.
The learning journey through the sets is structured with specific activi-
ties to build from the core lectures, thereby applying the concepts of
leadership and team working into the experience of their group collabo-
rations. Each week the activities commence with a core lecture topic,
ranging from reflective approaches to leadership and management
through to service user involvement, service redesign and financial chal-
lenges. Through this involvement in the activities, relationships begin to
build whereby individuals can share, discuss and pose questions, learning
from one another within their varying professional groups. This strategy
engenders IPL at all stages, which would not be easy to facilitate in the
large group. The distinctiveness of the sets both contextualises and

[email protected]
 Utilising Interprofessional Learning to Engender Employability 99

recontextualises existing knowledge and skills utilising learning experi-

ences gained from both theory and practice. Through the learning set, it
becomes apparent that the students are able to assimilate a specific skill
set that clearly begins to enhance the team working. Through this experi-
ence, each set develop an awareness of how each individual’s contribution
makes the team stronger. Part of the IPL strategy is to keep the learning
set membership unchanged throughout the module journey, enabling a
peer group to be formed who are able to truly undertake action learning
by the end of the module.

 xamples from the Innovation and Leadership

E
Module
Having discussed the module structure and learning sets as the main
strategy for IPL, we would like to present our experiences.

Student Perceptions

From group to group, initial reactions to the module vary and the need
to understand the summative assessment requirements, discussed during
the first core lecture, becomes the priority for many students. Although
students prioritise assessments, the module team are keen to embed the
philosophy of IPL at this early stage. The students are asked to keep a
reflective journal as a weekly record of their IPL experiences within their
sets which informs the two-part summative assessment based on an inno-
vation in clinical practice. On realising that they may be dependent upon
each other, in a group not selected by them, a sense of anxiety is visible in
the lecture theatre from the outset. However, the philosophical underpin-
ning for this approach is the need for health care professionals to work in
teams.
It is without doubt that the learning sets are an unknown entity for the
students but the one thing that assists the groups to settle into their learn-
ing sets is the skilled approach taken by the facilitator, generating an
atmosphere of value, warmth and security which is an important part of

[email protected]
100 M. Coward and A. Rhodes

the IPL process. The following excerpts confirm the pedagogical

approaches taken within the module action learning sets.

Group A is made up of 8 students. There are 2 adult nursing students, 2 mid-

wifery students, one paramedic student, one ODP student and 2 mental health
nursing students. The facilitator for the group (Tilly) is an experienced nurse
teacher who is an advocate of reflective learning.

The membership of group A is typical of all IPL sets and as Tilly meets
the students within the learning sets for the first time, techniques of
group working are applied through sharing ground rules. It is important
to recognise at this juncture that for IPL sets, strategies need to be more
defined and focused on relationships initially rather than the task.

Group A meet for the first time in a classroom. They are quiet and do not look
engaged as Tilly notes on entering the room. The group are asked to introduce
one another and share what they feel the purpose of the module might be. There
is an air of negativity which Tilly allows, with students saying that they have
too many stresses to deal with this now.

To overcome the anxiety and feelings of negativity, humanism and

social constructivism are learning theories that are explicitly utilised but
in a measured way in order to generate an environment to support learn-
ing from and with one another. This safe space ensures students are able
to speak freely and critically explore their own and others’ views. Whilst
this might be challenging it gives an opportunity to demonstrate and
utilise the values associated with IP team work and the benefits that
brings. The plan of learning for this initial set is designed in time phases
of 5–10 minutes with deliberate activities to generate friendliness, com-
munication and security and with the setting of ground rules strives to
achieve a value based approach of respect and collaboration. The main
aim of this session is to build relationships within the teams.

Tilly recounts a story from her own clinical practice where she sees a situation
in patient care which is not ideal. She notices the situation, reflects on it and
considers what might be improved. Tilly shares with the group how she expressed
her thoughts for improvement with a senior colleague who laughed at her.

[email protected]
 Utilising Interprofessional Learning to Engender Employability 101

However, Tilly was adamant that a service improvement was necessary and
would also be beneficial. It is at this point that Tilly realises she has the atten-
tion of the group, they are almost frustrated as they share her understanding.

To find an innovation for each individual learning set to work on is

very complex and can be quite time consuming as there needs to be effec-
tive communication, negotiation, collaboration and respect.

Tilly asks the group to consider what they find to be a problem in practice which
they believe they have a solution for? She receives an overwhelming response and
then the paramedic in the group states ‘it needs to be something that we are all
interested in.’ Tilly allows the group time to consider this, then the paramedic
goes on to say, ‘you are all talking about acute settings but I work mostly in the
community and that’s where your patients all come from.’ There is acknowl-
edgement by all that this is the case. One of the mental health nurses suggests
that everyone has mentioned record keeping in some shape or form and then
poses an idea;
‘I came across a lady with dementia recently at home. Her husband was
struggling to keep track of how much she was drinking. He kept some plastic
drinking bottles and painted them different colours. Every time she drank a
glass of water or a cup of tea, he placed a bottle on the mantel piece. It was
almost like a game in terms of her seeing success at what her fluid intake was
but he was also getting to record her intake to share with the care staff when
they came in. Surely that could be used in a busy ward where everyone is so
busy. I appreciate as a paramedic that may not be relevant?’
The paramedic students then said, ‘well it is, because it would prevent her
getting an infection, becoming more confused, falling over and us getting called
out. I get that this is important in terms of patient safety.’

It is the role of the facilitator to move between the smaller IPL sets,
assessing when there is readiness to fully participate, which effectively
commences the generation of team building.

Tilly suggested that the group consider how they might split the work they
needed to do in order to undertake background reading to find evidence and
policy to support their innovation idea. The paramedic took the lead on this
and suggested they work in pairs. She then asked that they establish a ‘WhatsApp’
group so that they could communicate on their progress.

[email protected]
102 M. Coward and A. Rhodes

The key role of monitoring the effectiveness and functioning of the

IPL sets rests with the facilitator who may step in to assist the team to
refocus when necessary. The facilitators for each IPL set are able to share
questions and puzzles on the virtual learning platform, thus enhancing
the understanding of all to aid critical enquiry. This supports IPL and
also ensures that problems and queries are shared to develop a culture of
openness and enquiry.

Tilly commended them for working well to establish themselves and agree a
project. She also offered that they could contact her should they have any ques-
tions during the time prior to them meeting again as an ALS.

The Emergence of Group Performance and Team Roles

From a facilitator’s perspective, it is clear to see that within the early

stages of the Innovation and Leadership module, there can be, and some-
times are, particularly difficult situations erupting within the groups that
may interfere with group performance. Through an analysis of the works
of Tuckman (1965) and Belbin (1981), the groups begin to appreciate
the complexities of how groups function. This theory lends itself to their
own exploration within the IPL set and encourages deep exploration
within the group (Tuckman 1965).
In considering this concept, Tuckman (1965) talked of Forming,
Storming, Norming and Performing in his model of group performance
and how long each group stays in each stage is dependent on the team
members but also the facilitator. The forming stage may take some time
but once they are secure, they take themselves through to the storming
phase where they discuss and put forward their ideas as to what the inno-
vation could be. It is crucial that the facilitator observes the strength and
depth of the storming phase to ensure that the skills of communication,
negotiation and delegation are all being utilised by the team appropri-
ately. Through this collaboration, the team enters into the decision-­making
process and agrees on the innovation that they will be working on. If the
decision is not made, the team will lose precious time and will remain in
the storming phase. The next time the team meet, they will commence

[email protected]
 Utilising Interprofessional Learning to Engender Employability 103

back within the same stage with the inability to move on until a decision
has been taken. The start of the module, enables the facilitators to share
previous examples of projects undertaken by learning sets. These exam-
ples are meant to spark interest, not to be repeated. In most cases, at least
one member of the group shows an area of interest in which they wish to
explore further the potential for an innovation. Placing this module in
year 2 was a strategic curriculum decision as it was hoped that students
would have enough clinical experience along with professional voice to
drive their ideas forward. Having undertaken this module for several
years now, it is evident that this is the case.
The pedagogy of this learning and teaching strategy is not haphazard
but is carefully designed to ensure that all teams function steadily, mov-
ing from one stage to the next in a timely way rather than labouring
within a specific stage, potentially creating conflict and not achieve the
elements of the task. If the activity is stalled for whatever reason, the
momentum and continuity of the team’s function will be delayed which
will have an effect on their motivation. Through these observations,
Belbin’s (1981) work associated with team role theory can be applied by
the students to enable them to further understand the mechanisms of
their learning set and the characters within it.
By asking students to complete a self-assessment of their team role(s)
it becomes clear to see how the roles are being played out during the IPL
sets. The students, through this engagement appear to become insightful
as to the function of their team, their contribution and through Belbin’s
(1981) role theory, attribute and measure their support to the process.
These elements form part of the students formative and summative assess-
ment requirements for the module. Each week the students meet in their
IPL sets, there is a visible warmth, demonstrating the motivation they
have to work together and achieve the best possible outcome for their
innovation. It is also apparent, that students often feel uncomfortable
with their initial observations, feeling that they are being critical to col-
leagues. However, they start to appreciate that Belbin’s team roles are
visible in most groups in which they will work, and that all of the roles
have an important function in supporting one another to succeed. This
supports students to develop an appreciation for the varying roles and see
the worth of individuals rather than their personality or work types.

[email protected]
104 M. Coward and A. Rhodes

The final taught day of the module, embraces the learning journey that
has been undertaken by the whole group and its subgroups. They take it
in turn to present their learning set innovation to the rest of the group
receiving feedback and evaluation from their peers. This is a meaningful
time in which they are able to rationalise their project in respect of rele-
vant policy and evidence.

 tudent Evaluation of the Innovation and Leadership

S
Module

One group of eight students highlighted that their innovation was well
received and was in fact adopted by one of the local NHS trusts on an
elderly care ward where it is still being used. This type of innovation is
important in demonstrating to students how they can play a part in
affecting change which will enhance the care setting.
The influence this module has had on students has been captured
within the module evaluation questionnaire whereby the students are
asked to offer free form qualitative comments. Example of students’ feed-
back is given below:

Having to set up an innovation was helpful in understanding how difficult it

can be to work as a team with different opinions and get people motivated to
make changes. The module was very interesting.
I enjoyed learning about Belbin team roles and found that they were quite
accurate.
I think the subject matter is very relevant to the job. I will use the principles
of team working in my role every day … overall I feel more confident walking
into a new team knowing where I fit into most teams.

The overall feedback from students on the module demonstrates the

depth of learning and understanding that has occurred but more impor-
tantly the depth of confidence that the students gain from this experience
is translated into their clinical practice and team working. It is also sig-
nificant to note that our practice partners have commended this module
approach, noting the ways in which Surrey students consider the solu-
tions to practice challenges.

[email protected]
 Utilising Interprofessional Learning to Engender Employability 105

Conclusion
As the Innovation and Leadership module challenges students to under-
take an interprofessional approach to providing a solution to a ‘problem’
in practice, it encourages students to look for aspects of care which can be
improved. The experience of this module demonstrates enhancement of
the student experience incorporating concepts of multi-professional peer
review and critical thinking.
The knowledge which they gain from one another is seen as valuable to
their current and future practice (Carper 1978) and the experience of IPL
is in preparation for working towards becoming a health care professional
with unique professional knowledge (Benner 1984). Key authors such as
Benner (1984) and Carper (1978) considered the impact of experience in
nursing generating professional knowledge and expertise in practice and
these concepts are worthy of consideration in terms of IPL. Through
utilising both experience and knowledge, with reflection, students will
start to assemble their own approaches to practice utilising relevant evi-
dence to ensure safe care (Francis 2013).
During the module experience, students are supported by academic
staff and their multi-professional group peers to develop contemporane-
ous approaches that are both novel and creative to support innovation in
the practice setting. Within the learning sets, students develop an appre-
ciation of their group and individual skills and qualities relating to team
working and leadership across varying fields of practice. The evaluation of
the module shows that many students initially struggle with the interpro-
fessional approach taken. However, their comments by the end of the
module demonstrate the worth of their IPL and greater insight for the
professions with whom they work and study alongside. Some of their
understandings come about through their scholarship within the mod-
ule, such as the exploration of theories relating to teamwork and leader-
ship. The diversity of the multi-professional groups enables challenge and
criticality to develop novel approaches which enhance a specific and
agreed (by the group) element of practice. This collaboration enables the
creation of a clinical innovation to be developed for application in the
practice setting.

[email protected]
106 M. Coward and A. Rhodes

Learning together and building professional trust enables students to

share and explore one another’s profession specific knowledge that they
have accrued to date in their learning journey. Within this knowledge are
the ‘nuggets’ of practice, described by Benner (1984) as ‘maxims.’ Maxims
are what Benner (1984) defined as areas of knowledge that can only be
understood by other ‘experts’ with a deep understanding also. These max-
ims will often underpin and determine judgement (Dreyfus 1982)
although to the onlooker they may be less apparent. Upon questioning
an expert, they would be able to start to give a rationale but further prob-
ing would lead them to realise the level of aesthetic knowledge (Carper
1978) or ‘craft’ that they are utilising in their thinking (Benner 1984).
This craft knowledge is visible in students early in their professional learn-
ing. Watching them share early maxims within their learning sets shows
their understanding and application. The use of reflection within the
module further teases out their understanding along with their questions
and learning.
If we had one recommendation from our experience, it would be to
contact past students who are now qualified to see if this module has and
is still having an impact on their ability to affect change through inter-
professional team working and the development of clinical innovations.
The ethos of the module is to support students in developing an
appreciation for interprofessional learning and decision making by
being able to shape their learning journey and develop their team’s inno-
vation. The students are very proud of their ability to choose an aspect
of care that will enhance the patients’ experience and the quality of the
patient outcomes. As facilitators of this creative pedagogical approach,
we too feel a sense of fulfilment relating to the students’ integration in
IPL and their achievements. The students remember the IPL sets and
often recollect the events of the action learning that took place. This
module has shown us that this innovation extends beyond knowledge
acquisition to a much deeper development of confidence and interpro-
fessional transferable skills that can be utilised across many situations
and clinical environments.
Leading on from this, the confidence that the students gain encourages
them to see practice in a new light, not accepting that ‘custom and prac-
tice’ is the only way to deliver care but to individualise meaningful care
for each patient offering diversity and equality. The students seem to

[email protected]
 Utilising Interprofessional Learning to Engender Employability 107

embrace the transferrable skills that they have developed with the ability
to utilise and finely tune conceptual skills such as communication, com-
passion, courage and the care of differing patients and clients. Strikingly,
the students demonstrate a true professional commitment towards their
role as a healthcare professional, which is a motivating factor the aca-
demic module team.
The intention of our IPL pedagogical approach is to support both
facilitators and students to gain insights across their professional groups
to enable the analysis of their values and beliefs in respect of their clinical
practice approaches. With future curriculum design, our own learning
from the approaches taken will inform team considerations to module
and programme design, in order to utilise the potential benefits of IPL
more broadly across a three-year programme.

References
Barnsteiner, J. H., Disch, J. M., Hall, L., Mayer, D., & Moore, S. M. (2007).
Promoting interprofessional education. Nursing Outlook, 55(3), 144–150.
Barr, H., & Low, H. (2011). Principles of interprofessional education. UK: CAIPE.
Basit, T., Eardley, A., Borup, R., Shah, H., Slack, K., & Hughes, A. (2015).
Higher education institutions and work-based learning in the UK: Employer
engagement within a tripartite relationship. Higher Education, 70(6),
1003–1015.
Belbin, R. M. (1981). Management teams: Why they succeed or fail. Oxford:
Butterworth Heinemann.
Benner, P. E. (1984). From novice to expert: Excellence and power in clinical nurs-
ing practice. California: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
Bloom, B. (1964). A handbook of educational objectives—The cognitive domain.
New York: McKay.
Bolton, G. (2010). Reflective practice writing and professional development (3rd
ed.). London: Sage Publications.
Bradbury, H., Frost, N., Kilminster, S., & Zukas, M. (2010). Beyond reflective
practice: New approaches to professional lifelong learning. London: Routledge.
Brummell, S. P., Seymour, J., & Higginbottom, G. (2016, May).
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation decisions in the emergency department: An
ethnography of tacit knowledge in practice. Social Science and Medicine, 156,
47–54.

[email protected]
108 M. Coward and A. Rhodes

Carper, B. A. (1978). Fundamental patterns of knowing in nursing. Advances in

Nursing Science, 1(1), 13–24.
Centre for Advancement of Interprofessional Education (CAIPE). (2002).
Interprofessional education: The definition. UK: CAIPE.
Coward, M. (2011). Does the use of reflective models restrict critical thinking
and therefore learning in nurse education. What have we done? Nurse
Education Today, 31, 883–886.
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. New York: Prometheus Books.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. USA: Macmillan.
Dreyfus, S. E. (1982). Formal models vs. human situational understanding:
Inherent limitations on the modelling of business expertise. Office Technology
and People, 1, 133–155.
Francis, R. (2013). Report of the Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust Public
Inquiry Volume 1: Analysis of evidence and lessons learned (part 1). HC 898-­
I. London: The Stationery Office.
General Medical Council. (2009). Tomorrow’s doctors. Manchester: GMC.
Gulick, W. (2016). Relating Polanyi’s Tacit Dimension to Social Epistemology:
Three Recent Interpretations. Social Epistemology, 30(3), 297–325.
Health and Care Professions Council. (2014). Standards of education and train-
ing. London: Health and Care Professions Council. Retrieved September 16,
2017, from www.hpc-uk.org/aboutregistration/standards/sets/
Jarvis, P. (2006a). Learning practical knowledge. New Directions for Adult and
Continuing Education, 1992(55), 89–95.
Jarvis, P. (2006b). Towards a comprehensive theory of human learning. London:
Routledge.
Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to
andragogy. Wilton, CT: Association Press.
Moon, J. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning. London:
Routledge.
National Health Service. (2014). NHS five year forward view. London: HMSO.
Nursing and Midwifery Council. (2010). Standards for pre-registration nursing
education. London: NMC.
Nursing and Midwifery Council. (2017). Standards for pre-registration nursing
education: Consultation. London: NMC.
Phillipi, J. (2010). Transformative learning in healthcare. PAACE Journal of
Lifelong Learning, 19, 39–54.
Rogers, C. R., Lyon, H. C., & Tausch, R. (2013). On becoming an effective
teacher—Person-centered teaching, psychology, philosophy, and dialogues with
Carl R. Rogers. London: Routledge.

[email protected]
 Utilising Interprofessional Learning to Engender Employability 109

Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., & Jasper, M. (2001). Critical reflection in nursing and
the helping professions: A user’s guide. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological
Bulletin, 63(6), 384.
World Health Organisation. (2010). Framework for action on interprofessional
education and collaborative practice. Geneva: WHO Press.

[email protected]
 Part III
University Strategies to Optimise
Students’ Learning While in the
Work Based Learning Setting

[email protected]
 7
Embedding Work Based Learning
Opportunities into an Undergraduate
Curriculum Through Participation
in a Touring Dance Company
C. Childs

Introduction
Securing employment within the dance profession upon graduation is
highly competitive and generally statistics that come from surveys such
as the Destinations of Leavers from Higher Education (DLHE) reflect
a mixed picture based on six-month post-graduation in comparison to
other more traditional subject areas, but are still considered an impor-
tant measurement of employment trends. Creative arts students often
take longer to establish their careers with employers who require a track
record or portfolio of professional experiences and this group are also
reported in Institute of Fiscal Studies/Nuffield Foundation Report
(2016) as graduates who attract the lowest earnings. In June 2016, the
Department for Education published the first Longitudinal Education
Outcome (LEO) dataset which looked at employment and earnings from
graduate cohorts in 2008/09, 2010/11 and 2012/13 (DfE 2016a, b).

C. Childs (*)
University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2018 113

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_7

[email protected]
114 C. Childs

Providing opportunities for dance students to gain relevant work based

learning (WBL) experiences whilst still studying is becoming essential
and will be explored within this chapter and questions whether this
approach can positively impact employment progression.
When the subject of dance came into the higher education setting in
1974, The Art of Movement Studio, later to become the Laban Centre
for Movement and Dance (LCMD) developed a three year Diploma in
Dance Theatre; the focus was on movement studies, and the term
‘employability’ which has become common place now, was not a central
focus. By 1977 the LCMD had validated the first BA Dance Theatre
programme awarded by the Council for National Academic Awards.
Today, university dance programmes and vocational training centres now
include a variety of specific vocationally orientated modules with the
emphasis in supporting students into employment, made even more rel-
evant by the responsibility of student debts following the substantial
increase in tuition fees to £9000 in 2012. The Quality Assurance Agency
Higher Education Review: Themes for 2015–16 highlighted the impor-
tance of student employability and stated that this priority “reflects a
growth in public interest in the extent to which higher education is pro-
viding the professional skills needed by industry and society in general”
(QAA 2014, p. 6). The expansion of dance at university level has resulted
in over 1175 undergraduate dance degree students completing each year
according to the Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA 2016) in
2015–16. These graduates are from approximately 196 vocational train-
ing and university dance courses from fifty-two institutions, giving an
indication of the potential employment competition. The Teaching
Excellence Framework (Department for Education 2016a, b, pp. 21–22)
identified key metrics including employment outcomes and the impor-
tance of university programme level preparations such as providing WBL
opportunities which was reflected the panel feedback comments to the
University of Chichester (UoC) which stated a ‘proactive approach to
employer engagement including employability skills training embedded
in the curriculum which develop highly valued employability skills’
(HEFCE 2017). This chapter explores the impact of an embedded learn-
ing approach at the UoC to provide BA Dance students with WBL expe-
riences as part of a contemporary dance company. It examines the setting

[email protected]
 Embedding Work Based Learning Opportunities… 115

up, learning experiences and reflections of the 2015–16 cohort whilst

also drawing on the first year post graduation trends of 2014 and the
2010 dance company destinations to provide a longitudinal study of
dance graduates progression and subject specific employment focus link-
ing the transferability of the skills undertaken during their studies. This
chapter suggests that by providing students with WBL in external set-
tings, it enables them to deepen their subject knowledge and increase
their confidence through a continuous reflective approach that provides
a smoother transition into employment in the dance industry. A sample
of reflections from individual student project reports suggest a developed
metacognitive awareness and these are shared within this chapter to pro-
vide further data evidence.
The level six Dance Production (DP) module represents a quarter of
the student’s final year assessments with the module operating as ‘3Fall
Dance Company’ (3Fall). Enabling students to specialise and take greater
responsibility in their choices as they progress through their studies,
would seem to help the transition into their career choice upon gradua-
tion and the research has adopted the following methodology:

Section 1 An overview of the DP module—experiencing real time

practice.
Section 2 Dance employment and career progression destinations.
Section 3 Case Study 1—2015–16 3Fall cohort,
Case Study 2—2014–15 3Fall cohort—initial destinations
post-­graduation,
Case Study 3—2009–10 3Fall cohort—7 years
post-graduation.

 ection 1—Experiencing Real Time Practice

S
in 3Fall Dance Company
The impact for students when a module has embedded WBL, and the
approach of working with students as partners in their own learning with
increasing levels of autonomy and independence, is at the heart of the
pedagogic philosophy. Healey et al. identify a partnership approach as

[email protected]
116 C. Childs

enabling “a more authentic engagement with the very nature of learning

itself, understood as an experiential process of reflection and transforma-
tion, in relation to oneself and with others” (2014, p. 17). The initial
setting up of the DP module is essential in establishing the culture and
working practices; involving students committing to the collaborative
creation and touring of a repertoire of dance works and self-motivation
for the individual’s personal and professional development when dealing
in public facing situations. The three discipline areas—performers,
administrators and technicians are co-dependent in this process, although
it can take time to develop the necessary specialist, technical, communi-
cation and transferable skills. These attributes were identified in the
Higher Education Academy (HEA) Framework for Embedding
Employability in Higher Education (HEA 2015) based on Cole and
Tibby’s (2013) ‘Defining and developing your approach to employabil-
ity’. The student learning is divided to include the creation and collabora-
tion with professional choreographers to create an evening repertoire of
dance; undertaking performance bookings and working to the contracts
set out by the theatre venue, delivering teaching workshops booked by
the venue, adapting to different lighting rigs and theatre crews to prepare
the stage and undertaking special projects, such as a residency to create a
new work for a less experienced school dance group to perform providing
a valuable performance opportunity, knowledge transfer and learning
experience for all.
Working to a brief within 3Fall involves the tutor commissioning cho-
reographers to make suitable works for touring to public audiences, over-
seeing and troubleshooting throughout the year and giving guidance to
consolidate and improve the learning from one situation to the next.
Hereafter, the remaining works that make up the repertoire are decided
in discussion with the administration team. This can be a pressurised
situation and dance students need resilience and maturity to be able to
respond to feedback, alongside developing self-refinement and the per-
fecting of individuals own technical, expressive, communication and per-
formance skills. This execution through on-going discussion, reflective
practice and rehearsals in the studio/theatre setting are essential and as
Policastro and Gardner (2010) state “creativity is not solely as the prod-
uct of an individual mind, but rather as the result of a dynamic ­interaction

[email protected]
 Embedding Work Based Learning Opportunities… 117

among the creative ‘individual’, the ‘domain’ in which he or she works,

and the set of judges (or field) that assesses the quality of work(s) that
have been executed” (in Sternberg 2010, p. 214). The teaching approach
is based on tutor facilitation and empowering students to take responsi-
bilities with problem-solving to manage challenging situations, effective
communication and through ‘learning by doing’ but having the space to
make mistakes.
The three specialisations of performers, administrators and theatre
technicians have technical and artistic elements to master and the initial
learning period is spent exploring and honing skills such as learning/cre-
ating new choreography, devising appropriate publicity and marketing
material following a photo shoot and developing lighting designs with
the choreographers. Each sub-team develops their independence and
identity with specialist roles emerging alongside team and company roles.
As the module progresses, the aim is to give students increased levels of
autonomy and independence where possible, with the students working
alongside the tutors to develop their skills in selecting, refining and per-
fecting in each of the specialist areas. Empowering students with confi-
dence in their skills set is essential to undertake whilst in the learning
environment, but to take them out of their comfort zone in order to
make the transition to employment more manageable having worked
with an externally focussed framework.
The setting up of the module starts in the previous academic year when
students audition for the performer’s role or apply through a curriculum
vitae for the administrator’s and technician’s roles. Auditioning is an
example of a real situation for assessing and selecting potential dance
applicants and this process is essential preparation for future experiences.
The audition instantly brings in a competitive element because similar to
a real job application, numbers are limited. This formal audition/inter-
view process sets out the expectations and as a result if selected there is
the sense of achievement that is similar to securing a job.
The working practices of the module draws on David Kolb’s Experiential
Learning Model (1984) to analyse in more detail the creative process and
application to the DP module experience. This exploration interest ini-
tially formed part of a wider programme level study entitled ‘Dance
Map—The Employability Journey: A Toolkit for Mapping Employability

[email protected]
118 C. Childs

Journeys’ (Childs and Clegg 2016) and was developed as part of the
Higher Education Academy Strategic Enhancement Programme. Kolb
(2015, p. 18) identified what he describes as the contemporary applica-
tions of experiential learning theory, and specifically relevant to this
chapter, experiential education is described as ‘on-the-job training/learn-
ing’. Kolb also broadly categories artistic practitioners such as performers
and technicians within the divergent learners section (Kolb 2015, p. 184)
in the diagram entitled ‘The Structure of Careers shown in relation to the
Structure of Learning Knowledge and Fields of Inquiry’ in four areas of
learning—Divergent, Assimilative, Convergent and Accommodative.
Kolb offers a hierarchical categorisation with the ‘artist’ at the pinnacle.
Interestingly though, this approach takes time to embed into the working
process and the externally facing nature of the dancer’s role such as receiv-
ing ‘feedback’ through the applause from the audiences, can make their
role appear to have a prominence and links to Kolb’s reference to the ‘art-
ist’. In addition, the learning experience is also about generic and trans-
ferable skills and these less tangible qualities, once described as ‘soft skills’,
are not always recognised with the same importance by the students until
much later in the reflective process.
Engaging dance students to utilise their creative and interdisciplinary
skills is part of the everyday studio based practice but coupling this with
developing confidence and resilience in new settings, alongside taking on
new responsibilities and leadership roles is a chance for students to bring
together the components that prepare them for employment. As Barnes
states in her article entitled Graduate Salaries and new Challenges for the
Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, ‘Arts, humanities and social sciences
creates graduates who are well equipped to deal with the challenges we
face today: to analyse and evaluate evidence; to describe and contextual-
ise, pointing out and unravelling complexity; to be resilient, adaptable
and flexible, with an ability to navigate change’ (2017). The importance
placed on developing and honing discipline specific skills such as master-
ing and executing technical dance, runs alongside the freedom to develop
new ideas and new ways of moving conveyed through choreographic
concepts or themes that are important to the individual, the choreogra-
pher and ultimately communicated with the audience. This links more
closely with a dialogic learning approach which “in experiential learning

[email protected]
 Embedding Work Based Learning Opportunities… 119

fully immersing oneself (internal), with bodily, emotional and cognitive

awareness in the activity (external), creates the greatest potential for
learning to happen” (Desmond and Jowitt 2012, p. 223). Technical dance
considerations include lighting, stage management, sound, health and
safety, producing workable documentation for cues as well as liaising
with choreographers, to develop the scenography wanted by the different
choreographers, are the challenges faced by the technicians. Dance per-
formance training is about holistically nurturing the whole dancer to
become a physical and articulate practitioner and “attending to somatic
experience allows the whole person to be included in the learning pro-
cess, not just the cognitive aspect of the learner” (ibid 2012, p. 225). This
dialogical experiential learning approach enables the sharing of co-­
creating in the devising, interactions when performing and informs
teaching pupils in a school whilst working to professional standards.
Figure 7.1 draws on Kolb’s original 1984 model (later Kolb refers to
the development of levels of integrative complexity (2015)) whilst repre-
senting the cyclical dance students’ learning journey and works from the
outside in with the individual learners (outer circle—the creative process)
through increased autonomy (middle circle—refining craft/touring) to
independence (inner circle—repetition of practice-led methodology) as a
reflective practitioner. This connects the student engagement of plan-
ning/rehearsing/repeating/refining reflecting the concrete creative experi-
ence of engaging directly with professional choreographers and theatre
venues and a further layer of analysing/reflective observations/sharing
and group planning to develop a critical understanding. Application of
knowledge to new situations and implementing the studio learning in the
new theatre context, run in parallel to maintaining and enhancing tech-
nical and interpretive skills. Developing independence for improvement,
and maintenance of fitness and technique/building on each performance
in relation to performance skills and communication with the audience,
empowers students with greater autonomy, enhance student’s ability to
reflect; to deepen/perfect subject knowledge and the sharing of embodied
knowledge with others through teaching and performing.
Working alongside professional dance artists, lighting designers, arts
administrators specialising in marketing and promotion, is providing real
‘work experience’ with the module aim ‘to build a repertory of dance

[email protected]
120 C. Childs

EMBEDDED WORK BASED LEARNING

CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE

ION RE
TIT HE
PE SPONSIB
RE
ING RE ILIT A
K Y

RS
TA
OF

IN
E SEL
LE

G
F
NC C
EXPERIMENTATION

CYC

OBSERVATION
ND

ON

REFLECTIVE
PERF TING
INDEPE

FID
REFINING
ACTIVE

REFLECTIVE

ENCE

EC
PRACTITIONER

CRE
ATIVITY

DI
LE

SC
NG

AR ES

U
NIN
AR
I G BY MISTAK SS
IN
SH G

ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALISATION

Fig. 7.1 The development and three stages of the student learning experience ©
c.childs

works, tour the work to a variety of different venues and experience the
choreographic and performance process in action within a professional
context’ (UoC 2016). In ‘Teaching the Whole Dancer’, Daniels (2009,
p. 9) refers to the learner-centred pedagogical approach where:

Learner-centred education shifts the class focus from what the teacher
knows to what the student understands, valuing the student’s personal
awareness and discoveries. It encourages active learning supported by self-­
reflection, accompanied by the self-cueing and self-direction essential to
technical progress.

Within the learning cycle, the timeframe is divided into the creative
process, the touring to theatres and schools/college venues and the work-
shop teaching commitments and then the reflective period before s­ tudents
hand in their paper (see Table 7.1). This has to be a fully budgeted

[email protected]
 Embedding Work Based Learning Opportunities… 121

Table 7.1 3Fall Dance Company 2015–16 WBL schedule

Type of WBL Duration No of events Assessment
Creative studio-­ Semester 1 for 5 Three professional Process feedback
based process with hours per works by Filip from
professional week + 2 van Huffel, Carrie choreographers
choreographers weeks Whitaker, Cai
(group work) everyday 10–5 Tomos + four
(September to student
December) choreographies
Public dance Semester 2 13 across nine Assessed by tutors
performances (90 (January to counties in final two
minute duration) mid-February) performances
Teaching and Semester 2 10 workshops Tutor
choreographing (January to (operating in observations
1. Teaching mid-February) teams of 5) Two and on-going
workshops in residencies feedback
schools/colleges
2. Residency,
creating a new
dance work on
young groups
Individual reflective Semester 2 Project Report
summary

operation whereby the income provided by undertaking the perfor-

mances and teaching balances the costs of travel, accommodation, cos-
tumes and much more. The role of managing this is taken by the
administration team who work with the university finance department.
The creative process period, when the repertoire is devised and
rehearsed, culminates in a technical rehearsal week bringing together the
whole company. Enabling students to work with professional choreogra-
phers in an intensive rehearsal environment replicates the working pro-
cesses of a professional company. In addition, there is the added pressure
of wanting to impress the choreographer by interpreting the style and
nuances of the piece, being judged on how creatively a student responds
to given tasks to develop phrase material and then there is the attitude of
the individual whilst working that can draw the choreographer to ‘take
notice’ of the approach and professionalism that is being shown by the
student. Students work with three professional choreographers and there-
fore have to be able to respond to different challenges each time. Four

[email protected]
122 C. Childs

months into the process, the administrators will have secured all, or most
of the theatre or school/college bookings, through liaising directly with
clients, negotiating fees and setting dates and arrangements in places, and
bringing this all together is a rewarding part of the process. The major
transition of the work based model is in full flow and the importance
shifts to the quality of the rehearsing, refining and perfecting, as shown
in Fig. 7.1 in preparing for the touring the show. To reach this stage
requires the administration team to have organised all of the transport
arrangements, accommodation, publicity, programmes, website creation,
ticketing, liaison with venues, arranging content for workshop teaching,
formal contracts and a full workable touring schedule. Simplistically
from the dancer’s perspective, this might sound like once the show is
ready, then it is just a case of moving from venue to venue, but the reality
is very different with problem solving required on a daily basis. These
challenges include having to adapt to the different performance spaces—
size of space, type of floor, audience proximity; coping with injuries and
having to adjust the repertoire which may require new partnering or
groupings, group dynamics and dealing with working in close proximity
over intense time periods, and sudden changes in arrangements.
The WBL goes beyond the theatre space and into the educational and
teaching environment with the delivery of workshops to varying aged
groups of usually young people. With this element, comes further oppor-
tunities to develop communication of specific dance subject knowledge
and skills, and students here develop professionalism required in leader-
ship and teamwork strategies. The combination of transferable and sub-
ject specific skills also consolidates the student’s own subject knowledge
through the planning process. Here, the role of the tutor is one of
observer, supporter and facilitator.

Subject matter experts, using the modes of reflective observation and

abstract conceptualization, help learners organise and connect their reflec-
tion to the knowledge base of the subject matter.
(Kolb 2015, p. 303)

The intense nature of the experience and regular practice, results in

students increasing skill levels. One students commented that having to

[email protected]
 Embedding Work Based Learning Opportunities… 123

understudy a new part at short notice due to an injury made her realise
“that when working in the professional environment quick decisions need to
be made and with the experience behind me I now feel confident to do this in
the future if I am required” (student A, 2016). Another stated that “the
practical elements have trained me to work faster and to be able to adapt to
creative tasks quickly which I believe will enhance my capability in audition
situations and generally in the professional environment” (student B, 2016).
Following the final performances, there is a period of time to reflect on
what has been achieved before students are required to formally draw
these thoughts together in a reflective paper. Providing head-space often
results in students identifying growth areas that they hadn’t previously
considered. One reflective paper commented “this experience changed my
perceptions of teaching students, it has made me look forward to pursuing a
career in this sector and I feel that if I did not take the opportunity to perform
in the company, these opportunities would not have arisen” (student C,
2016).

 ection 2—Dance Employment and Career

S
Progression Destinations
Initially, upon graduation the more likely route to subject specific employ-
ment in the dance sector is through freelance, or self-employed work
(DCMS 2014, p. 10), and what is now increasingly referred to as having
a ‘portfolio’ career whereby several jobs are undertaken requiring a range
of different skills that can be applied to varying situations. Typically, this
might include a short contract on a performance project as well as some
dance teaching.
The focus of employability (Yorke and Knight 2006) recognises the
positive effects of having undertaken work experience and, whilst devel-
oping skills and knowledge within a specialist vocational subject, being
able to recognise the experiences to then reflect, articulate and communi-
cate these to future employment situations will place students at an
advantage in securing relevant employment. Graduates from artistic
practice-based programmes have much to offer employment settings hav-
ing experienced working in interdisciplinary and creative projects, using

[email protected]
124 C. Childs

arts specific and dance subject knowledge, leadership and group work.
The process therefore within the DP module is to develop students’
understanding and transferability of learning, who can communicate
these skills, qualities and attributes when required either as in a curricu-
lum vitae, at an audition or interview and ultimately then adapt these
skills to new environments and work settings.
‘Building a Creative Nation: The Next Generation’ questions what it
means to have a ‘T-shaped’ skills set and highlights “within the creative
industries there may be a further dimension to both the wide ranging
knowledge and the deep specialist capabilities” (Creative and Cultural
Skills 2015, p. 28). Students are considered to be employable because
they possess the necessary combination of broad based transferrable skills
alongside the essential deep and specific subject knowledge.
Acknowledging both these areas is essential whilst still studying and
reflecting upon the experiences that enables students to see the achieve-
ments and learning in a meaningful way. Creativity is not always easy to
quantify in a written form and the reflective paper that accompanies this
module process is aimed to assist students in the articulation process.

Section 3—Case Studies

The following section provides case studies as further evidence of the
impact and outcomes for the graduate destinations from three cohorts
who have undertaken WBL in the DP module spanning from 2010 to
2016. The breadth of dance career destinations can be wide ranging and
include dance performers, teachers within primary, secondary as well as
post 16 training, choreographers, arts administrators, theatre technician,
dance movement psychotherapists, and producers (see Childs and Clegg
Fig. 8: Dance employment destinations 2016, p. 63). The case studies
show the shifting patterns that occur from the initial period immediately
after graduation, the work trends and further study necessary in order to
establish professional dance careers. A positive observation is most stu-
dents who engaged with the WBL module are still working within the
dance industry with only a small number having moved away from dance
completely. The information in this section only gives an indication, but

[email protected]
 Embedding Work Based Learning Opportunities… 125

still demonstrates the shift patterns over time and, in particular, the cur-
rent trend for the continuation of higher level study over seeking work
straight after graduating that is indicated.

Case Study 1—3Fall Dance Company 2015–16

This company comprised of fifteen dancers, four technicians and four
administrators. There were two tutors whose role was to oversee the artis-
tic and technical facilitation and guidance. Gathering data from these
groups was undertaken through a written reflective paper submitted by
all students. The paper required them to ‘reflect on their experiences of
the creative, choreographic, teaching, technical or administrative pro-
cesses and how it has enabled them to enhance their future employment
opportunities within the dance/arts sector’. Students could alternatively
select to respond to the ‘working to professional standards in the under-
graduate 3Fall Dance Company’. This enabled reflections on the process
of examples that put them directly into real working situations and the
benefits and learning from this.

Working with a Professional Choreographer

The 2015–16 company worked with three professional choreographer

including Filip Van Huffel. Van Huffel is a contemporary dance choreog-
rapher from Belgium who created a new dance work that was entitled
‘Below the Radar’. Placing students in a new environment with a chore-
ographer that they respect resulted in their work ethic increasing. The
students’ perspective of working with Van Huffel, resulted in comments
such as “this choreographer didn’t know our backgrounds … it meant that
the company had to be on its best behaviour, no ‘marking’ the movement in
rehearsals or questioning/talking back to the choreographer” (student D,
2016). This apprehension quickly changes as relationships are built and
learning approaches are adopted and everyone become that bit more
comfortable. The approach, dialogue and creative reciprocity between the
company and the choreographer supports the continuous interactions

[email protected]
126 C. Childs

that Albert Bandura (1986) refers to within his social learning theory in
relation to memory and retention. Van Huffel would, for example, start
the day with a company class and students recognised this practice in a
different way to undertaking a normal contemporary technique class
because it was seen as a preparation for the all-day rehearsal ahead. The
experience developed a strong rapport and working relationship within
the group that would later be reflected in the stage performances.
Company class also engages the dancers in the stylistic qualities that are
explored creatively in the choreography and becomes embedded into stu-
dent’s performance memory. Another student commented that “Huffel
looked for rigour and drive in the movement vocabulary and this helped me
explore my capabilities as a dancer and pushed me beyond my ‘thought’ abil-
ity” (student E, 2016).
Facilitating students to teach in schools/colleges enables students to
apply knowledge acquired in the module and others areas of their studies
but also develop new knowledge and experiences. An example of this is
being able to think ‘on the spot’ and to work with the skills of the pupils
in front of the students. One student commented that “it is hands on
experience that can be directly applied to later jobs” (student C, 2016) and
as Kolb states “knowledge is created through the transformation of expe-
rience” (1984, p. 41).
Figure 7.2 provides the employment and further study data for the
3Fall company graduates and is an insight into the immediate destina-
tions that students enter upon graduation which include a range of pro-
fessional, part-time/full-time work with the majority, 30%, progressing
onto higher level study.

Case Study 2—3Fall Dance Company 2014–15

Two years post-graduation and the picture looks quite different. Firstly,
in Fig. 7.3, already 35% have completed post graduate training and have
entered the labour market. This would suggest that a higher level qualifi-
cation is beneficial in enabling graduates to make a smoother transition
to enter the profession, such as 29% who undertook a specialist PGCE
Dance were now in full time dance teaching posts. Dance teaching is

[email protected]
 3Fall Graduates 2015-16
Working outside of Dance
No data
Secondary Dance Specialist Teacher
Commerical Dancer
Further Study MA Dance/PGCE Dance
Freelance Dance Artist/Community Teaching
Arts Administration

[email protected]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Fig. 7.2 2015–16 3Fall Dance graduate employment and further study
Embedding Work Based Learning Opportunities…
127
128 C. Childs

3Fall Graduates 2014-15

Working outside of dance
Dance Filmaker/Photographer
MA/PG Studies Dance Performance
Completed PGCE now Teaching
Arts Administration
Completed MA now Freelance dancer
Dancer/Teacher/Arts Administration
Professional Dancer/Choreographer
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Fig. 7.3 2014–15 3Fall Dance graduate employment

more stable than the 12% who graduated from MA Dance programmes
training in performance and choreography, who are now establishing
themselves in the profession as freelance dance artists or who have a port-
folio career combining areas such as teaching, performing and choreo-
graphing. These statistics would seem to support the LEO data giving a
clearer representation of the value of undertaking subject specific under-
graduate study than the six month post-graduation DLHE findings.

Case Study 3—3Fall Dance Company 2009–10

Taking a longer range subject specific approach a stage further, Fig. 7.4
gives an insight into the employment and career development of dance
graduates seven years on from graduation. This information gives a snap-
shot of the longer term career progression developments.
In Fig. 7.4 the data reveals that 22% of the graduate group are free-
lance dance artists and teachers who have successful portfolio career.
These professionals have worked with renowned choreographers such as
Akram Khan, Shobana Jeyasingh, have received Arts Council funding to
make work and/or have worked for key organisations such as the English
National Ballet and Dance Umbrella. This group are now in their late
twenties and the gender balance within dance is still predominately
female and although not considered within this study, starting a family
can be an interruption or obstacle to the trajectory of a woman’s career.

[email protected]
 Embedding Work Based Learning Opportunities… 129

3Fall Graduates 2009-10

Working outside of Dance

No data
Secondary Dance Specialist Teacher
Commerical Dancer
Qualified Dance Movement Psychotherapist
Freelance Dance Artist/Teacher
Professional Choreographer
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

Fig. 7.4 2009–10 Dance graduate employment

The range of career destinations represent performing, teaching, choreo-

graphing as well as established freelance portfolio career profiles in iden-
tifying potential areas for career progression with 28% employed within
professional teaching or qualified dance movement psychotherapist roles.
To achieve the status of a professional choreographer can have a very slow
trajectory but one of the graduates from this cohort has achieved an
international reputation as a choreographer. What is also evident is that
this group appear to now have moved beyond post graduate studies and
the more recent trend to obtain a higher level of qualification soon after
completing a BA, is still more favourable.

Conclusion
Through the case studies undertaken, the initial questions and evidence
gathering has given an indication of the value of WBL in relation to sup-
porting a dance graduate to progress into professional roles within the
field of dance. By providing WBL opportunities within the final year of
the BA Dance programme, student are able to engage in real time prac-
tice, reflect and consolidate their career aspiration in a more efficient way,
which students are then able to build upon more quickly as they move
onto seeking relevant employment within the dance industry. The WBL
experience appears to enable the student to have the confidence to make
decisions more quickly about the direction that they do want to take and

[email protected]
130 C. Childs

an example of this, is a student who might have thought that they wanted
a career as a dance performer but having undertaken the intense training
and touring realises that this is not for them, this refocussing is more time
efficient. All students will have experienced resilience, achievement and
shared concrete experiences and the data indicates that the majority are
working within the dance sector rather than general employment. The
impact of embedding WBL opportunities into the curriculum are
enhanced when the experience is credited and valued as part of their
studies. Reflections from individuals are sometimes only fully realised
when observers, such as audience members at a theatre performance or a
peer commenting in class, gives feedback stating a noticeable improve-
ment in a performer or in their dance technique. One student reflec-
tion highlighted having a ‘good work ethic’ and that at rehearsals,
punctuality and working to tight deadlines was an attribute that it
takes to work in the dance industry and that this was at the heart of her
learning experience.
WBL, when embedded within the curriculum and within this dance
context, provides a stepping stone to enabling students to be part of a
collectively shared outcome; the engagement, reflection and alignment
with professional values and standards whilst honing specific dance skills
that works. When WBL is relevant and authentic to the discipline the
positive outcomes can go beyond the individual benefits to enhance the
programme’s reputation. It is hard to definitively prove that there is a cor-
relation between undertaking WBL and how students perceive their
studies and success, but the knock on effect would appear to influence
areas such as the National Student Survey (NSS). In the 2016 NSS
optional bank questions on careers, students were asked if the programme
had improved the student’s career prospects and if there had been help
and advice for career choices and further study—the UoC Dance depart-
ment scored 98% for this section and achieved a 100% overall student
satisfaction rating for 2015 and 2016. Enhancing the mechanisms to
provide detailed departmental alumni tracking systems would enhance
the longitudinal data further, as currently the data provided by LEO is
grouped into generic areas with dance sitting within the Creative Arts
and Design subjects. A further study would be to increase the level of
analysis to include data from all graduates from the years analysed.

[email protected]
 Embedding Work Based Learning Opportunities… 131

This chapter has explored how taking dance students out of the tradi-
tional module format to experience working patterns akin to a profes-
sional company schedule; and exposing them, with a support system, to
physical and mental challenges in sometimes unfamiliar settings, can be
a successful and rewarding learning experience. Facilitating networking
with professional dance artists, choreographers and theatre venues
embodies both the process and final products and this model within a
contemporary dance company setting provides students with a necessary
preparation. “Knowledge is created through the transformation of experi-
ence” (Kolb 1984, p. 41) and it is the value of the experiences, the inte-
gration and application of knowledge that helps to prepare students for
the realistic challenges of their future dance careers.

References
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive
theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Barnes, H. (2017). Graduate salaries and new challenges for the arts, humanities
and social sciences. Retrieved September 19, 2017, from http://www.wonkhe.
com/blogs/graduate-salaries-and-new-challenges-for-the-arts-humanities-
and-social-­sciences
Childs, C., & Clegg, A. (2016). Dance map—The employability journey. Higher
Education Academy. Retrieved September 19, 2017, from https://www.
heacademy.ac.uk/resource/dance-map-employability-journey
Cole, D., & Tibby, M. (2013). Defining and developing your approach to employ-
ability. Higher Education Academy.
Creative and Cultural Skills. (2015). Building a creative nation: The next decade.
Creative and Cultural Skills.
Daniels, K. (2009). Teaching the whole dancer, synthesizing pedagogy, anatomy,
and psychology. The IADMS Bulletin for Teachers, 1(1), 8–10.
Department for Culture, Media and Sport. (2014). Creative industries economic
estimates. London: DCMS.
Department of Education. (2016a). Teaching Excellence Framework: Year
two specification. Department of Education. Retrieved June 20, 2017,
from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/teaching-excellence-­
framework-year-2-specification

[email protected]
132 C. Childs

Department of Education. (2016b). Employment and earnings outcomes of higher

education graduates: Experimental data from the longitudinal education out-
comes (LEO) dataset. Department of Education Official Statistics SFR36/2016
[Online]. Retrieved June 26, 2017, from https://www.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/543794/SFR36-2016_main_
text_LEO.pdf
Desmond, B., & Jowitt, A (2012). Stepping into the unknown: Dialogical experi-
ential learning. Journal of Management Development, 31(3), 221–230. Retrieved
August 2, 2017, from https://doi.org/10.1108/02621711211208853
Healey, M., Flint, A., & Harrington, K. (2014). Engagement through partner-
ship: Students as partners in learning and teaching in higher education. York:
The Higher Education Academy.
Higher Education Academy. (2015). The framework for embedding employability
in higher education. Higher Education Academy.
Higher Education Funding Council for England. (2017). University of Chichester
Teaching Excellence Framework 2 statement of findings. HEFCE.
Higher Education Statistics Agency. (2016). Retrieved September 19, 2017,
from http://www.hesa.ac.uk/data-anda-analysis/students
Institute of Fiscal Studies. (2016). What and where you study matter for graduate
earnings—But so does parents’ income. Retrieved August 24, 2017, from
https://www.ifs.org.uk/uploads/publications/pr/graduate_earnings_130416.
pdf
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development. Pearson Education Ltd.
Kolb, D. A. (2015). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Ltd.
Policastro, E., & Gardner, H. (2010). From case studies to robust generalisa-
tions: An approach to the study of creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.),
Handbook of creativity. Cambridge University Press.
Quality Assurance Agency. (2014). Higher education review: Themes for 2016–16.
Gloucester: The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education.
University of Chichester BA Dance Programme Handbook. (2016). Module
descriptor for dance production. Retrieved from www.chi.ac.uk/dance
Yorke, M., & Knight, P.T. (2006). Embedding employability into the curriculum.
Learning and Employability Series 1, No 3. York: ESECT and the Generic
Centre, Learning and Teaching Support Network.

[email protected]
 8
Student Experience of Real-Time
Management of Peer Working Groups
During Field Trips
Dawn A. Morley, A. Diaz, D. Blake, G. Burger,
T. Dando, S. Gibbon, and K. Rickard

Introduction
A field trip is a signature pedagogy (Shulman 2005) of disciplines such as
geography and ecology. It presents opportunities not only for application
of knowledge and technical competencies but for deep socio constructiv-
ist learning (Wenger 1998) seen as highly relevant to employability readi-
ness (Arrowsmith et al. 2011). During June 2015, these principles were
further tested by the Student Environment Research Teams (SERTs)
model of partnership work between students, academic staff and practi-
tioners whereby five undergraduate ecology students undertook the roles
of peer group leaders on a ten-day field trip organised collaboratively
between a consortium of four UK universities, the National Trust and the
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). The chapter draws on

D. A. Morley (*)
Department of Higher Education, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Diaz • D. Blake • G. Burger • T. Dando • S. Gibbon • K. Rickard
Bournemouth University, Poole, UK

© The Author(s) 2018 133

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_8

[email protected]
134 D. A. Morley et al.

this field trip as an example of peer collaborative learning and one that
presented the five student team leaders with the authentic experience of
real- time fieldwork management.
The similarity of the characteristics of the fieldwork teams to Wenger’s
definition of ‘communities of the practice’ (1998) provided an evaluative
lens for the trip. Student team leaders were interviewed, and also submit-
ted reflective statements six months following the completion of the
fieldtrip. The nature of their learning and progression during the trip,
and their perceptions of their ‘learning gain’ (BIS 2016) going forward
into employment and lifelong learning, are explored.
The student group leaders are all co-authors of this chapter.

 he Transformative Nature of Students’

T
Learning on Field Trips and Learning Gain
for Employability
With the increased focus on both equitable and economic pedagogy to
support the students’ experience in higher education, traditional field-
work is under scrutiny as an accepted element of environmental science
curricula.
The assumptions that fieldwork is a positive and essential learning ele-
ment of geography, earth and environmental science degree courses is
scrutinised by Boyle et al.’s (2007) study of 300 UK based HE students
in a survey of their pre and post field trip responses. By questioning stu-
dents’ changes in their affective domain; their emotions, feeling and val-
ues, Boyle et al. (2007) hypothesise for a link between fieldwork and an
improved affective domain with a subsequently deeper learning approach.
Scott et al. (2006) dispute the effect of field work on enhanced grades and
course criticality against alternative learning approaches. However, their
comparison of lecturers’ views of field work with students concur with
Boyle et al. (2007) where great value is placed on the social aspect of
fieldwork although students also identify greater benefits of authentic
learning and transferable skills.
Arrowsmith et al. (2011) argue that the identification of students’ per-
sonal attributes is integral to preparation for employability. Like other

[email protected]
 Student Experience of Real-Time Management of Peer Working… 135

disciplines, the nature of work based learning refocuses learning on a

socio constructivist, process approach that may not be prioritised in more
traditional, product led curricula. Whalley et al. (2011) highlight the
importance of this social dimension for geographers’ preparation for the
twenty-first century and reposition fieldwork as an active research setting
where students can work with academics in partnership. This is the very
ethos supported by the SERTs approach.
Hill et al. (2016) highlight the case of fieldwork as an example of a
“borderland” space where previous SERTs teams have had their learning
disrupted, and therefore challenged by the impact of the fieldwork expe-
rience. The difference in the learning environment with that of academia;
including the dissolution of known teaching structures such as power
differences between lecturer and student, places students in a liminal
space. Students are encouraged to become “border crossers” (Hill et al.
2016, p. 378) and this encouragement towards explicit, transformational
learning is a common strategy of many lecturers, across multi disciplines,
who have viewed the impressive effect of placement learning on student
development (Morley et al. 2017).
The removal of traditional university barriers to education can create
pedagogic possibility and increased student advancement (Hill et al.
2016). Wenger (2012) also identified the impact of the exceptional, and
novel, placement learning experience where students are ‘helicoptered to
the top of the hill’. This requires a nuanced balance between challenge
and support for these exceptional learning experiences to reach their
potential for students (Eraut 2007) for they can carry learning risk as well
as possibility.

 ommunities of Practice as an Evaluative Tool

C
for Monitoring Students’ Professional Identity
on Fieldtrips
Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern, a set of
problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and
expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis. (Wenger et al.
2002, p. 4)

[email protected]
136 D. A. Morley et al.

Wenger’s (1998) community of practice model has a significant contri-

bution to make to the ongoing debate highlighted by Hill et al. (2016) as
to how graduate attributes for employability are embedded in higher educa-
tion curricula. Communities of practice draw on the social nature of learn-
ing and the positive effects of learning through team collaboration already
identified in the pedagogy of fieldwork (Scott et al. 2006; Boyle et al. 2007).
Lave and Wenger (1991) challenged the then dominant discourse that
learning was an individual activity and Wenger’s subsequent community
of practice theory (1998) reasoned that “the sharing of practice in a like-­
minded but unique professional group advanced both the learning and
professional identity of group members” (Morley 2016, p. 161). This was
accomplished through the critical aspects of ‘mutual engagement’, ‘joint
enterprise’ and ‘shared repertoire’. Mutual engagement allowed learners
access to the community of practice before they began functioning with
other members through joint enterprise. This was promoted by a shared
repertoire of common language and artefacts related to their group.
Wenger’s model presents the potential for a strong sense of student
agency to develop for the student on placement, and in this case a fieldtrip,
as they become part of a work based group that has a common purpose but
must accommodate different levels of experience to be successful. Through
working and learning together, each member can develop his or her own
professional identity. Wenger recognised that communities of practice can
arise organically within an organisation. It is this very lack of structure that
gives students the opportunity to individualise their own learning towards
employability and reach their individual potential through interaction
with others (Vygotsky 1962; Goltz et al. 2008). Aguilar and Krasny (2011),
in their application of the community of practice framework to an after
school environmental educational programme, found that students’
understanding of learning through participation, membership and iden-
tity formation was unique to each individual environmental club.

Student Environment Research Teams (SERTs)

SERTs are an established learning system, created at Bournemouth
University, that provide opportunities for students, academic staff and
professional practitioners to co-create new research and understanding

[email protected]
 Student Experience of Real-Time Management of Peer Working… 137

(http://www.cocreate4science.org/serts/). SERTs are co-curricular and

students participate either as volunteers or as part of a short placement.
The ethos of SERTs is that they offer students the opportunity to gain
leadership and team work skills within a strong peer-supported learning
culture. SERTs foster employability by enabling student to enhance and
evidence their gain in crucially demanded soft skills such as communica-
tion, commitment, time-management, decision-making and flexibility as
well develop their subject specific skills, knowledge and experience.
The Purbeck SERT-NET was a cross-university network of 25 student
volunteers who collaborated with academic researchers and professional
practitioners in the National Trust and RSPB to co-create ecological sur-
veillance and new research knowledge on how best to manage heathland
for wildlife. It ran for ten days during July 2015 and the students came
from four HEIs; Oxford Brookes, University of the West of England,
University of Gloucestershire and Bournemouth University. Five of the stu-
dents from Bournemouth University were student team leaders who each
led four other students as a team. All student team leaders were second year
students studying for a BSc in Ecology and Wildlife Conservation and the
other students were studying for degrees in the broad area of environmental
conservation and geography at BSc and MSc level. The five resulting teams
were each composed of students from all four institutions. The students
worked together within their teams throughout a ten-­day residential field
trip where they also organised data entry and practical logistics such as
shopping and cooking rotas. More details on this SERT are available in this
short video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VpqiajOLgjk.

Data Collection from the SERTs Fieldtrip

At the end of the fieldtrip the group leaders volunteered to take part in
telephone interviews conducted by a researcher from outside of their fac-
ulty. They contributed a further written reflection about their longitudi-
nal experience of being a team leader six months afterwards.
The categories of Wenger’s community of practice theory; mutual
engagement, joint enterprise and shared repertoire informed the unstruc-
tured questions that student group leaders were asked during their tele-
phone interviews. The group leaders were asked to comment on how the

[email protected]
138 D. A. Morley et al.

student groups were formed (mutual engagement) and how the groups
functioned (joint enterprise and shared repertoire) with the identification
of their own role in this process. Group leaders were finally asked to write
a short reflective piece commenting on the effect of their group leader-
ship six months following the completion of the fieldtrip.

 ata Analysis from Immediately

D
After the Fieldtrip
The transcripts of the student group leader telephone interviews were
categorised per the three stages highlighted by Wenger’s (1998) commu-
nity of practice theory.

Mutual Engagement

Being Set Up as a Credible Leader

From a fieldwork perspective, it was important that students were set

up as credible leaders within their groups so that the groups performed
both effectively and accurately when undertaking their fieldwork sur-
veys. The training offered to student group leaders on how to conduct
surveys proved crucial to group leader’s confidence and credibility. The
team leaders had a full day in the field with two academic group leaders
and a PhD student before the fieldwork began. It was here that student
leaders became familiar with identification and species found in the
habitats they were investigating. Although academics were not at hand
to aid student group leaders during the identification process with stu-
dents during the surveying, student leaders were given tools, such as an
identification sheet, to aid students in the classification of species and
identifications of samples were checked with academics in the
evenings.
The training that students received contextualised their knowledge so
they were prepared to educate the other students to a wider educational
level.

[email protected]
 Student Experience of Real-Time Management of Peer Working… 139

Although it wasn’t a task our group was doing themselves we could use that
knowledge to explain why we were doing it and how it would be used in
research (B)

The student team leaders articulated that they needed to be able to

contribute skills that were unique to the group so the group could begin
to function as a working unit.

I felt quite confident when I got my group for the first time I could explain the
methods we were using so I think the training stuff worked really well (D)

… So we knew the methodology quite well, this helped me a lot in being able
to support my team in the time period before we were all at the same level,
which wasn’t long at all (C)

One important aspect of giving credible leadership to the student lead-

ers was that the rest of the student group were interested in how they had
achieved their leadership position. In some ways, the student leaders
themselves became role models for other students even though they were
sometimes at a less advanced level in their own courses.

[They] didn’t quite realise that I was only at the end of my second year. They
were really interested in how I had go into the management of the SERT and
asked me how they could get involved …how they could do it and they asked
me about the volunteering I had done (E)

Realising the Nuances of Group Management

Student leaders found themselves in the position of managing teams who

were often more experienced than themselves.

I was slightly nervous about whether [graduates and masters students] would
take me seriously seeing I was under their educational level. However, they
really respected my decisions or came to me with help or advice and because I
was a manager in that situation they didn’t really see that educational differ-
ence or age gap (E)

[email protected]
140 D. A. Morley et al.

But, by having a mix of experience within the group, student team

leaders quickly recognised the learning that they could take from other
students for the mutual benefit of the surveying.

They then ended up helping me because I had never done that sort of thing
before … so in that way it was great because they were teaching me that I some-
thing that I could relay on to the rest of the group. It was amazing to have that
extra skill that they could teach me (E)

By leading a peer group the student leaders equalised the power

dynamics usually present between academic and student; the team lead-
ers recognised the skills that they could learn from other students and
appreciated the patience of peers who were protective of their leader as
one of their group. The subtleties of group management therefore became
real for student leaders.

I was trying to show myself to be not in charge because we were all equal but show
that I knew what I was doing but at the same time trying to learn with them and
so that was quite an interesting dynamic that I hadn’t experienced before…. over
the course of the two weeks that really helped the dynamic of our group as we were
all pushing each other on and we actually learnt quite a lot together (D)

I definitely learnt that if you tell your team everything, that you know then they
know where they stand as well whereas if you keep them in the dark they will
get frustrated. As long as you tell them you don’t know then they were “ok, we
will wait until you do” (E)

The group leader also learnt the nuances of differentiating learning

within the group; by the end the group leaders had enjoyed the process of
the group’s development by carefully balancing those students who
needed more initial assistance against those students who were confident
to work independently.

They contributed quite a lot and they didn’t take long to get the hang of it and
because we went through it together as a whole group team at first they got to
grips with it quite quickly. I didn’t let the two who knew what they were doing
take over, I made sure the other two inputted and helped out and by the end of
the ten days they were so confident and it was so great to see (E)

[email protected]
 Student Experience of Real-Time Management of Peer Working… 141

Three group leaders commented on this as an effect on the quality and

the efficiency of the collecting data; having an expert in the group also
increased the quality of the work. By the end of the fieldtrip student lead-
ers could identify how the induction process could be improved upon to
increase awareness and information exchange prior to the field trip. The
diversity of strangers that student leaders had to work with was found
challenging rather than the diversity of knowledge or skills.

A team building exercise as a group would have been useful before we were out
in the field (B)

Joint Enterprise

Making the Groups More Effective

Following the initial socialisation period student groups developed strate-

gies for their group to work and learn effectively. Students formed strong
bonds and a group identity. Student groups were drawn together though
the work and were demanding greater autonomy and control of their
work processes. Some student leaders took responsibility for the more
complex or less desirable tasks asking one person to help.
Cross university groups added to the experience and the richness of the
group learning.

… You meet people from different areas they have been all taught differently,
different so you can see how they contrast… (B)

It gave a good perspective on how the different courses are taught throughout the
UK and we all learnt new identification skills from each other. (B)

Everyone contributed fairly equally in different ways with different strengths

and weaknesses but after the first couple of days when everyone was finding
their role in the group and bonding and stuff it was really good that everyone
got on with it and really good that we got on really well. (D)

Some student teams responded well to the responsibility and auton-

omy and were suggesting ways that this could be extended.

[email protected]
142 D. A. Morley et al.

Debrief the team leaders and then we would go on and debrief everyone else in
our individual team. It would work more smoothly. (E)

We always walked to our sites and once we had done the sites we would be wait-
ing for one of them to pick us up… later on we were all given our sites just at
the beginning of the day and we all navigated ourselves there. We all enjoyed it
more when we were trusted to get on with the job (D)

Experiencing Authentic Management Issues

Some of the challenges of leadership included injury, personality differ-

ences or an attitude that did not fit with the group.
Student leaders encouraged students to keep active and participating
in the group with the realisation that tolerance was needed as students
worked at different speeds. Tiredness and motivation in the heat were
common experiences for all the group leaders.

You need the whole team support to gather all the data information and also if
one person is sitting down on their phone they automatically separate themselves
from the team and don’t feel part of the team. (E)

Towards the end of the project when people were very tired, we had to keep
momentum and motivation. (C)

The placement replicated the real world of work with issues ranging from
the length of the day, working in heat and managing issues back at base.
Student group leaders needed the ability to manage the two environments of
the fieldwork and the domestic management of their student team.
The management of tasks such as shopping and cooking was part of
the group processes where team leaders blended more equally with their
groups. The dynamics altered and student leader peer support was found
to be helpful.

My biggest stress of the week was less the fieldwork but more the management
at the base with the logistics in terms of food but then you are dealing with not
just the team but the whole of the group. Your team get to know you and who
you are and how you work and you build up this dynamic. (E)

[email protected]
 Student Experience of Real-Time Management of Peer Working… 143

Although it was quite challenging doing both at times I appreciated the confi-
dence [the academic group leader] gave us in managing the base logistics as it
gave us insight into what it is like to run a whole project. It’s not just surveying
but also food and accommodation and back at base arguments. That confidence
helped us group together and push each other up. (E)

Looking Forward into the World of Work

External speakers drawn from the conservation groups were “inspira-

tional” (B) although student team leaders sometimes had to give up these
opportunities as they oversaw buying food and shopping. The talks
allowed students to appreciate what could be their future professional
journey but also the wider context of conservation work.

What they were doing and the extra knowledge when we were out in the field
helped us understand that what we were doing had value and helped keep our
motivations up, inspiring us (C)

[The academic leader] asked her to give a bit of a talk about her life and how
she got where she was. I think out of both of the parts she did it was the bit
about her life was really important and really useful because she told us all to
travel and volunteer as much as possible so I think volunteering is a really good
way to get a job in conservation. She went through the stages of how she got to
where she was to doing a PhD … It was really interesting to get an idea of how
people can progress to that type of level and the jobs that she had had along the
way so it’s nice to see that there are .. that you don’t just have to get one job and
stay in that job for life that there are loads of different jobs that you can go to
related to the degree so that was useful.

Data Collection Six Months After the Fieldtrip

Student group leaders were asked to contribute a written reflection six
months after the completion of the SERTs fieldwork trip to further
ascertain the value of this experience on their longitudinal
development.

[email protected]
144 D. A. Morley et al.

Application of Skills to Final Year Academic Work

Two student group leaders identified how the SERTs experience had
assisted their academic development in the following university year as it
“helped to create a platform for me to build and expand on” (E).

The skills I acquired by undertaking and helping to run the research project
helped me to efficiently plan, test and collect data for my dissertation, giving me
reliable results with very little problems, which I am now currently analysing
and evaluating. (E)

Being involved in research project from a managerial sense helped me to under-

stand the logistical challenges and questions that need to be addressed regarding
my own research for my final year Independent Research Project. (D)

Professional Networking

Three of the student group leaders identified that networking with peers,
academics and outside organisations made “me more confident to approach
them for help and questions” (B).

By talking to them now and on the project, I have been able to seek extra advice
and guidance for future career opportunities which has helped me to developed
ideas for what I want to do once I graduate. (E)

Despite seeing the importance of networking two group leaders

expressed disappointment that they hadn’t managed to keep in contact
with their groups on social media.

Leadership and Managerial Skills

Student group leaders could articulate the leadership and managerial

skills that they had learnt “such as problem solving, time management and
strong communication skills” (E).

[email protected]
 Student Experience of Real-Time Management of Peer Working… 145

They discussed the heightened self confidence that they had gained
thus:

I am now far happier to put myself forward to take charge of groups and drive
my own progression as a leader, rather than sitting back and letting others take
the lead…Being put in a situation with different people, with different motiva-
tions and skill levels was a challenge, and the thing I struggled most with on the
SERT; finding ways of getting a group of unique personalities who work in
different ways, working together and feeling part of the team. (D)

which, in turn, had deepened leader’s sense of work readiness.

Fieldwork Skills

Student group leaders felt that their surveying methods had been
enhanced so they could be undertaken “reliably and without hesitation in
the future” (E) with the “ability to write a report and skills based surveying
skills … having the experience of doing the SERTs I was then a level up when
it came to writing reports and identification” (B).
By leading a student team a “greater understanding of the amount of
work and organisation involved in running a project from start to finish, as
well as some of the risks that could be involved” (A) had been learnt. The
participation but “having to explain others to understand the methods and
identification played a big part in my own personal learning” (D).

Confidence in Applying for Further Positions

Six months following the SERTs fieldtrip four students had used their
SERT management experience to gain further positions on paid intern-
ships, volunteering and positions on the student union committee.

Without the practical and survey skills gained from this SERT I am not sure I
would have applied for the position. (E)

I feel more at ease with the prospect of starting work with a new team of people
upon graduation (E)

[email protected]
146 D. A. Morley et al.

…For this position I was able to use [the academic leader’s] evaluation of my
own performance as a reference as well as the skills I had gained. (D)

I feel I have been able to take that into my new role making me more under-
standing of others needs and trying to find a way of working that everyone can
participate within. The regular feedback we received as leaders on the SERT
was invaluable in that sense, as it allowed me to take the advice on board and
critically look at my own strengths and weaknesses as a leader and then take it
away and apply it to a new role. (D)

Inspiration for the Subject of Conservation

One student highlighted their renewed inspiration for a career in conser-

vation following the SERTs trip.

Conclusion
The mutual learning and working experienced by the SERTs student
groups was typical of the communities of practice model (Wenger 1998)
whereby a common goal united the groups while simultaneously advanc-
ing their own professional identities. Unusually, the common duality of
‘newcomer’ and ‘old timer’ found in communities of practice (Wenger
1998) was not so apparent as student groups were peer led with different
levels of experience emerging during the fieldwork experience. For the
purposes of this chapter, data collection reflected solely that of the stu-
dent group leaders who believed their work readiness and employability
skills were substantially advanced during the fieldwork trip by an authen-
tic experience of managing a field work group.
Using the stages of Wenger’s community of practice theory proved an
effective structure to analyse student group leader’s experience of the
value of their ten-day peer management on their work readiness. By using
Wenger’s structure student group leaders focused their interview responses
on the nuances of the induction of their groups (mutual engagement)
against the skills required to make these groups functioning survey groups
(joint enterprise). Results demonstrated important differences between

[email protected]
 Student Experience of Real-Time Management of Peer Working… 147

the preparation and support student group leaders required for their role
at these two different stages of group formation. The effect of working
with students from other universities, who were unfamiliar to student
leaders, coupled with the management of both the fieldwork and domes-
tic duties, gave student leaders a wider and richer base of expertise that
theorists such as Klein (1998) see as essential to the development of pro-
fessional expertise.
Both management stages exposed a disseminated leadership model
whereby student group leaders were the managerial bridge between the
SERTs academic leaders and the rest of the students.

The middle person really helps as there is a domino effect of information or

pyramid effect. [The academic leaders] needed that middle person [the student
group leaders] in there dealing with such a big group of people. (E)

In this way student leaders experienced an authentic exposure to

authority and management but one that was supported by both the
academic team and the students within their group. Although Lave and
Wenger’s (1991) theory of legitimate peripheral participation discuss
how newcomers are afforded some protection as they journey to full
professional status at the centre of a community of practice, it was felt
that student group leaders went beyond a conventional learner’s role.
By adopting a disseminated model of leadership, that distanced itself
from the impositional methods traditionally faced by students at uni-
versity (Fryer 2011), the greater equalisation of power differences
between students and academics aided the developmental potential of
the work based learning into future employability. The student group
leaders’ role, as an important bridge between the community of prac-
tice of their own fieldwork group and the community of practice of
their academic leaders, put them in the influential position of ‘brokers’
(Wenger 1998). This enhanced learning position as facilitators of com-
munities of practice, as opposed to participators, gave student group
leaders a greater experience of the real world learning of fieldwork
management.
Student leaders benefitted from the experience of genuine autonomy
running their groups

[email protected]
148 D. A. Morley et al.

I think it was a good thing to let it happen naturally so people could take their
positions and then just making sure everyone had a role doing something so no
one is on the periphery that everyone is involved and everyone has a role in
whatever site you go to. (D)

but mechanisms were put in place to support student leaders to be

both credible to their groups and effective in carrying out surveying. The
survey preparation student group leaders undertook before the fieldtrip
gave them access to unique skills that were required by their groups to
function. Once operational the use of tools such as the ID charts (what
Wenger would term ‘reification’ where participation is enhanced by writ-
ten artefacts) and daily debriefings supported students through their dis-
seminated leadership role. The management skills that student group
leaders subsequently commented on were highly nuanced as they learnt
to capitalise on their groups’ skills while motivating them through differ-
ent stages of learning and even weather conditions.
As well as achieving more immediate management skills, the timely
nature of established professional experts speaking to the student groups
in the evenings, gave the student leaders an opportunity to be inspired for
their own professional trajectories. These are equally acknowledged by
Wenger (1998) as a strong contributor to future professional develop-
ment and the strength of the SERTs experience was that both were
achieved together in the immersive ten-day leadership experience that
student leaders undertook.
By the time of student group leader’s reflection six months after the
SERTs field trip student leaders could articulate how this experience had
added to their future employability and skills, such as professional net-
working, that would allow them to achieve this.

Recommendations
SERTs peer leadership demonstrated the impact of a standalone,
immersive work based learning opportunity on student leaders’ skills,
attitude and aspirations for their future employability. The ‘Goldilocks
effect’ was significant to this experience where student leaders attained

[email protected]
 Student Experience of Real-Time Management of Peer Working… 149

just the right amount of supported leadership responsibility against

the authentic challenges that they faced. This concurs with Eraut’s
(2007) recommendation that work based learning needs to have the
right mixture of challenge and support to be impactful on students’
learning.
The effect of student leaders discussing their learning experiences and
writing a reflection for the purposes of this research, gave student leaders
an additional opportunity to make their work based learning explicit. It
is unknown whether this had any effect on student leaders’ ability to
articulate their work readiness but it is recommended that immersive
experiences such as these are consolidated with tools, or an event, that
give students this opportunity. The ten SERTs, which have run since
2015, have been able to adopt these recommendations easily because
each involved smaller teams of students from a range of courses at
Bournemouth university. This has enabled establishment of pre-SERT
meetings where each student selects a leadership role for one or more
components of all stages of the SERT. This has greatly enhanced the inte-
gration of each SERT as a community and the engagement and learning
of all members. Students also write a reflection on what they have gained
through their SERT experience.

References
Aguilar, O. M., & Krasny, M. E. (2011). Using the communities of practice
framework to examine an after-school environmental education program for
Hispanic youth. Environmental Education Research, 17(2), 217–233.
Arrowsmith, C., Bagoly-Simo, P., Finchum, A., Oda, K., & Pawson, E. (2011).
Student employability and its implications for geography curricula and learn-
ing practices. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 35(3), 365–377.
Boyle, A., Maguire, S., Martin, A., Milsom, C., Nash, R., Rawlinson, S., et al.
(2007). Fieldwork is good: The student perception and the affective domain.
Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 31(2), 299–317.
Department of Business, Innovation and Skills. (2016). Success as a knowledge
economy: Teaching excellence, social mobility and student choice. London.
Eraut, M. (2007). Learning from other people in the workplace. Oxford Review
of Education, 33(4), 403–422.

[email protected]
150 D. A. Morley et al.

Fryer, M. (2011). Facilitative leadership: Drawing on Jurgen Habermas’ model

of ideal speech to propose a less impositional way to lead. Organization,
19(1), 25–43.
Goltz, S. M., Hietapelto, A. B., Reinsch, R. W., & Tyrell, S. K. (2008). Teaching
teamwork and problem solving concurrently. Journal of Management
Education, 32(5), 541–562.
Hill, J., Thomas, G., Diaz, A., & Simm, D. (2016). Borderland spaces for learn-
ing partnership: Opportunities, benefits and challenges. Journal of Geography
in Higher Education, 40(3), 375–393.
Hill, J., Walkington, H., & France, D. (2016). Graduate attributes: Implications
for higher education and policy. Journal of Geography in Higher Education,
40(2), 155–163.
Klein, G. (1998). Sources of power: How people make decisions. Cambridge and
London: The MIT Press.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participa-
tion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Morley, D. A. (2016). Applying Wenger’s communities of practice theory to
placement learning’. Nurse Education Today, 39(April), 161–162.
Morley, D. A., Archer, L., Burgess, M., Curran, D., Milligan, V., & Williams,
D. (2017). A panel discussion—The impact of students’ placements. In
ExCiTes 2017 Teaching and Learning Conference. Guildford, UK: University
of Surrey.
Scott, I., Fuller, I., & Gaskin, S. (2006). Life without fieldwork: Some lecturers’
perceptions of geography and environmental science fieldwork. Journal of
Geography in Higher Education, 30(1), 161–171.
Shulman, L. (2005). Signature pedagogies in the professions. Daedalus, 134,
52–59.
Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wenger, E. (2012). Social learning theory and healthcare education. In
Contemporary issues in clinical education. London: Institute of Education.
Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. (2002). Cultivating communities of
practice: A guide to managing knowledge. Boston, MA and London: Harvard
Business School and McGraw-Hill Distributor.
Whalley, W. B., Saunders, A., Lewis, R. A., Buenemann, M., & Sutton, P. C.
(2011). Curriculum development: Producing geographers for the 21st cen-
tury. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 35(3), 379–393.

[email protected]
 Part IV
Supporting and Supervising Work
Based Learning

[email protected]
 9
Building Students’ Emotional Resilience
Through Placement Coaching
and Mentoring
S. Eccles and V. Renaud

Introduction
Many Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in the UK now offer under-
graduate students the opportunity to undertake a work placement as part
of their degree, some of which are a built-in requirement of a sandwich
degree (up to twelve months in industry) and others are shorter and/or
optional. As Brooks and Youngson (2016) noted, the overarching pur-
pose of work placements is to enhance the graduate employability of stu-
dents through developing their skills, knowledge and ability. In addition,
several studies (e.g. Bullock et al. 2009; Gomez et al. 2004; Mansfield
2011) have suggested that placement students perform better academi-
cally in their final year and achieve higher final degree outcomes than
non-placement students. The placement experience also provides ‘learn-
ing gain’ for students when seeking graduate employment through the

S. Eccles (*) • V. Renaud

Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2018 153

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_9

[email protected]
154 S. Eccles and V. Renaud

demonstration and evidencing of relevant skills, experience and attributes

(Brooks and Youngson 2016). However, there is an increasing awareness
that the benefits students derive from placements go beyond enhanced
employability and academic achievement. Eden (2014, p. 268) argued
that graduate employability should be “about developing a whole,
employable person who integrates skills, qualities, values and relation-
ships—what has been called “graduateness”—with a personal history
through the embodied experience of work”.
This chapter explores how this ‘whole employable person’ can be sup-
ported and developed through coaching and mentoring by a Placement
Development Advisor (PDA), with a particular focus on the emotional
resilience that students need to successfully transition into, through and
out of a sandwich year placement. Using a case study from the Faculty of
Media and Communication at Bournemouth University in the south of
England, we will explore how students can develop the level of flexibility,
confidence and knowledge required to become successful advertising and
marketing professionals. Implications for practice at institution and
placement level are discussed.

Emotional Resilience
Emotional resilience is the ability to adapt to and overcome stressful situ-
ations or crises. Stein et al. (2009, p. 900) defined emotional resilience as
“the ability to maintain healthy and stable levels of psychological func-
tioning in the wake of stress and trauma”. Grant and Kinman (2014,
p. 24) noted that resilience is the ability “to ‘recover’ from adversity, react
appropriately or ‘bounce back’ when life presents challenges”. They argue
that emotional resilience, rather than being an innate or fixed character-
istic, should be developed through carefully targeted interventions. The
more emotional resilience a student develops, the more likely they are to
be able to adapt to and cope with stress and life changes, whether major
or minor. Within the work placement, this ability to adapt and cope
becomes even more evident as students strive to maximise the opportuni-
ties and learning that a placement year can offer.

[email protected]
 Building Students’ Emotional Resilience Through Placement… 155

There have been studies exploring emotional resilience and the student
placement experience—particularly in relation to health and social care
students who are often faced with additional emotional and stress-related
challenges (Grant and Kinman 2014; Foster and McKenzie 2012;
Freshwater and Stickley 2004). It is clear that supporting students to
understand and develop their ability to ‘bounce back’ will help them in
the everyday challenges they face, as well as those that are more stressful
or demanding. Resilience in the workplace requires the development of
additional characteristics—including good support networks, self-­
awareness, social confidence and reflective practice (Grant and Kinman
2014)—as students learn to adapt to the demands of full-time employ-
ment whilst still within the higher education system.
There are also links between emotional intelligence and learning.
Ellstrom (2001) noted that work based learning can not only positively
benefit the organisation through enhanced productivity, innovation and
competitiveness, but also promote healthier working conditions and
reduce stress at an individual level. He argued that such learning may be
adaptive (where aspects of the work-learning situation are ‘given’—pre-
scribed and non-negotiable) or developmental (where there are fewer
‘givens’, rules or previous experiences to rely on). For placement students,
there are likely to be opportunities for both modes of learning; under-
standing and demonstrating competencies in routine problem solving
through adaptive learning but also developing their ability to use their
own knowledge and creative skills to resolve new or unfamiliar problems
and question or challenge existing routines or practices through develop-
mental learning. He concluded that “the learning processes and outcomes
of different people placed in the same task or job with the same learning
potential will be expected to differ based on their personal learning readi-
ness” (Ellstrom 2001, p. 432). Developing the emotional resilience to
manage some of the stresses and challenges of work based learning can be
supported through, for example, ‘train-the-trainers’, classroom- or
computer-­based resilience-building programmes. However, as Vanhove
et al. (2016, p. 278) noted, “programmes employing a one-to-one deliv-
ery format (e.g. coaching) were most effective” in identifying and sup-
porting employees’ needs and stressors.

[email protected]
156 S. Eccles and V. Renaud

 oaching and Mentoring to Strengthen

C
Emotional Resilience
The emotional resilience of placement students is best strengthened
through purposeful interventions which focus on a range of competen-
cies. This, we argue, can be supported by coaching and mentoring by the
PDA and enhanced through, for example, the use of reflective log books
or diaries, supervision and supported experiential learning. Barnett and
O’Mahony (2008) suggest that mentoring tends to be a longer-term
opportunity for reciprocal learning and sharing of experience and ideas
“where one person provides individual support and challenge to another”
(Bush 2013, p. 244). Coaching tends to be more short term and focuses
on developing specific skills although, as Bush (2013) acknowledges, the
two are often used interchangeably.
Gyllensten and Palmer (2007) explored effective coaching within the
workplace and noted that two key criteria of successful coaching were
transparency and trust. Building a trusting relationship between coachee
and coach reduced the impact of power relations and strengthened issues
around confidentiality. Explaining the process, purpose and theories
around coaching created greater transparency and this, together with
trust ensured a strong and productive relationship between the coachee
and coach.
Coaching and mentoring for HE students is increasingly seen as an
important means of encouraging greater reflections and exploring
future possibilities. The literature indicates, for example, that peer
coaching amongst students can have a positive impact on their aca-
demic performance (Andreanoff 2016). Mentoring by experienced
placement supervisors or line managers can be “a facilitating process
to support the professional growth of individuals” (Barnet and
O’Mahony 2013, p. 260) and help equip students with the profes-
sional knowledge and skills required. What is less understood is the
impact on work placement students coached by a PDA—a non-aca-
demic member of their university with a commitment to supporting
students in their professional, cognitive, career and adult develop-
ment whilst on work placement.

[email protected]
 Building Students’ Emotional Resilience Through Placement… 157

The remainder of this chapter presents a case study of the experiences

of media and communications students into, through and out of their
placements, demonstrating how a planned and personalised package of
coaching and mentoring develops the levels of emotional resilience
required by students to adapt to a work/life balance and cope with the
challenges this presents. In particular, the impact of the four dimensions
noted by Bush (2013) that link content-focused programmes (i.e. aca-
demic studies) and process-rich activities (i.e. work experience) to PDA
coaching and mentoring will be explored. These dimensions include:
linking practice to the learning situation, focusing on personalised learn-
ing needs, supporting active learning and ensuring effective support.

Placement Support in Practice

For students at Bournemouth University, the PDA serves as the primary
link between the student, university and placement supervisor during
students’ 40-week work placement. Whilst placement supervisors can
provide the tacit knowledge and mentoring to engage and develop the
placement student from a practitioner perspective, they are not always
equipped to help students make the links between their theoretical
knowledge and how this impacts on media and communication practice.
The PDA mentors the students to encourage formal and informal
employability development over the course of their placement and
coaches them around specific individual issues or problems. The students
discussed here are on marketing and advertising undergraduate pro-
grammes. Their placements range from international companies and
advertising agencies to national media and marketing companies. The
competition for graduate entry to such organisations is high. Graduates
who have had a meaningful placement experience that has enabled them
to develop the knowledge, skills and ability to understand and contribute
to company goals and values are likely to be more confident in applying
to, and being interviewed for, roles in these organisations.
Bournemouth University has designated PDAs who visit each student
whilst on placement. Each visit consists of objective planning, short and
long term goal planning, and other key topics to encourage the student

[email protected]
158 S. Eccles and V. Renaud

towards greater self-empowerment. This also includes a joint discussion

with their company supervisor. To ensure a thorough and consistent
approach, standardised documentation is used (the Placement Review
Form) and this provides the basis for individualised coaching and
mentoring.
The PDA serves as the main point of contact from the university to the
student during their placement year. Serving as an independent coach/
mentor, each student receives two official placement reviews; the first
review in the first 6 months of the placement, and the second in the latter
part of the placement. These visits enable students to discuss and reflect
on their performance, and make the links between the theoretical ele-
ments of their academic studies and industry standards. Where necessary,
additional contact is made via email, Skype or telephone.
The topics discussed and recorded are:

1. First Placement Review: (a) skills development: skills sheet, top skills
for employers, transferable skills sheet and personal audit, (b) SMART
objectives, (c) GROW model of coaching
2. Second Placement Review: leaving placement checklist, CV and the
STAR (Situation, Task, Action, Result) analysis, interview skills and
questions
3. Post Reviews and Pre Final Year

The GROW (Goals, Reality, Options, Will) model of coaching, devel-

oped by Whitmore (2009), is used by the PDAs in group workshops and
individual reviews. As part of the first placement review, it helps students
to reflect on, be aware of and develop resilience strategies. This increased
awareness of self during placement year plays a vital role in current and
future student resilience.

Tensions and Challenges

However, whilst we know that the PDA/student relationship over the
placement year has a positive impact on developing students’ resilience
(both in the workplace and subsequently), there are also potential t­ ensions

[email protected]
 Building Students’ Emotional Resilience Through Placement… 159

which need to be taken into account and overcome. Such tensions tend
to arise as a consequence of misunderstandings, misperceptions and per-
sonal issues rather than a lack of formal planning or procedures.

Conflicts of Interest

A perceived conflict of interest between the key stakeholders (the univer-

sity, employer and student) can arise when a student recruited for a spe-
cific role (and therefore with specific expectations as to what that may
entail) is not given opportunities to fulfil these expectations—therefore
not meeting the learning objectives required from the placement experi-
ence. The employer, in striving to meet their own business strategies and
goals, may be unaware of the limitations of the placement experience they
are providing or even, occasionally, unwilling to provide the breadth of
experiences that students require. At the same time, the University has a
commitment to ensure that students have the opportunities and experi-
ences to ensure that the learning objectives are met. The PDA has a criti-
cal role in negotiating through situations such as this, either through
directly intervening with the employer or through encouraging the stu-
dent to find additional work experience during the summertime to add to
their overall learning from industry. One of the most common examples
is when a marketing or advertising student spends their placement experi-
ence working ‘in house’, and then seeks out additional work experience at
an agency, and vice versa. This experience of both environments is ideal
in setting the student up with the necessary knowledge, skills and confi-
dence to help them identify what they want to do following graduation.

I didn’t know how to deal with the situation at my placement [a large interna-
tional mass media company]. My PDA helped me to explore and define the
options and the best way forward. I appreciated that she didn’t tell me what to
do but instead helped me find the solution myself. This support helped impact
my placement year in a positive way. While I’m sure things would have poten-
tially gotten better between my supervisor and myself, it wasn’t a guarantee and
therefore having my PDA support me was the best solution. Regarding ­placement
students from other universities, most did not receive a face-to-face visit which
I think helped to develop the relationship.
(BA Advertising student)

[email protected]
160 S. Eccles and V. Renaud

Competing Interests

Another tension that a PDA often encounters is that of an inner conflict

within the student. While the student may be working in a programme-­
related placement environment, their passions may be in another area. It
is through the coaching interaction, where the focus is on the empower-
ment and wellbeing of the student, that various options can be discussed
and explored. The PDA’s ability to be an independent, mentoring coach
can be rewarding for both PDA and student; the PDA is able to focus on
the needs of the student whilst the student is able to identify and vocalise
where they would like to be in an ideal situation. This then helps them to
clarify steps and actions going forward. An example of this is the PDA
working with a marketing student who had expressed a keen interest in
equestrian events at her second Placement Review. Through discussing
her ‘dream job’, they were able to identify a local equestrian centre which
the student later approached for additional work experience following
her official placement. At the beginning of the following academic year,
the PDA was struck by the student’s increased confidence and general
excitement for her future as a direct result of this work experience. She
had met all the ‘official’ requirements of her placement but at the same
time, through the PDA coaching, had been able to articulate and action
an aspiration she had not previously thought possible.

I do think the placement year has been a positive learning experience, although
my placement turned negative it has helped me learn about people and the type
of businesses I would not like to work in in the future. It has made me a stronger
person and I now feel I have the skills to be able to adapt to any working
environment.
(BA Advertising student)

 avigating Between Education and Employment

N
Environments

A common tension is when the PDA’s expectations of the student’s

awareness do not match where the student is actually at, regarding emo-
tional resilience within the workplace environment. While students

[email protected]
 Building Students’ Emotional Resilience Through Placement… 161

spend the first two years of their academic course on campus learning
how to navigate within the academic context and with their peers in
this ‘new environment’, the sandwich placement experience represents
the first time they have had to navigate the professional landscape. The
role of the PDA is to help the student integrate into their work environ-
ment as quickly as possible. It is not uncommon for students who are
very talented academically (and have immersed themselves in their
studies) to find it challenging to adjust to the workplace environment.
They often find it difficult initially to understand and adhere to dead-
lines, observe workplace etiquette, integrate into team projects and self-
manage key workplace tasks. While these students have had the
emotional resilience to navigate within the academic context on cam-
pus, they are less able to cope with workplace requirements. Here, the
PDA role as a mentoring coach, is crucial to the student so they can
develop the skills, knowledge and self-­awareness to make this transi-
tion. As one PDA commented, “we are impartial coaching mentors, in
that some questions are open and others are more directly related to action,
and we have the experience to realise when to use different questioning
approaches most effectively”.
There are, perhaps inevitably, tensions and issues at a personal, edu-
cational and work placement level that arise. The approach of coaching
and mentoring by the PDA allows these to be aired, discussed and
resolved.

Well, because of the placement reviews and the support I received, I understood
the purpose of the placement year and I started to enjoy it. So I think, for me,
it was definitely a positive learning experience in every aspect of my life as I now
think more like a grown up, working person. I have improved my skills through
by meeting all the goals and objectives I had for my placement year. I am now
more open, confident and responsible. I know how to make a good impression
in a working place, how to be professional and I am more career orientated.
Most importantly I know what I am going to do when I graduate, I’ve already
set up goals and objectives, and I know I’m going to be ok. I have always been
insecure and never really believed in my abilities. Now I know I have potential,
so I guess this is the area I made most progress in.
(BA Marketing Communications student)

[email protected]
162 S. Eccles and V. Renaud

Reflecting on her role as a PDA, one colleague commented:

We are impartial coaching mentors, in that some questions are open and others
are more directly related to action. While previously we have indirectly used the
GROW Model, we have incorporated the model into our placement reviews this
year (2017–18). Students greatly value the relationship they have with us dur-
ing the placement year. Going forward, we want to develop the support for
students’ pre-placement and post-placement so that there is even greater synergy
between their transition into higher education, their placement experiences and
graduate employability.

Evaluation
Evaluation of the effectiveness of coaching and mentoring placement stu-
dents focuses around the following four broad areas:

(a) How was the intervention delivered? (process)

(b) What difference did it make? (impact)
(c) How did it work? (mechanisms)
(d) Was it worth it? (economic and personal benefits)

Students’ experiences and evaluations are gained through the institu-

tional Annual Placement Survey and Placement Progress Forms, as well
as through informal interactions and student podcasts, where the impact
of coaching and mentoring, as part of the placement support offered to
students by the PDA, can be seen. Employers are able to formally feed-
back at each review, through institutional questionnaires and informally.
This results in a range of qualitative and quantitative data—some very
specific to the individual student, placement and employer and others
providing an overview of the process, impact and benefits of placements
in general and placement support in particular.
When asked to reflect back on their placement experience, students are
able to rate and comment on some of the key issues. Implicit in their
comments is evidence of their increased emotional resilience to some of
the stressful and challenging situations they have faced as well as the
impact the relationship with their PDA made.

[email protected]
 Building Students’ Emotional Resilience Through Placement… 163

The Process

The process of incorporating coaching and mentoring into placement

support is straightforward. The PDAs, as part of their own professional
development, are able to undertake in-house training on coaching and
mentoring, so have the skills and ability to ‘ask the right questions at the
right time’. In many cases, interventions with students will be part of
planned reviews but where necessary, the PDA will follow up with a tele-
phone or Skype conversation. Feedback from students indicates that
face-to-face visits are often felt to be the most beneficial, especially when
they can be followed up with an email or telephone conversation where
necessary. Skype or telephone reviews are easier for students to manage
from a time management perspective and often easier to slot into their
working calendar and can be particularly effective once the rapport and
trust has been built up between the student and PDA through face-to-­
face contact. Because coaching and mentoring are integrated into the
review process, there is a seamless shift between these and the more struc-
tured monitoring requirements.
The end-of-placement student questionnaire is an opportunity for stu-
dents to comment on statements about their experience. As the question-
naire is anonymous, it is not possible to attribute each response to
individual students, but the following comments were made:

(a) I felt supported by the University for having my PDA there with me
as we spoke to my supervisor:

This three-way conversation in person was really helpful.

My supervisor commented on how helpful and thorough the review process
was.

(b) The PDA helped me through a difficult time:

Through this process I feel better prepared when I next encounter something
similar.
I felt like they were an independent coaching mentor, a refreshing change
from an academic who would only tow the University line.

[email protected]
164 S. Eccles and V. Renaud

I felt the PDA was really there for me, listening to me and understanding
what I was saying. They actually ‘heard’ me and was there asking me questions
helping me be the best I could be.

(c) I knew the PDA was always there for me:

I knew if I needed to speak to my PDA, I could send her an email and we could
speak right away.
During my placement year my PDA was unbelievably supportive and very
helpful. She would go above and beyond her means to ensure I was okay and
supporting me through leaving my placement. There would be times when we
would speak late at night and even on bank holidays when I had a concern. I
had a very disruptive end to my placement and she was the person that kept me
positive and professional.

Impact

There is existing institutional data that can be scrutinised to identify the

academic progress and graduate destinations of placement students.
From this, we know that our placement students tend to perform better
academically in their final year, as noted above. Understanding how
their emotional resilience has developed is less easy to ascertain from
these data. However, the effectiveness of the intervention by the PDA in
particular can be observed at an individual student level through, for
example, their completed Placement Log Book and end-of-placement
reflections. Some of the most powerful feedback can come from pod-
casts and interviews that these students are asked to provide in their
final year, where their reflections and commentary about their individ-
ual ‘journeys’ highlight the importance of practitioner mentoring and
PDA coaching and mentoring in building their emotional resilience
and confidence. It is also worth noting, however, that when questioned,
many students do not have a clear idea about what emotional resilience
actually is. They can (and do) articulate increases in confidence, motiva-
tion, problem solving and developing the skills and experience to fit
into and cope with the everyday demands of working in a competitive

[email protected]
 Building Students’ Emotional Resilience Through Placement… 165

industry. There is, therefore, a need to ensure that the language used in
initiatives such as these is shared, explicit and fully understood by all
parties.
Comments from the student questionnaire include:

(a) Focus the rest of my placement for my future career:

The PDA helped me think and explore on how to best make use of my time on
placement, regarding identifying what I wanted to get out of it based on real
life job descriptions to then help me steer the rest of my placement.

(b) Identify additional opportunities for both personal and professional

growth:

The PDA helped me think of new opportunities and possibilities I had never
thought of, regarding the summertime following my placement, final year, and
post-graduation aspirations.

Feedback from employers acknowledges the approach taken by

Bournemouth University in supporting placement students:

The BU PDA system is the best by far amongst universities in the way that
students are supported.
The holistic approach taken by the PDA for the placement year was excellent;
not only was the ‘here and now’ discussed, but also the ‘future’.
It is obvious that the University really cares about their students.

Feedback from an employer (sports industry), who is a BU PR

graduate who went on a 40 week sandwich placement himself:

What is your idea of emotional resilience?

For me, it is managing life’s disappointments etc., in a way that does not
negatively affect one’s long-term existence. That’s an incredibly difficult
thing to do but can be helped if an individual is able to compartmentalise
elements of their life. That sounds quite robotic but I think an ordered mind
allows for sound decisions.

[email protected]
166 S. Eccles and V. Renaud

When thinking back, do you think your placement year affected it in any
way; how?
Yes, absolutely. Ostensibly because I was faced with new tasks that took
me outside of my comfort zone. Predominantly, it exposes you to the man-
ger-employee relationship, which provides different challenges to the lec-
turer-student one. By nature, someone can only become resilient if they
have been challenged in some way.
Thinking about the support and relationship you had with your PDA, did
that engagement help you? Do you feel that it helped your emotional resil-
ience at that stage? How?
Undoubtedly so. As in life generally, having a support network around
you gives you a feeling of greater security. Pertinently, because my PDA was
so vested in my development I felt I was achieving even more.
How did the whole placement experience, so on the 40 week placement
in industry and the link with your PDA, affect you for your final year?
I would like to think that it brought even greater professionalism to my
studies. I tried to take the structure of a working day into the unstructured
‘down time’ that university can give. Again as in life generally, if you’re
returning to a scenario with even greater experience you should be better
equipped to deal with all the variables.
If you did not have the support of your PDA, do you think you would
have developed the same both personally and professionally?
The role of the PDA is vital. They provide an outlet for students who are
at a particularly unique stage of their careers. The development might have
been the same but would likely have taken longer and been achieved with
less self-confidence.
Now that you are a supervisor, how do you see the process from that
angle? Do you feel that the support given to BU students on placement is
positive?
Having recruited students from a range of universities I can say—in the
absence of all bias, of course!—that the support offered to BU students
from the University is second-to-none. It is an holistic approach, which is
consistent over the course of the entire year and beyond.
Do you think that the system still promotes, and has the impact, on emo-
tional resilience?
Yes. The PDA’s forensic monitoring of placement year students means
that opportunities to talk about the good, and not so good, parts of the
year are discussed regularly. This means that opportunities to review emo-
tional resilience are plentiful, which otherwise would likely not be the case.

[email protected]
 Building Students’ Emotional Resilience Through Placement… 167

Mechanisms

Bush (2013) discussed the need for effective personal development.

Although he was specifically exploring this in the context of education
leadership, his argument that a holistic approach to combining content-­
focused programmes with process-rich activities is a useful way of under-
standing how coaching and mentoring can, as part of the overall student
placement experience, support students in drawing links between their
academic studies and work experience. It is clear from the comments by
students noted above that the support of the PDA encourages them to
reflect on their experiences and share these reflections with the PDA in
order to make links between their academic and professional knowledge.
By focusing on personalised learning needs, the PDA can support active
learning where the student can make sense of the new knowledge and
skills they are gaining. The effective support to enable this to happen
comes through the development of a trusting and transparent relation-
ship between the student, the PDA and the placement supervisor.

Benefits

A key benefit of this approach to supporting placement students is how

it strengthens their emotional resilience. Whilst students may not neces-
sarily articulate it in these terms, they do highlight their enhanced aware-
ness of and ability to adapt to and cope with stress and life changes,
whether major or minor. Hammond (2004, p. 560) noted: ‘Greater self-­
understanding and independence are potentially empowering and have
positive implications…[although]… personal development can lead to
conflict and difficulty because it ‘challenges the status quo’ …
Understanding one’s situation within a wider context can put personal
difficulties into a perspective that makes them easier to cope with.’
We argue in this chapter that using the PDA, as a non-academic mem-
ber of their university, to coach and support placement students provides
a different type of relationship that they may have with their lecturers. As
Chepchieng et al. (2006) commented, students often view lecturers as

[email protected]
168 S. Eccles and V. Renaud

role models that inform and support their learning and academic p ­ rogress.
However, the PDA is able to act as a ‘bridge’ between their academic
studies and placement experiences, thus enabling open discussions
around the challenges and concerns that students can face. This in turn,
enhances students’ abilities to reflect on, discuss and develop the emo-
tional resilience that will not only allow them to fully engage with and
benefit from their placement experience, but also provide them with the
skills and self-awareness to cope with stresses and life changes in the
future.
From an institutional perspective, one of the benefits of using PDAs as
coaches and mentors is that it aligns with their other responsibilities
around monitoring and recording student progress. In many respects,
PDAs are not being asked to do anything additional, but asked to do it
differently—the topics discussed with the student are likely to be similar
in all situations but the way questions are posed and responded to changes
this interaction from fact-finding or monitoring to facilitating person-,
problem- and solution-focused conversations (Barnett and O’Mahony
2008). The combination of written progress reports, discussions with
placement supervisors and interviews with students provides a rich
insight into the progress the student is making, their successes and chal-
lenges, as well as identifying areas for further development. The stan-
dardised documentation provides a framework for capturing the work
students are undertaking, their progress, alignment with learning out-
comes and personal reflections. Face-to-face discussions explore these
areas in more depth and can reveal areas that require additional scrutiny
or support. We argue that it is the combination of these two approaches
that enables the PDA and student to reveal and focus on areas requiring
bespoke coaching and mentoring input.
This approach to supporting placement students in building their emo-
tional resilience requires little additional institutional financial support
apart from the initial training of PDAs, with ongoing input from experi-
enced PDAs, which in practice is usually resource-neutral as it is integrated
into individual workloads. The initial training benefits from being ‘on-the-
job’ and consists of a holistic programme with information and support
from various services on campus such as Student Affairs, Counselling

[email protected]
 Building Students’ Emotional Resilience Through Placement… 169

Service, Careers Service. The GROW coaching model is discussed and

explained between the experienced and new PDAs, with ­experiential
learning taking place when the new PDA observes a placement review tak-
ing place between an experienced PDA and student. The new PDA is
quite often encouraged to contribute to the review and reflections on the
exercise are discussed following the review. The link between old and new
PDAs continues as they have regular catch-ups to discuss the self-reflec-
tions the new PDA may have on their role and experience of conducting
reviews. This relationship reflects that of a mentor as the experienced
member supports the inexperienced member.
The value to individual students can be seen through not only some of
the expected positive outcomes of placement experience (such as improved
academic performance in final year) but also through their increased con-
fidence, self-awareness and ability to cope with and manage the stresses
and pressure of work.

Implications for Practice and Placement

Support
This chapter has outlined how coaching and mentoring placement stu-
dents by their PDA can build their emotional resilience as an integral
element of their overall placement experience. It supports the views of,
for example, Eden (2014) that ‘employability’ should extend beyond
knowledge, skills and attributes to embrace the whole person, providing
them with the ability to cope with the range of stresses and life changes
they will face in order to succeed in future. This is supported by initiatives
by professional organisations, such as the recent study undertaken by
Baird and Palmer and presented at a GTI Breakfast News conference on
HE students and mental health in November 2017.
At institutional level, the interventions to support this are both resource
based—having appropriately trained staff in place—and policy driven—
ensuring that there is institutional commitment to further and fully
enhance a ‘whole person’ approach to the placement experience and stu-
dent employability. The introduction of the Teaching Excellence Framework

[email protected]
170 S. Eccles and V. Renaud

in the UK (QAA 2017) highlights the need to support students not only
towards graduate employability, but also in terms of r­etention and aca-
demic success. ‘Student resilience’ is gaining more recognition as a key fac-
tor in ensuring that students can learn and gain from their time at university.
A key theme emerging in relation to placements is how to best support
students with their transition from a ‘student mind-set’ to a ‘professional
mind-set’. Recommended interventions include the implementation of an
embedded professional practice unit into the curriculum, Placement Peer
Assisted Learning (PPAL) initiatives where returning final year students
work with second year students in the preparation for their sandwich place-
ment experience, and raising awareness of entrepreneurial skills, including
that of learning from ‘failure’.
Cascading this down to programme or faculty level, there needs to be
a greater awareness of emotional resilience and how students can under-
stand, reflect on and build this as they prepare for, go through and emerge
from their placement experience. Increasingly, this is likely to be through
curriculum-based initiatives, PPAL and greater integration of placement
opportunities and experiences into the wider student experience.
Our argument is that a successful placement experience for students,
which builds and develops the emotional resilience they will need to
become successful and confident graduates, requires face-to-face inter-
ventions by an experienced member of staff from their university. Such
interventions incorporate coaching and mentoring as part of a structured
but individualised review to allow these students to understand, bench-
mark and develop their ability to rise to and cope with the challenges
faced not only whilst on placement, but as employable graduates in the
future. Importantly, the PDAs recognise that: “student resilience cannot
be embraced nor tackled with a one-size-fits-all approach; interventions,
initiatives and ideas are vast, both in terms of scope and number” (ASET
2017, n.p.).
Developing a process which has institutional coherence and congru-
ence, yet has the flexibility and personalised approach to provide indi-
vidualised coaching and mentoring through PDA interventions, is an
important step forward in building placements students’ emotional resil-
ience to manage the present and plan for the future.

[email protected]
 Building Students’ Emotional Resilience Through Placement… 171

References
Andreanoff, J. (2016). The impact of a peer coaching programme on the aca-
demic performance of undergraduate programmes: A mixed methods study.
Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education, (10). Retrieved
September 3, 2017, from http://www.aldinhe.ac.uk/ojs/index.php?journal=j
ldhe&page=article&op=view&path%5B%5D=358
ASET. (2017). Student resilience. ASET Viewpoints. Retrieved January 12,
2018, from http://www.asetonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/9-ASET-
Viewpoints-Student-Resilience.pdf
Baird, A., & Palmer, D. (2017, November 23). The Fear Factor. GTI Breakfast
News Conference, How well do we do mental well-being? London,
UK. Retrieved January 14, 2018, from https://www.slideshare.net/
TARGETjobs89/gti-breakfast-news-23-november-how-well-do-we-do-
mental-­wellbeing-82587799
Barnett, B. G., & O’Mahony, G. R. (2008). Mentoring and coaching programs
for the professional development of school leaders. In J. Lumby (Ed.),
International handbook on the preparation and development of school leaders
(pp. 232–262). New York and London: Routledge.
Brooks, R., & Youngson, P. (2016). Undergraduate work placements: An analy-
sis of the effects on career progression. Studies in Higher Education, 41(9),
1563–1578.
Bullock, K., Gould, V., Hejmadi, M., & Lock, G. (2009). Work placement
experience: Should I stay or should I go? Higher Education Research &
Development, 28(5), 481–494.
Bush, T. (2013). Leadership development. In C. Wise, P. Bradshaw, &
M. Cartwright (Eds.), Leading professional practice in education (pp. 240–254).
London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Chepchieng, M. C., Mbugua, S. N., & Kariuki, M. W. (2006). University stu-
dents’ perception of lecturer-student relationships: A comparative study of
public and private universities in Kenya. Educational Research and Reviews,
1(3), 80–84.
Eden, S. (2014). Out of the comfort zone: Enhancing work-based learning
about employability through student reflection on work placements. Journal
of Geography in Higher Education, 38(2), 266–276.
Ellstrom, P.-E. (2001). Integrating learning and work: Problems and prospects.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12(4), 421–435.
Foster, K., & McKenzie, H. (2012). Educational approaches to enhance emo-
tional intelligence. In J. Hurley & P. Linsley (Eds.), Emotional intelligence in

[email protected]
172 S. Eccles and V. Renaud

health and social care: A guide for improving human relationships. London:
Radcliffe Publishing.
Freshwater, D., & Stickley, T. (2004). The heart of the art: Emotional intelli-
gence in nurse education. Nursing Inquiry, 11(2), 92–98.
Gomez, S., Lush, D., & Clements, M. (2004). Work placements enhance the
academic performance of bioscience undergraduates. Journal of Vocational
Education and Training, 56(3), 373–385.
Grant, L., & Kinman, G. (2014). Emotional resilience in the helping profes-
sions and how it can be enhanced. Health and Social Care Education, 3(1),
23–34.
Gyllensten, K., & Palmer, S. (2007). The coaching relationship: An interpreta-
tive phenomenological analysis. International Coaching Psychology Review,
2(2), 168–177.
Hammond, C. (2004). Impacts of lifelong learning upon emotional resilience,
psychological and mental health: Fieldwork evidence. Oxford Review of
Education, 30(4), 551–568.
Mansfield, R. (2011). The effect of placement experience upon final year results
for surveying degree programmes. Studies in Higher Education, 36(8),
939–953.
QAA, Quality Assurance Agency. (2017). Teaching Excellence Framework.
Retrieved October 5, 2017, from http://www.qaa.ac.uk/assuring-standards-
and-quality/teaching-excellence-framework
Stein, M. B., Campbell-Sills, L., & Gelernter, J. (2009). Genetic variation in
5HTTLPR is associated with emotional resilience. American Journal of
Medical Genetics, 150B(7), 900–906.
Vanhove, A., Herian, M., Perez, A., Harms, P., & Lester, P. (2016). Can resil-
ience be developed at work? A meta-analytical review of resilience-building
programme effectiveness. Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology, 89, 278–307.
Whitmore, J. (2009). Coaching for performance: GROWing human potential and
purpose: The principles and practice of coaching and leadership. People skills for
professionals (4th ed.). Boston: Nicholas Brealey.

[email protected]
 10
The ‘Ebb and Flow’ of Student Learning
on Placement
Dawn A. Morley

Introduction
There is a rise in interest in work based learning as part of student choice
at subject level in the UK (DOE 2017) but there remains an absence of
specific guidance on how to best support higher education students learn-
ing on placement. An alternative HE experience in England, the degree
apprenticeship, underlies the continued focus by policy in securing place-
ment experiences for students without stipulating the type of support
that is required at the ‘coal face’ of work based learning. Policy docu-
ments (UUK 2016), that urge universities to enter into partnership
agreements with both employers and FE colleges to plug skills shortages,
are noticeably lacking in their appreciation of the unique qualities of
work based learning and how best to support students in this setting
(Morley 2017a). Unfortunately, this is not unusual as placements
have predominantly been an enriching ‘add on’ to the real business of

D. A. Morley (*)
Department of Higher Education, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2018 173

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_10

[email protected]
174 D. A. Morley

academic learning in more traditional university programmes. Support

­initiatives, such as that described in Chap. 9, are a rare appreciation of the
importance of this role.
Undergraduate nursing programmes currently support a 50:50 split
between practice learning in clinical placements and the theory delivered
at universities. Vocational degrees, such as this, provide an interesting
case study as to how students can be supported in the practice environ-
ment by an appreciation of how students really learn on placement and
how hidden resources can be utilised more explicitly for practice learning.
During 2013–2015 a professional doctorate research study (Morley
2015) conducted a grounded theory study of 21 first year student nurses
on their first placement to discover how they learnt ‘at work’ and the
strategies they enlisted to be successful work based learners.

Literature Review
Many theorists advocate that a novice, working closely with an expert, is
more likely to have their learning strengthened and enabled. Vygotsky
(1962), theorised that cognitive development arose from social situa-
tions. Students developed beyond their individual potential, the ‘zone of
proximal development’, when additional guidance from an expert took a
learner to a more advanced level. This is seen in traditional master-­
apprenticeships (Morley 2017b) but also in learning as part of a wider
professional community (Wenger 1998), or as a distributed apprentice-
ship between several colleagues (Eraut 2007), clients (Eraut 2004) and
peers. Crucial to the apprentice’s journey is the social context of their
learning where the learner’s developing professional identity is deter-
mined by their social interaction, and application of their accumulating
practice skills, with members of their own work communities (Lave and
Wenger 1991; Wenger 1998).
Although practice assessment for student nurses was placed under the
mandatory new role of a ‘mentor’, a registered nurse with additional
responsibility for the students’ practice learning in 2004 (NMC 2004),
research indicates that this significant sole supervisor’s role is fraught by
difficulty. The Shape of the Caring review (Raising the Bar) (Willis 2015),

[email protected]
 The ‘Ebb and Flow’ of Student Learning on Placement 175

highlighted the significant variation in the quality of mentorship that

student nurses experienced. It was found that mentors were sometimes
burdened by their supervisory responsibilities which were both under
resourced, and unrecognised, leading to the current review of the role
(NMC 2017).
In the UK, with the demise of nursing leadership roles in practice
learning (O’Driscoll et al. 2010), and the rise of the mentors’ unique
status as the lynchpin in students’ practice learning, (Gray and Smith
1999, 2000; Myall et al. 2008; O’Driscoll et al. 2010) the mentors’ role
became highly significant. Helping students to adjust to the realities of
practice (Gray and Smith 2000; Myall et al. 2008), challenging their
theoretical knowledge in a new context to enhance critical thinking
(Spouse 2001) and acting as influential role models (Gray and Smith
2000) were recognised as important parts of the mentors’ role. Like in
other disciplines, the quality of the mentor relationship also effected
explicit support of learning, such as feedback, as well as influencing the
motivation, self-efficacy and confidence of the student (Spouse 2001;
Bradbury-Jones et al. 2011a).
Although the student nurses in Gray and Smith’s (2000) study were
able to articulate the optimum characteristics of mentors the research
lacked detail on how these characteristics impacted on students’ practice
learning strategies. The significance of role modelling was also identified
by Gray and Smith (2000), Myall et al. (2008) and Davis (2006) but
there remained a lack of specific data on how students learnt from profes-
sional experts.
Although mentors were aware of the significance of their learning role
they also admitted that increased clinical workload affected the support
and learning experience they provided (Gray and Smith 2000; Myall
et al. 2008) to students. Despite students’ supernumerary status Bradbury-­
Jones et al. (2007) found that student nurses were excluded from learning
opportunities to meet workforce demands. The culmination of both
mentors and students being busy with clinical work meant that they
risked to work separately and, by remaining at the lower end of the pro-
fessional decision making hierarchy, students nurses received a frag-
mented version of the work of their future professional roles (Holland
1999; Gray and Smith 1999; Cope et al. 2000). Third year students

[email protected]
176 D. A. Morley

(Gray and Smith 1999) recognised a division between the care work
­associated with unqualified care staff, the health care assistant, and the
duties of the qualified nurse and gravitated towards higher status work
associated with the latter.

If [the student] had been left to wander around the ward talking to patients,
or had been given mundane activities that had kept her busy and out of the
mentor’s way, she would have missed out on learning the artistry and the
science of caring …that her mentor could teach her. (Spouse 2001, p. 23)

Displaying characteristics of helplessness and dependence led students

to be labelled by permanent staff as not meeting the criteria of the clinical
setting (Allan et al. 2011). If students worked in a supportive environ-
ment they began to learn the nuances of ‘negotiating voice’ (Bradbury-­
Jones et al. 2011b) and Allan et al. (2011) found that third year students
began to recognise and adapt to the politics of placement learning.
Levett-Jones and Lathlean (2009) found that the degree of conformity
of 18 third year students in an Australian mixed method study varied
according to their sense of ‘belongingness’ on placement. In those situa-
tions, where belongingness was not met, (Levett-Jones and Lathlean
2008) students were more likely to be subsumed into the workforce in
their attempt to fit in. With their self-imposed invisibility student nurses’
learning needs were compromised. They did not have the confidence to
develop critical thinking beyond asking rudimentary questions in an
atmosphere where they were fearful of making mistakes. Argyris and
Schön (1974) term this as a compromise between ‘espoused theories’ and
the ‘theories in use’ used in practice.
The placement ethos, and the particular support of the mentor (Levett-­
Jones and Lathlean 2009; Bradbury-Jones et al. 2011a, b) emerged as
critical factors in students’ adherence to their personal and taught values
of nursing. Ellstrom (2011) made the distinction between an ‘enabling’
and ‘constraining’ learning environment whereby the structures in prac-
tice impacted on how easily a student could move between ‘adaptive’
(skills acquisition) and ‘developmental’ (professional critique) learning. A
constraining working environment could prioritise adaptive learning, or
be detrimental to the development of both, with students displaying the

[email protected]
 The ‘Ebb and Flow’ of Student Learning on Placement 177

attributes of acquiescence. Although the prioritisation of adaptive or

developmental learning may naturally and appropriately occur during
their learning, students needed encouragement to be able to question
what and how they are being taught.
Barriers to learning were erected when mentors displayed behaviour
akin to bullying (Bradbury-Jones et al. 2011a) or overprotected students
leaving them predominantly to observe, do unwanted work and have
insufficient feedback (Gray and Smith 2000).
Some student nurses recognised the constraints of their mentor’s role
and realised that their own learning could be compromised with their
mentor’s dual responsibility for clinical management as well as mentor-
ship. Students also reported incorporating other staff into their learning
to increase the range and opportunity of their practice learning experi-
ences. Students who showed attributes of self-direction and, who were
able to capitalise on learning opportunities outside of an exclusive learn-
ing relationship with their mentor, were seen as more likely to have suc-
cessful mentoring relationships (O’Driscoll et al. 2010).
Eraut (2007) identified a clinical learning culture for the trained nurses
in his study where ‘helpful others’, other than designated mentors and
including patients themselves, contributed significantly to the learning in
the workplace. The growing occupation of health care assistants has been
found to contribute a hidden but significant amount of time to student
nurse practice learning (Hasson et al. 2013).

F ocus on the Novice Practice Learning

Experience
For the purposes of the research a particular focus was taken on the prac-
tice learning experiences of first year students on their first clinical place-
ment; situated three months after the beginning of their adult nursing
degree. The literature review highlighted both their vulnerabilities and
the lack of research undertaken with first year students (Andrew et al.
2009; Grealish and Ranse 2009). It was felt that the issues identified in
the literature review could have a particularly detrimental effect on

[email protected]
178 D. A. Morley

s­tudent nurses at the beginning of their practice learning but what this
effect was, was under researched.
The first year student nurses, studying at the university site for the
research, undertook an induction day prior to placement and were given
guidelines on the number of learning outcomes to achieve from their
practice assessment tool during their six weeks of practice. They were
recommended to contact their mentor prior to placement but apart from
these similarities each clinical setting had a different approach to their
support of students.

Research Design
Following approval from a faculty ethics committee, twenty-one first year
adult nursing students (three male and nineteen female) of mixed age,
previous care experience and academic background volunteered from
three separate cohorts of first year adult nursing students from one UK
University. This meant participants entered their first clinical placement
at different times and this was compatible with the cumulative data col-
lection and analysis of the constant comparative method used in the socio
constructivist grounded theory method (Charmaz 2006) for this research.
Procedures were followed to gain informed consent from participants.
It was hoped that a clear explanation of the research would help to equal-
ize power differences that may exist between the participants and the
researcher, who was a lecturer in the same academic institution, and
encourage full and open participation by the student (Guba and Lincoln
2005). The nature of the researcher-participant role can be a complex one
and the dual role of the researcher from the outset had to revisited and
negotiated as the research unfolded.
Students undertook individual unstructured interviews twice during
data collection and analysis (January–November 2013); the first was con-
ducted via the telephone mid placement and the second face to face once
students had returned to university after the placement was over.
Data collection and analysis followed the different coding stages of the
grounded theory process. As particular categories emerged theoretical
sampling was pursued in order to gain further data that only pertained to

[email protected]
 The ‘Ebb and Flow’ of Student Learning on Placement 179

the particular learning experiences of the emerged categories. Using

Charmaz’s (2006) approach the researcher’s background was less about
bias and more positively positioned as a possible influence on the inter-
pretation through her own background and experience.
The final categories of the study were validated by two focus groups of
participants before the categories were viewed as saturated and that there
was no further data to add. An overarching theory of ‘learning to be a
professional’ emerged as the final stage of the grounded theory approach.

Results
In the clinical setting, the student participants learnt in a predominantly
unstructured learning environment where learning opportunities could
occur randomly as a shift progressed. Some students’ learning proved to
be of better quality than their peers and students could isolate different
aspects of the management of their learning that were key to successful
practice learning.

The Experience of Learning in Practice

There is a lack of clarity on the role of a first-year student nurse on their

first placement experience; “some of them weren’t sure if that was a nurses’
role or more of a healthcare role that they were doing” (13, end of placement
interview). Quite often the mentor was viewed as a protector of students’
learning interests, as well as a facilitator of their learning, and, without
this particular level of support, the student was at risk of being buffeted
by the adversities of practice. This included instances of horizontal bully-
ing by permanent staff, being directed to work with no link to students’
learning and being made to feel unwelcome in practice.
Students displayed a strong desire to find a useful role on placement
where they felt occupied and did not experience a sense of ‘placement
drift’. This could occur undertaking activities not linked to their learn-
ing, but ones that promoted students’ self-worth and sense of indepen-
dence. On their first placement students preferred to be occupied “I’m

[email protected]
180 D. A. Morley

not ­someone who likes to just stand and observe” (1, end of placement inter-
view) and “I don’t want to be one of those people who have to keep asking
stuff” (15, mid placement interview). Students did not identify observing
and questioning practice as components of learning in practice and fell
into the characteristics of ‘keeping busy’. Students needed active
encouragement and permission to be a learner in a purposeful manner.
Not having these learning skills scaffolded for them meant students saw
the observation of care work negatively; as a period of inactivity where
learning stopped.
With respect to both learning, and the setting up of a learning expe-
rience, the first year student was unable to effectively negotiate their
learning on their own. The relationship with their mentor was crucial
to being both challenged and nurtured in their practice learning. It was
identified by students that, in the absence of the mentor, they under-
took personal care with health care assistants, “they’re easier to access”
(19, mid placement interview), particularly in residential and nursing
home settings where students were asked to work with senior care staff.
Although students were content to be looked after by health care assis-
tants in their initial induction period they became dissatisfied if they
felt they continued to work as a ‘health care assistant’ as the placement
continued.

I’m just left with the care assistants washing and some of the care assistants can
do the blood sugar monitoring machine and I asked if I can have a go and I’m
not allowed ’cos I’m not trained and it feels like some of the things I can’t do so
I can’t be left on my own sometimes unless it’s like just basic washing. It feels
like, I want to learn more …. (9, end of placement interview)

For students, the richest learning experiences occurred when they were
challenged beyond their first-year role. Emergency situations, such as a
cardiac arrest of a patient, allowed students immediate access to the vast
potential of a real-life learning situation. Without exception participants
were supported emotionally and the clinical incident was deconstructed
by the trained nurses involved into discussion points for learning.
Students, as a result, felt more confident of their future role if the same
emergency situation occurred again.

[email protected]
 The ‘Ebb and Flow’ of Student Learning on Placement 181

… It was sort of exhilarating but actually reflecting on it with my mentor I

think it all sort of came up and it was a bit like scary. She sort of pulled me
aside and said, ‘How do you think that went?’ which was good because I wasn’t
going to really talk about it but it was good that she brought it up. (5, end of
placement interview)

 he Experience of Working and Learning

T
with a Mentor

Finding time with their mentor became a constant management issue for
students. Night shifts afforded greater access but during the day the avail-
ability of the mentor became more organic and opportunistic. Students,
most satisfied with their practice learning, intensively shadowed their
mentor through the majority of their work with the student ‘dropping
away’ from their shadowing role when an alternative clinical need arose.
This could occur when the mentor required personal or professional
space to perform their clinical role on their own, or when an alternative
learning opportunity was created for the student.

Initially I’d obviously stay with her but then if another opportunity came up she
was pretty fine to let me go; she often set up learning opportunities. We’d go off
with other team members and she was fine with that and I just joined her back
on, but on quite a few of the days I was with her the whole of the time which
was good. (5, end of placement interview)

The success of this mentorship model was dependent on the student

being able to ‘ebb and flow’ their contact time with their mentor against
the rhythm of their mentors’ clinical work needs or the students’ own
alternative learning opportunities. Students and mentors thus managed
time together, and time apart, and this required a mutually understood
approach by both mentor and student and effective communication
between the two. Some students became so attuned to this style of super-
vision that they developed a sixth sense of when it was inappropriate to
stay with their mentor. Alternatively, the mentor explicitly directed the
student to a different activity when they became busy. This was seen as
acceptable by student and mentor and was clearly managed. This could

[email protected]
182 D. A. Morley

also be accompanied by a clear arrangement as to when the supervisory

relationship would resume at a given time or during a given activity.
The ‘ebb and flow’ approach used the possible fluidity of the students’
role to release the mentors’ time spent supervising when there was an
increased clinical demand on the mentors’ time. However, whilst work-
ing with their mentor, students had the opportunity to experience the
registered nurse role in its entirety and became party to the subtleties and
complexity of professional judgements that their mentors made. Students
were, therefore, at the heart of professional decision making rather than
being directed away to smaller nursing tasks where they were unable to
view the multitude of ongoing judgements made by the nurse in charge.
Importantly, students were required to communicate with their mentor
frequently in an ongoing discussion of work priorities and care decisions.
This created a rich and dynamic learning environment that was con-
structed through an effective professional relationship between student
and mentor.
With the ‘ebb and flow’ model of mentorship an additional positive
was that the students’ ‘need to be useful’ was addressed as the mentor
continually directed the student to tasks either with them or away from
them. This included opportunities to work with other staff or to follow
patients on their journeys to other departments and specialists.
In contrast to the ‘ebb and flow’ model of mentorship, supervision also
occurred in alternative ways. One student eloquently described ‘grab and
go’ situations where students were quickly summoned to see a particular
procedure, such as a wound dressing or an injection, which was thought
to be of benefit to their learning. These learning situations, like many
within the practice setting, were unplanned and relied on the learner
being available and ready to take the learning opportunity offered.

I would have been too scared to do it, but because she was like ‘you can do it,
I’ll do it, I’ll show you, I’m not going to let you go wrong or anything and then
I want you to do it and see if you can do it, is that alright?’ (11, end of place-
ment interview).

Students were given the confidence to ‘give the procedure a go’ and
could feel a sense of achievement afterwards. However, if students were

[email protected]
 The ‘Ebb and Flow’ of Student Learning on Placement 183

hurried into completing a new competence without having the opportu-

nity to be assessed, or building on their initial experience, their learning
retention and potential development was weakened.
The most popular mentors challenged students’ depth of learning and
had an approachable learning style. These mentors saw the importance of
quizzing students through ‘grab and go’ opportunities so students felt
they had not only achieved the procedure but also had a critical knowl-
edge of the underlying rationale. This learning required mentors to go
‘beyond the procedure’ challenging students to reach a higher level of
learning and becoming increasingly proactive as a learner.

Every time I go to do something he specifically knows that I’ve done it before

rather than explaining it to me he’ll get me to explain it to him to make sure
I’ve taken it in. (17, end of placement interview)

Discussion
The research found that although student participants were meant to be
supernumerary on placement their mentors were part of the placement
management team so the supervision of learning could be compromised
through workforce pressures. Mentors either prioritised clinical work, or
attempted to build ‘work around’ supervisory solutions, so students could
be supported at the same time. One of these included students undertak-
ing personal care with health care assistants; often viewed as a poor alter-
native to working with a qualified nurse particularly if this arrangement
was prolonged. Participants valued the learning they could achieve with
their mentor and sometimes begrudged time spent ‘working as a health
care assistant’.
‘Ebb and flow’ mentorship modelled a successful method of continu-
ally balancing the work and learning commitments of the mentor with
their student. Significantly, students were party to the clinical decision
made by their mentor with a reduction in the fragmented end tasks of the
decision-making process that Melia’s (1984, 1987) student nurses
received. The recognised difficulties of bringing all the disparate parts of
professional practice into a whole (Benner 1984; Eraut 2004) could

[email protected]
184 D. A. Morley

therefore be embodied in the practice of one person who the student

worked closely with. By observing the work of an expert in action, par-
ticipants enjoyed the rare opportunity for a more holistic view on profes-
sional practice. The ‘ebb and flow’ model therefore addressed two issues
of Melia’s study; greater exposure to expert decision making and a bridg-
ing of the theory—practice gap through constant coaching and observa-
tion of how registered nurses manage and work.
The subtleties and complexities of the registered nurse role were viewed
at close proximity on placement, and participants learnt from and were
often truly inspired to emulate their mentor. Students were genuinely
awed when they saw examples of professional expertise akin to the tacit
knowledge or the connoisseurship of professional practice identified by
Polanyi (1962). Arguably the ‘ebb and flow’ model could be one vehicle
for moving students through the novice to expert stages identified by
Benner (1984) although it remains highly dependent on students having
consistent, quality learning time with their mentor. Allan et al. (2011)
identified this type of learning intimacy as ‘sponsorship’.
The professional sponsorship identified in the research emphasised the
building of a professional identity dependent on a deeper socialisation to
practice through interaction with more experienced ‘old timers’ (Wenger
1998). Some participants connected their own professional ambitions to
the professional journey already undertaken by their mentor; what
Wenger (1998) termed a ‘paradigmatic trajectory’, and this inspiration
was particularly important to male and mature participants when their
mentors came from the same demographic. The opportunity to work,
and be supported beyond the usual boundaries for first year learners, was
particularly inspirational for students as they experienced their future
professional selves (Wenger 2012).
Participants described how mentors and other staff, such as health
care assistants, tried to create one off ‘grab and go’ learning opportuni-
ties for students as a learning opportunity arose. Although higher level
metacognitive skills could be lacking, the strategy provided achieve-
ment of specific practical skills or competencies. In clinical situations,
where mentors rarely undertook personal care, working with health
care assistants sometimes provided the only opportunity for students to
practice these skills.

[email protected]
 The ‘Ebb and Flow’ of Student Learning on Placement 185

Conclusion
The disparity of learning experience described by study participants indi-
cated that student nurses required sponsorship to negotiate and fulfil the
potential of their practice learning on their first placement. The first-year
placement took on significance as the first staging post in the formation
of a professional identity that, if compromised, could affect student
nurses’ practice learning and the confidence they felt moving forward.
Like Eraut (2004) this study showed that the structuring of practice
learning was influential to students’ progress. Poor allocation to inappro-
priate tasks, or supervisors, eroded the potential for situated learning to
occur (Lave and Wenger 1991). Gherardi et al. (1998) introduced the
concept of ‘situated curriculum’ in an ethnographic study of Italian con-
struction site managers. Patterns of learning were naturally aligned to
work opportunities providing an organic but logical sequence to develop-
ment that were neither linear nor progressive.
It was found that if first year student nurses worked closely with a pro-
fessional expert, usually their mentor, they were more likely to gain an
appreciation of the many facets that make up the whole of professional
practice through their close involvement in the day to day work of a reg-
istered nurse. This included the complex and political nuances of a regis-
tered nurses’ work that are often implicit within their role and difficult to
isolate. As commented by Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986, p. 30), “an expert’s
skill has become so much part of him that he need to be no more aware
of it than his own body”, and thus teaching these ‘embodied’ aspects of
professional practice are a particularly challenging aspect of work based
learning.
Benner (1984, 2001), informed by the work of Dreyfus and Dreyfus,
found that a nurse moved between five stages of competence as they
developed from novice to expert. Although criticised for the lack of
explanation of how a nurse progresses through the different develop-
mental stages (Altmann 2007) Benner’s work recognised that practice
learning could be both implicit and explicit. The risk to learning was
when it was obscured by work processes where learning was not made
explicit enough for students to recognise and action (Benner 1984; Eraut
2000, 2004).

[email protected]
186 D. A. Morley

Benner (1984) believed that the skilled pattern recognition of experts

could be taught, rather than being incidental, and the learning empha-
sis should be placed on the whole of practice and not the isolation of
the component skills. Mentorship systems, such as the ‘ebb and flow’
model, ensure that students are continually assisted in their focus on
their professional learning despite the busyness of the placement
environment.
Figure 10.1 provides an overview of the ‘ebb and flow’ model of men-
torship. First year students are placed on the side of the diagram where
the learning role dominates but work in partnership with health care
assistants (who have a dominant working role) and the mentor (who
bridges both learning and working). If the student spends the majority of
their time with the health care assistant, they work and learn at a ‘tasks
and specific work’ level and are at the farthest point away from the profes-
sional decision making of the mentor. If the student learns and works
consistently with the mentor, using a collaborative ‘ebb and flow’ model,
they are more likely to be party to the whole of professional practice
rather than the fragmented or ‘grab and go’ parts of clinical roles. By fol-
lowing the ‘ebb and flow’ model of mentorship students are at the epicen-
tre of professional decision making, rather than on the periphery, but also
have the chance to move to alternative learning if the opportunity arises.

Fig. 10.1 Student nurse learning in practice

[email protected]
 The ‘Ebb and Flow’ of Student Learning on Placement 187

For most higher education students, at the beginning of their placement

learning, it is sometimes difficult to progress beyond the novice stage of
learning where their performance is halting and fragmented (Benner
1984). By successfully working with experienced personnel the vision of
expertise and the illusive nature of tacit learning can be more easily iso-
lated for students’ learning.
The research findings exposed the ‘ebb and flow’ mentorship model
as a recognisable and simple model of clinical support that could be
transferrable to other disciplines beyond health care. The accommoda-
tion of students’ learning needs, with the workforce requirements of the
placement, provided a way for students to work and learn in early pro-
fessional sponsorship with their mentor. Likewise, more obscured areas
of supervision, such as that provided by health care assistants or ‘helpful
others’ (Eraut 2007), was revealed more fully in the context of the
research.
By making higher education placement experience more explicit to
students as ‘learning’ the work on placement has the potential to more
positively contribute to students’ development. The significant amount
of time all levels of staff spend with students needs to be converted into
valuable and recognised learning for it to be acceptable to students. The
‘ebb and flow’ model has the potential to be extended into a social
model of learning with named individuals contributing to students’
learning when novices are not working with their main supervisor.
Creatively using existing resources for placement learning, also trans-
mits the important message to all levels of the organisation that every-
one has a responsibility to settle and educate students on their placement
experience.
Opportunities to consolidate learning, such as students’ use of reflec-
tive models or having formal reviews, were not built into this research
with the risk that students’ learning was lost in the busyness of practice.
It would seem timely to address whether both supervisors, and other pos-
sible facilitators of placement learning, are being prepared sufficiently to
support students in the idiosyncrasies of learning in practice. The ‘ebb
and flow’ model highlighted the success of a coaching style of supervision
that responded to the fluidity and the opportunistic nature of this par-
ticular learning environment.

[email protected]
188 D. A. Morley

References
Allan, H. T., Smith, P., & Driscoll, M. (2011). Experiences of supernumerary
status and the hidden curriculum in nursing: A new twist in the theory-­
practice gap? Journal of Clinical Nursing, 20(5–6), 847.
Altmann, T. K. (2007). An evaluation of the seminal work of Patricia Benner:
Theory or philosophy? Contemporary Nurse, 25(1–2), 114–123.
Andrew, N., McGuinness, C., Reid, G., & Corcoran, T. (2009). Greater than
the sum of its parts: Transition into the first year of undergraduate nursing.
Nurse Education in Practice, 9, 13–21.
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effec-
tiveness. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Benner, P. (1984). From novice to expert: Excellence and power in clinical nursing
practice. California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Benner, P. (2001). From novice to expert: Excellence and power in clinical nursing
practice. Vol. Commemorative Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall Health.
Bradbury-Jones, C., Sambrook, S., & Irvine, F. (2007). The meaning of empow-
erment for nursing students: A critical incident study. Journal of Advanced
Nursing, 59(4), 342–351.
Bradbury-Jones, C., Sambrook, S., & Irvine, F. (2011a). Empowerment and
being valued: A phenomenological study of nursing students’ experience of
clinical practice. Nurse Education Today, 31, 368–372.
Bradbury-Jones, C., Sambrook, S., & Irvine, F. (2011b). Nursing students and
the issue of voice: A qualitative study. Nurse Education Today, 31, 628–632.
Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory. London, Thousand Oaks,
and New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Cope, P., Cuthbertson, P., & Stoddart, B. (2000). Situated learning in the prac-
tice placement. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 31(4), 850–856.
Davis, J. (2006). The Importance of the community of practice in identity
development. The Internet Journal of Allied Health Sciences and Practice, 4(3),
1–8.
Department of Education. (2017). Teaching Excellence Framework: Subject-level
pilot specification. Retrieved August 14, 2017, from https://www.gov.uk/
government/publications/teaching-excellence-framework-subject-level-pilot-
specification
Dreyfus, H. L., & Dreyfus, S. E. (1986). Mind over machine. New York:
Macmillan.

[email protected]
 The ‘Ebb and Flow’ of Student Learning on Placement 189

Ellstrom, P.-E. (2011). Informal learning at work: Conditions, processes and

logics. In M. Malloch, L. Cairns, K. Evans, & B. O’Connor (Eds.), The Sage
handbook of workplace learning (pp. 105–119). London, California, New
Delhi, and Singapore: Sage.
Eraut, M. (2000). Non-formal learning and tacit knowledge in professional
work. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 113–136.
Eraut, M. (2004). Informal learning in the workplace. Studies in Continuing
Education, 26(2), 247–273.
Eraut, M. (2007). Learning from other people in the workplace. Oxford Review
of Education, 33(4), 403–422.
Gherardi, S., Nicolini, D., & Odella, F. (1998). Toward a social understanding
of how people learn in organisations: The notion of situated curriculum.
Management Learning, 29, 273–297.
Gray, M., & Smith, L. N. (1999). The professional socialisation of diploma of
higher education in nursing students (Project 2000): A longitudinal study.
Journal of Advanced Nursing, 29(3), 639–647.
Gray, M. A., & Smith, L. N. (2000). The qualities of an effective mentor from
the student nurse’s perspective: Findings from a longitudinal qualitative
study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 32, 1542–1549.
Grealish, L., & Ranse, K. (2009). An exploratory study of first year nursing
students’ learning in the clinical workplace. Contemporary Nurse, 33(1),
80–92.
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). Paradigmatic controversies, contradic-
tions and emerging confluences. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The
Sage handbook of qualitative research (pp. 191–215). Thousand Oaks, London,
and New Delhi: Sage.
Hasson, F., McKenna, H. P., & Keeney, S. (2013). Perceptions of the unregis-
tered healthcare worker’s role in pre-registration student nurses’ clinical train-
ing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 69(7), 1618–1629.
Holland, K. (1999). A journey to becoming: The student nurse in transition.
Journal of Advanced Nursing, 29(1), 229–236.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participa-
tion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Levett-Jones, T., & Lathlean, J. (2008). Belongingness: A prerequisite for nurs-
ing students’ clinical learning. Nurse Education Today, 8, 103–111.
Levett-Jones, T., & Lathlean, J. (2009). ‘‘Don’t rock the boat’: Nursing students’
experience of conformity and compliance. Nurse Education Today, 29,
342–349.

[email protected]
190 D. A. Morley

Melia, K. M. (1984). Student nurses’ construction of occupational socialisation.

Sociology of Health and Illness, 6(2), 132–151.
Melia, K. M. (1987). Learning and working: The occupational socialisation of
nurses. London: Tavistock Publications.
Morley, D. (2017a, August 5). Degree apprenticeships are a ray of light in a
gloomy sector. Times Higher Education. Retrieved August 15, 2017, from
https://www.timeshighereducation.com/blog/degree-apprenticeships-are-
ray-light-gloomy-sector
Morley, D. (2017b, August 15). Is apprenticeship learning a thing of the past?
FE News. Retrieved August 15, 2017, from https://www.fenews.co.uk/
featured-article/14619-is-apprenticeship-learning-a-thing-of-the-past
Morley, D. A. (2015). A grounded theory study exploring first year student nurses’
learning in practice. Doctor in Professional Practice, Bournemouth.
Myall, M., Levett-Jones, T., & Lathlean, J. (2008). Mentorship in contempo-
rary practice: The experiences of nursing students and practice mentors.
Journal of Clinical Nursing, 17, 1834–1842.
NMC. (2004). Standards of proficiency for pre-registration nursing education.
London: NMC.
Nursing and Midwifery Council. (2017). Draft for consultation: Standards for
proficiency for registered nurses. London: NMC.
O’Driscoll, M. F., Allan, H. T., & Smith, P. A. (2010). Still looking for leader-
ship—Who is responsible for student nurses’ learning in practice? Nurse
Education Today, 30(3), 212–217.
Polanyi, M. (1962). Personal knowledge: Towards a post-critical philosophy.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Spouse, J. (2001). Bridging theory and practice in the supervisory relationship:
A sociocultural perspective. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 33(4), 512–530.
Universities UK. (2016). The future growth of degree apprenticeships. Universities
UK Publications.
Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wenger, E. (2012). Social learning theory and healthcare education. In HEA
(Ed.), Contemporary issues in clinical education. London: Institute of
Education.
Willis, G. (2015). Raising the bar: Shape of caring: A review of the future education
and training of registered nurses and care assistants. London: Health Education
England.

[email protected]
 Part V
Using the University Experience for
Work Based Learning for Future
Employability

[email protected]
 11
The Role of the Student Ambassador
and Its Contribution to Developing
Employability Skills: A Creation
of Outward Facing Work Roles
H. Baker and K. Sela

Introduction
Universities recognise that a number of students with the ability to
progress to higher education still do not do so. It has been widely docu-
mented that specific groups in higher education are under-represented.
These under-represented groups, often called Widening Participation
(WP) students, include those from disadvantaged backgrounds, those
with disabilities, care leavers, young carers, mature learners, black
minority ethnic (BME) students or those whose parents have no paren-
tal history of higher education or are in non-professional occupations.
Students from these groups may find barriers to participating in higher
education. These barriers offer possible reasons why students from these
groups are less likely to progress to higher education. Data shows that
the most disadvantaged 20% of young people are 6.8 times less likely to
attend a selective university than the most disadvantaged 20% (OFFA

H. Baker (*) • K. Sela

University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2018 193

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_11

[email protected]
194 H. Baker and K. Sela

2015). In 2014/15, 33% of pupils eligible for free school meals and
36% of d ­ isadvantaged pupils achieved at least 5 A*- C GCSEs (or equiv-
alent) grades, including English and Mathematics, compared to 60%
and 64% of non-­ disadvantaged pupils (DOE 2015). In addition,
research on graduate outcomes indicates that while more disadvantaged
young people are in higher education than ever before, the gap between
the non-continuation rates of the most advantaged and most disadvan-
taged students has widened in the past year and graduates from disad-
vantaged and under-­represented groups have significant differences in
employment outcomes (HEFCE 2015).
Like many other institutions, the University of Surrey annually sub-
mits an Access Agreement to the Office of Fair Access (OFFA), an inde-
pendent public body whose role is to monitor and safeguard fair access to
higher education on an annual basis. The University of Surrey’s Access
Agreement provides official documentation of our commitment to the
access, progression and success of under-represented groups in higher
education.
The University of Surrey is focused on increasing the participation of
under-represented groups in higher education, and supporting the suc-
cess and progression of these students throughout their student lifecycle.
The Department of Widening Participation and Outreach plays a signifi-
cant role in raising aspirations, awareness of HE and attainment of young
people under-represented in HE. Working with state maintained primary
schools, secondary schools and colleges in and around Surrey we offer a
coherent and sustained programme of events for widening participation
students from Years 5 to 13 (ages 10–18) as well as parents and carers,
teachers and mature learners. These events offer information, advice and
guidance about university and educational pathways as well as subject
sessions to motivate, inform and inspire students. Our aim is to minimise
barriers and support progression and participation for those who are
capable of benefitting from the experience. In 2016/17, 11,933 students
were involved in outreach activities run by the department with 1945
parents and carers and 355 teachers also attending activities.
In order to run this number of events the department relies heavily on
the outstanding work and support of our widening participation student
ambassadors. This requires ambassadors who are capable and confident in

[email protected]
 The Role of the Student Ambassador and Its Contribution… 195

their role and the work of the department which requires effective train-
ing and investment.

The Student Ambassador

Student ambassadors work in a variety of roles within universities, from
marketing and student recruitment to Widening Participation and
Outreach (WP&O). The role of the WP student ambassador is a unique
opportunity that allows students to experience work based learning in the
context of the university itself where they are an integral part of the
Department of Widening Participation and Outreach at the university
whilst both learning and working as an ambassador. For many student
ambassadors their work with the department has influenced their career
choice and some have expressed a desire to work in widening participa-
tion and outreach, go into teaching, or work with young people after
graduation.
Student ambassadors play an essential role in supporting the work of
Widening Participation and Outreach Departments to raise the aspira-
tions of students from groups that are under-represented in higher educa-
tion and help them successfully make the transition to university. The
role of student ambassadors at the University of Surrey is as varied as the
outreach events and activities the department run. These can include
supervising week long overnight residential summer schools at the uni-
versity, to mentoring individual students, delivering inspiring whole
school assemblies in schools and colleges to providing information to
parents and carers; helping them feel more confident in supporting and
advising their child’s decision about future educational pathways.
Ambassadors are expected to represent the university at outreach activ-
ities, showing enthusiasm for their subject area and experience of higher
education, however their responsibilities go much further than this due
to the variety of their work. Student ambassadors’ work with students
aged 10–18 as well as mature learners, parents/carers, teachers, university
academics, external companies and members of the Widening
Participation and Outreach Department and must vary their approach
according to the group they are working with.

[email protected]
196 H. Baker and K. Sela

The ability to communicate to a wide variety of audiences through dif-

ferent mediums is one of the most important attributes of student ambas-
sadors as they are often required to deliver informative and inspirational
talks and presentations to different groups. Student ambassadors are key
to the success of outreach activities and events and their ability to relate
to different groups, particularly young people, and communicate
advanced concepts is central to the success of their role. A large propor-
tion of ambassadors’ work comprises facilitating activities and respond-
ing to unexpected situations at events. Ambassadors, therefore, need to
have the ability to encourage and motivate groups and individuals, nego-
tiating and influencing without overly contributing to the task. Their
ability to manage groups and identify which approach should be taken
with each individual is critical in order for those individuals to feel valued
and benefit from the outreach work of the department.
Observation and student feedback show many ambassadors benefit
from undertaking this type of flexible paid work and their confidence in
their own abilities increases as a result:

Being an ambassador has had incredible effect on my confidence and personal

skills. While preparing for my placement year I have been able to use the skills
I have learnt from leading campus tours and other events put on by the univer-
sity outreach team during my interviews as well as gaining important and
impressive details for my CV.
(WP student ambassador—BSc Maths, Female, June 2017)

I have become more confident, especially from the Year 9 Surrey Skills Fair as I
had to be really mature. I think we are benefiting the next generation absolutely
because we encourage so many young people to think about university and their
futures and help them aspire to do something more than just leave school and
get a job. My Ambassador role has made me think twice about my own career
options.
(WP student ambassador—BMs Music, Female, June 2017)

Despite this, there is a distinct lack of research and literature on stu-

dent ambassadors (Ylonen 2010). Existing research examines the student
ambassador role within other contexts such as recruitment (Rhodes et al.
2006), mentoring (Colley 2003) or how young people use student

[email protected]
 The Role of the Student Ambassador and Its Contribution… 197

ambassadors to make decisions about higher education (Gartland and

Paczuska 2007). Very little research has been undertaken on the impact
this work has on the ambassadors themselves to discover whether it helps
them with their programme of study, personal development or employ-
ability. Austin and Hatt (2005) looked at the effect of employing univer-
sity students for widening participation outreach activities and found
that students benefitted from increased confidence and self-esteem.
Ambassadors also felt the role had helped develop their transferable and
employability skills which would contribute to their Curriculum Vitae
(CV) and future employment.
Employability skills and graduate employability rates are increasingly
becoming an important part of many university degrees to meet the
demand for higher-level skills required by employers (Universities UK
2015). Furthermore, a key feature of university marketing campaigns,
with a number of prestigious university rankings such as The Guardian
League Table and The Times Good University Guide include graduate
employability as a benchmark of success. Although the success and pro-
gression of WP students is a priority for many institutions evidence shows
that there are differences in employment outcomes for disadvantaged stu-
dents (Universities UK 2016). Britton et al. (2016) found considerable
variation in graduate earnings could be explained by parental income,
students from families with higher household income have average earn-
ings which are around 25% more than those from lower income families.
One reason for this might be that WP students could be less likely to
complete a placement year possibly due to financial, personal or home
pressures (Greenbank and Hepworth 2008; Mountford-Zimdars et al.
2015). These are significant findings as research indicates that sandwich
placements and work experience are associated with a higher probability
of progressing to further study or employment (HEFCE 2015). To fur-
ther emphasise the importance of this in the context of this paper, 79%
of the WP student ambassadors who undertook initial training in
2016/17 identified as coming from a widening participation background.
The relevance and value of widening participation departments providing
opportunities for students to undertake employment during their stud-
ies, that help to develop their transferable skills for progress to the
­workplace, is therefore vital. The following section outlines the core

[email protected]
198 H. Baker and K. Sela

initial training that WP student ambassadors receive before they start

their work with the department and the additional training they are
offered throughout their work to support their progression both during
and after university.

Training, Development and Reflection

The role of the ambassadors is pivotal to the work of the department. As
well as preparing these students for their work as a student ambassador,
we are committed to facilitating their personal and professional develop-
ment in order to support them throughout their studies and on to further
education or employment, particularly as such a high number of them
identify as coming from a WP background. The Department of Widening
Participation and Outreach have worked with ambassadors to create a
training programme that not only prepares them for their role with the
department, but also to further their personal and professional develop-
ment. This programme consists of an initial compulsory comprehensive
training day, followed by continued observation, feedback and self-­
reflection as well as annual refresher training and optional continual pro-
fessional development sessions.
Recruitment for ambassadors takes place at the beginning of each aca-
demic year. Students who have applied and been shortlisted are required
to attend an interview and complete an enhanced Disclosure and Barring
Service (DBS) check for their work with children. Students who success-
fully complete both these stages attend a compulsory initial Saturday
training session. This training consists of multiple activity based work-
shops which aim to give students a comprehensive understanding of WP
and the role of the student ambassador. The training aims to establish an
internal support network, develop new and existing skills such as presen-
tation and communication skills, facilitation, group management and
self-reflection skills and give them an understanding of their role in safe-
guarding and child protection. It also aims to build students’ confidence
to support and deliver WP activities.
Our ambassadors are considered an extension of the department and
their ideas and opinions are valued. After each activity the student

[email protected]
 The Role of the Student Ambassador and Its Contribution… 199

ambassadors are required to complete an evaluation, the level of detail

dependant on the type of activity they were involved in, but the aim of
the evaluation is to find out from their perspective what went well and
what could be improved and to explore their development through the
event. From evaluation of training, and our end of year ambassador sur-
vey, together with anecdotal feedback from events and observation by
staff, we have been able to develop further training sessions and CPD
sessions based on the ambassador needs and the requirements of their
developing roles.
One such session was a Vocal Confidence workshop which was devel-
oped and delivered with a member of staff from the Guildford School of
Acting. The workshop aimed to change the way student ambassadors
presented themselves vocally in all situations, from working in small
groups of young people to large, mixed audiences. It focused on students’
breathing, posture, pitch, volume and body language. All ambassadors
who attended found it to be beneficial to their role and felt it would help
them to be a more effective ambassador. They also commented on how it
had “improved their self-confidence”.
Another session developed based on ambassador feedback was
Additional Needs Training. During 2016/17 the number of young peo-
ple with a disability, particularly those with Autism Spectrum Disorder
(ASD) attending our events has increased. Feedback from ambassadors
indicated they wanted further training to enable them to better support
these students’ needs. As a result, a session was developed with a member
of staff from Additional Learning Support at the university which focused
on the support and adjustments that could be made at events to ensure
inclusivity. All ambassadors who attended felt the training has given them
a better understanding of the skills needed to support young people with
a disability and felt confident in their ability to apply those skills during
WP activities.
Finally, through discussion with ambassadors during events it became
apparent not all student ambassadors were able to see how their work,
and the skills developed as an ambassador, could be used on their CV and
those that did, struggled to effectively communicate the skills and
­experience they had accumulated. This led us to develop an Articulating
Experience training session with the Department of Careers and

[email protected]
200 H. Baker and K. Sela

Employability. The workshop concentrated on how ambassadors could

effectively articulate the valuable skills and experiences they have gained
from their role to future employers and focused on CV writing and inter-
view skills. Ambassadors who attended found the session “really useful”
all agreeing that it had helped them to identify skills they used and devel-
oped as an ambassador. One student also commented on the timing of
the training being beneficial as it ran at the beginning of the year when
they had started to look for graduate employment.
Half of the 35 ambassadors who responded to the end of year survey
took part in additional training which was introduced in the 2015/16
academic year. Over 53% of ambassadors took part in vocal confidence
training and others have participated in training to learn how to support
students with a range of disabilities, how to develop and deliver a work-
shop and articulating their own experiences for future progression.

Methodology
A mixed method approach was taken, collecting data from in-depth
interviews and questionnaires. Quantitative and qualitative data collected
through an end of year survey (2017) and interviews with our current
student ambassador cohort paints a picture of the impact the role of the
WP student ambassador has on development and employability. Survey
data included open ended questions exploring the general impact that
student ambassadors felt the role had on them, what skills they had learnt
and how their training had helped to prepare them for their role. Survey
data was collected at the end of each year from 2014/15. The student
ambassador survey was run for the third year in 2016/17 and was sent
online using Bristol Online Survey (BOS) survey tool to all 152 ambas-
sadors that were registered with the department, a total of 35 students
(23%) completed the survey. The relatively low response rate may have
been due to the timing of the survey which took place at the end of the
academic year.

Gender: 17% Male; 83% Female.

Ethnicity: 86% White; 14% Black Minority Ethnic (BME).

[email protected]
 The Role of the Student Ambassador and Its Contribution… 201

Year of study: 9% Year 1; 57% Year 2; 17% Year 3; 14% Year 4; 3% PTY
Year.
No. of years working as a SA: 40% 1 Year; 34% 2 Years; 14% 3 Years; 11%
4 Years.
Faculty: 46% Arts & Social Science; 43% Health & Medical Science;
11% Engineering & Physical Science.

In addition to the survey data, three case studies were carried out with
student ambassadors who had worked for the department for more than
three years and were leaving the role as they were graduating. In-depth
interviews were carried out with the ambassadors and a narrative approach
was taken to data collection and this approach enabled a richer under-
standing of how ambassadors constructed their time as an ambassador
and development of employability skills. Each of the ambassadors high-
lighted some of the best and most varied examples of how the student
ambassador role had benefitted students’ own learning within a work
setting, employability and career direction. Pseudonyms have been used
for participants who took part in case studies.
The Department of Widening Participation and Outreach has received
ethical approval for all WP activities which includes the evaluation and
research of WP student ambassadors.

Findings and Analysis

End of Year Ambassador Survey June 2017

In the end of year survey, over 50% of students said that they had taken
part in six or more activities during the year. 37% had taken part in 3–5
activities and 11% had taken part in 1–2 activities. Students who had
taken part in the greatest number of activities were more likely to say that
the skills they had developed as an ambassador would help their future
employability (Table 11.1).
Students who had worked as an ambassador in an IAG (Information,
Advice and Guidance) event, a Residential Summer School Programme,
acted as a student mentor or participated in a campus visit were most

[email protected]
202 H. Baker and K. Sela

Table 11.1 Activities participated in and future employability

Do you think the skills you have
gained as a WP student ambassador 6 or more
will help your employability? 1–2 activities 3–5 activities activities
Yes 9% 37% 51%
No 3% 0% 0%

likely to say that the skills they had gained would help with their future
employability.
Initial ambassador training is central to ambassadors being able to
carry out their role effectively and over 97% ambassadors who completed
the end of year survey said that the training prepared them well for their
future role as an ambassador. Ambassadors were asked whether they
thought their role had an impact on their own development and 62%
said it had a “significant” impact on their development. An increase in
self-confidence was talked about by ambassadors, particularly in relation
to giving presentations and their general communication skills. One stu-
dent described how they are now more able to communicate to “suit the
audience” they are speaking to. Another student said that they now feel
more “capable to handle any situation” and of “talking to anyone” as a
result of their work.
Ambassadors were asked whether their role had helped to develop their
skills and they told us that their communication, team working, interper-
sonal and public speaking skills had increased. Ambassadors described a
variety of ways that they would be able to use the skills to prepare them
for their future employability, with one student saying that the interper-
sonal skills they had gained from their work would give them “an idea of
what to expect when entering a work place”. One student said that she
would be able to “draw upon” the wide range of experiences she had
gained as an ambassador when “applying to work in schools”. The ability to
adapt and deal with a range of situations was also mentioned and one
student said that their experience as an ambassador would be “relevant in
my future career”. Some ambassadors felt that their role had helped them
to decide on their own future career pathway with one saying it had made
them realise that “working with young people is what I want to do in the
future”.

[email protected]
 The Role of the Student Ambassador and Its Contribution… 203

Case Studies
Rebecca is studying for a BSc in Chemistry with a Professional Training
Year (PTY). Rebecca has worked with the Widening Participation
Department for almost two and a half years and during her first year
worked in a shop but stopped this to become a student ambassador,
working with both the WP and Marketing team. Rebecca found out
about the scheme from her flat mate, felt she identified with the WP
students we work with and wanted to help other students in a similar
situation.
John is studying for an MSc in Civil Engineering and has worked with
the Widening Participation and Outreach Department as a student
ambassador for two and a half years. During his second year at university
he had worked for a local youth club with troubled children who ended
up moving and he felt he wanted to look for a similar type of work to do
alongside his studies. Being a student ambassador provided flexibility
around his studies and provided a break from having his head ‘buried in
a text book’. His own experience as a WP student was a key motivation
to work in the department being the first generation in his family to go
to university.
Robert is studying Law (LLB) degree and has been working as a WP
student ambassador for four years. He was attracted to the role as he had
a strong sense of education being for everyone and wanted to make a dif-
ference. As soon as he saw the poster advertising the role he knew imme-
diately he wanted to apply.

Working Towards Employability

It’s helped me develop desirable skills required for within any job role Its also
given me more confidence in my own ability and thus will encourage me to
heighten my aspirations.

Rebecca described how in her interview for her professional training

Year (PTY) the employer was interested in her role as a student ambas-
sador and wanted to know more about what her work had involved. She

[email protected]
204 H. Baker and K. Sela

felt that she was able to demonstrate a range of skills that she had devel-
oped through her work as an ambassador and that these were particularly
helpful in being offered the placement:

They picked up on my CV straight away that I’d been a student ambassador

and were asking ‘what did it entail, what did you do’? And when I explained
they were really interested because it shows such a huge range of skills and dif-
ferent things that lots of other people on my degree haven’t done.

Rebecca describes what the additional benefit might be for the com-
pany of having a student with experience of outreach work as the com-
pany also had a commitment to providing outreach work to students at
open days for example. During the year she was asked to run a family
event for young people at a local school and was able to use the skills she
had developed through her ambassador work, particularly her knowledge
of delivering activities to a wide range of students from different age
groups and with different abilities.
John was able to demonstrate the work he had done as a student
ambassador to help contribute to achieving his Institute of Civil Engineers
(ICE) accreditation to get professional chartership. He is very clear that
his role as a student ambassador had put him ahead of other candidates
when applying for his current position.

I got a long list of events that I did that I could use as evidence for my CPD for
my ICE accreditation which helps me get my professional chartership. … If it
was a tie up between me and another candidate I’d put money on that being
me because I had that experience.

Similar to Rebecca, John’s employer was very interested in his ambas-

sador work during the interview as both could demonstrate that they had
done a substantial amount of work during the period of time they had
worked for the department. The outreach work that John had done was
particularly important within civil engineering as they are required to run
outreach activities with schools in science, technology, engineering and
mathematics (STEM) and he was able to talk about the design and deliv-
ery of activity that he has been involved with as an ambassador an experi-
ence he thinks other candidates may not have had.

[email protected]
 The Role of the Student Ambassador and Its Contribution… 205

More than likely they haven’t had that experience before I know I wouldn’t have
any problems doing that, standing up in front of that school or designing and
delivering an activity.

Robert worked at a large law firm during his PTY in the area of medi-
cal negligence. He describes the interview process being highly competi-
tive and, similar to Rebecca, says that they were particularly interested in
his role as an ambassador during his time at university and how impor-
tant this was in a competitive market for placements:

The particular placement was really, really competitive. The fact that at my
interview they spent so long talking about my WP role probably indicates that
it set me aside.

Each of the students experienced an interview which drew on the skills

they had developed during their work as a student ambassador and the
type of experience they could bring to the role.

Learning on the Job

It provides a unique and relevant wealth of experience for me to draw upon

when applying to work It has also provided experience that I consider vital for
career growth.

Residential summer schools are a large part of the work that the
department delivers and student ambassadors play an integral part to
supporting the event and ensuring that the weeks run smoothly.
­
Additional training is offered to current ambassadors specifically to
help prepare them for their enhanced role during the programme that
also involves them in supervising students in Year 12 who are not much
younger than many of them. John described how much he learnt about
group dynamics which bought to life what he had learnt about in
lectures:

Summer schools were a big learning for both students and ambassadors, general
time keeping, logistics, getting people to the right place at the right time.

[email protected]
206 H. Baker and K. Sela

Because of the diverse range of activities ambassadors are required to

work, they gain significant experience managing a range of different situ-
ations. Learning how to interact and get the best of students of different
ages has been particularly helpful for Rebecca who is thinking of going
into teaching as a result of her experience as an ambassador. She describes
how she is able to assess the level of student engagement and ability which
will benefit her as she plans to start a teacher training once she finishes
her degree:

I can go into a room now and assess different students and how they engage
with things whereas that’s something that comes later normally to a lot of
trainee teachers and I’ve developed the skills to help those that are struggling
and those who are higher achieving because we work with such a range of
people.

Some of the skills that ambassadors have developed during their work
are more generally related to their chosen career path. For example,
Robert talks about his ability to communicate well with groups of people
and present will be particularly transferable in his planned future career
working as a lawyer.

Building Skills

Being an ambassador has pushed me out of comfort zone, making me more

confident about public speaking and enhancing my communication skills.

Developing confidence in dealing with different people, whether stu-

dents, teachers or other departmental staff was a key developmental part
of the ambassador role. During their work placements, some ambassa-
dors experienced particularly challenging situations. John described hav-
ing to communicate the company’s plans for a site to local residents that
was particularly difficult and how he managed to present himself in a
calm professional manner which drew on his experiences of his work as
an ambassador.

[email protected]
 The Role of the Student Ambassador and Its Contribution… 207

Working Flexibly

A big one was flexibility, if coursework was low I could work more events and
if I was a bit stretched I could work fewer events.

When students have a busy schedule of lectures and work to complete,

the flexibility that the role can offer is vital to them which Rebecca
describes:

It is really flexible and it’s an easy job to have when you’re at university because
you’re not committing to 30 hours a week or 10 hours a week, you just sign up
for the events and hours you want to work … it’s just a really easy option to have
a job and actually be able to work alongside your studies.

Thinking Ahead

Being a WP student ambassador has actually made me realise that WP work

and working with young people is what I love and want to do in the future after
my degree.

John has high aspirations to work in a senior role as a civil engineer.

Working as an ambassador has given him a strong sense of how he wants
to engage with widening participation students to raise their expectations
to go into higher education:

I want to be high up in the company and when I’m in that role it will benefit
me as well because I will be able to appreciate the importance of WP…. I’ll be
pushing WP because I’ve seen the benefits of it first hand.

Rebecca’s ambassador work with school groups and young people

helped to direct her towards teaching in the future. She said that before
becoming an ambassador she was not sure what she was going to do when
she graduated:

I would have been a bit stuck if I hadn’t done this because I wouldn’t have
known what to do come July when I finish so it has really helped me.

[email protected]
208 H. Baker and K. Sela

The Wider Impact

It’s made me so much more confident, comfortable with myself my WP work has
brought me out of my shell, means I’m happy I feel proud to be a Surrey student
ambassador, gives me a sense of purpose.

As well as getting paid for their work, students enjoy their roles and all
three ambassadors talked about it in very positive ways. Rebecca said that
it contributed to her enjoyment of the university experience:

It’s been my favourite part of university being a student ambassador, I sign up

for pretty much every job that comes through and then I’m like oh I probably
shouldn’t be working quite as much as I am, but it’s been such a great part of
university life.

Because of their enjoyment of their ambassador role, sometimes it was

hard to balance this with their studies. John describes how doing the
work improved the quality of his time at university:

It was like Christmas when you get the job email list, especially when my degree
was so full on! I didn’t expect I’d ever want to put WP over my degree because
I’m so focussed on my degree. It gave me a better quality of life, you saw the
difference in me.

Being a student ambassador also added an additional motivation for

John to do well in his studies as he had a strong sense of representing the
university in his role which also meant that he wanted to do well and be
a good role model for students:

It made me want to get top marks in everything I did. You want to be a true
ambassador and role model.

Throughout their time as student ambassadors staff from the

Department of Widening Participation and Outreach have observed a
significant change, the most striking in Rebecca and Robert.
When Robert started as an ambassador he said he felt shy and lacking
in confidence. His development over the years, most noticeably his

[email protected]
 The Role of the Student Ambassador and Its Contribution… 209

self-­confidence, has led him to become one of our most trusted ambas-
sadors, contributing significantly to numerous events and taking on addi-
tional responsibilities. His work and opinions are highly valued by the
team. This year he received the Student Ambassador Spirit Award. This
award recognises Robert’s understanding and commitment to WP and
his ability to engage and empower students of all ages, capabilities and
backgrounds.
Rebecca was able to develop her self-confidence and the department
helped her to step out of her comfort zone in a supported, safe environ-
ment. Now she is confident talking to anyone; students, parents/carers,
teachers and university staff. She has delivered whole school assemblies to
hundreds of students and worked as lead ambassador for our residential
summer schools. In addition, when we learned Rebecca was interested in
becoming a teacher we were able to support her in designing and deliver-
ing her own chemistry taster days which have been extremely successful
and helped her develop key skills she will need as a teacher. This year she
received the Widening Participation Contribution Award for her work
with the department.
Rebecca graduated from her BSc Chemistry degree with a First Class
degree. She has been accepted on a School Direct PGCE teacher training
qualification to teach secondary school chemistry. She is keen to develop
links between the department and her new school to support their WP
student cohort.
John graduated with a First Class MEng in Civil Engineering and is
currently employed by one of the UK’s largest house builders. He is
working towards achieving his ICE chartership and is raising the
awareness of outreach within his new company. He has already deliv-
ered a number of STEM activities in schools and has returned to sup-
port the University’s WP activities representing his new company as
alumni.
Robert graduated from his Bachelor of Law LLB with First Class
Honours. He received the highest marks in his cohort in Medical Law
and Ethics. He is currently deciding whether to continue to become a
solicitor or pursue a career in Widening Participation.

[email protected]
210 H. Baker and K. Sela

Conclusion
The widening participation student ambassador role offers a unique
opportunity for students to practice work based learning in a professional
but safe environment rich in development opportunities, support and
new experiences within a university department. Ambassadors delivering
IAG sessions, subject specific taster workshops, residential summer
schools and acting as student mentors, develop their employability skills
which can influence their career direction.
To ensure the continuation of experience between our ambassador
cohorts through placement year and graduation, we are developing a
first-year ambassador peering mentoring programme where we pair
experienced ambassadors to act as role models to newly trained ambas-
sadors. This pairing will allow new ambassadors to settle in to their
roles, reflect on their work and develop a more diverse support net-
work, particularly important for students from specific or less repre-
sented backgrounds. It will also further develop experienced
ambassadors’ employability skills and ensure their skills and experience
are passed on.
Not only does the work of the student ambassador offer a valuable
development opportunity it also helps to raise the aspirations and attain-
ment of the disadvantaged students they work with. By acting as a posi-
tive role model for these students and motivating them through their
early education, ambassadors become more motivated and committed to
their own learning and degree programme, increasing their feelings of
belonging and pride in the University and their role.

References
Austin, M., & Hatt, S. (2005). The Messengers are the message: A study of the
effects of employing higher education students to work with school students.
Widening Participation and Lifelong Learning, 7(1), 1–8.
Britton, J., Dearden, L., Shephard, N., & Vignoles, A. (2016). How English
domiciled graduate earnings vary with gender, institution attended, subject and
socio-economic background. IFS.

[email protected]
 The Role of the Student Ambassador and Its Contribution… 211

Colley, H. (2003). Engagement mentoring for ‘disaffected’ youth: A new model

of mentoring for social inclusion. British Educational Research Journal, 29(4),
521–542.
Department for Education. (2015). GCSE and equivalent attainment by pupil
characteristics, 2013 to 2014 (Revised).
Gartland, C., & Paczuska, A. (2007). Student ambassador, trust and HE choices.
Journal of Access Policy and Practice, 4(2), 108–133.
Greenbank, P., & Hepworth, S. (2008). Working class students and the career
decision-making process: A qualitative study. Edge Hill University Report for
HECSU.
Higher Education Funding Council England. (2015). Differences in employment
outcomes: Equality and diversity characteristics. HEFCE.
Mountford-Zimdars, A., Sabri, D., Moore, J., Sanders, J., Jones, S., & Higham,
L. (2015). Causes of differences in student outcomes. London: HEFCE.
Office for Fair Access. (2015). Strategic plan 2015–2020. OFFA.
Rhodes, S., Sherwin, C., & Smith, L. (2006). The role of student ambassadors
in university recruitment. Nursing Standard, 20(34), 44.
Universities UK. (2015). Supply and demand for higher-level skills. Universities
UK.
Universities UK. (2016). Working in partnership: Enabling social mobility in
higher education. Universities UK.
Ylonen, A. (2010). The role of student ambassadors in higher education: An
uneasy association between autonomy and accountability. Journal of Further
and Higher Education, 34(1), 97–104.

[email protected]
 12
Enhancing Psychology Students’
Employability Through ‘Practice
to Theory’ Learning Following
a Professional Training Year
N. Winstone and R. Avery

Introduction
Due to their positive impact on student employability, Professional
Training Years (PTY), or ‘Sandwich’ placements, are an increasingly com-
mon component of UK degree programmes. In these schemes, students
complete the first two years of their degree at university, spend their third
year in the workplace, and return to university to complete their final
year of study. A Sandwich placement, or PTY, represents one form of
work-integrated learning with the potential to enhance a student’s readi-
ness for work (Drysdale et al. 2016). In comparison to peers who did not
undertake a PTY, evidence supports that students who undertake a PTY
have superior transferable skills (Wilton 2012), a higher likelihood of

N. Winstone (*)
University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Avery
Caterham School, Caterham, UK

© The Author(s) 2018 213

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_12

[email protected]
214 N. Winstone and R. Avery

obtaining a graduate level job (Brooks and Youngson 2016), a better

sense of career direction (Reddy and Moores 2006), and higher starting
salaries (Brooks and Youngson 2016).
Enhancing their students’ employment outcomes holds high stakes for
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). The numbers of graduates enter-
ing employment, highly-skilled employment and further study (as mea-
sured by the Destinations of Leavers of Higher Education survey; DLHE)
are key metrics within the Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF Year 2
DfE 2016), as well as influencing positioning in many influential League
Tables. Beyond employment, employability is also represented in the
TEF, where an institution can argue within their narrative how their cur-
riculum and pedagogic practices support the development of graduate-­
level skills and attitudes in students. For example, reference SO2 in the
TEF Assessment Criteria characterises the extent to which “students
acquire knowledge, skills and attributes that are valued by employers and
that enhance their personal and/or professional lives” (DfE 2016, p. 22).
In their narratives, HEIs are encouraged to document the impact of any
initiatives they have developed that are aimed at graduate employability.
This qualitative account is important, as “employability is not only about
getting that first job. It’s beyond that simple measurement of employ-
ment” (Norton 2016, p. 2).
Whilst engaging in a period of work experience through a PTY or
Sandwich Placement can directly influence the chances of a student gain-
ing employment once they graduate, it can also have a significant impact
on the development of skills and attributes that might support future
employability. There is substantial evidence that students who undertake
a PTY gain higher marks in the final year of their degree than their coun-
terparts who do not undertake professional training (e.g. Brooks and
Youngson 2016; Crawford and Wang 2016; Gomez et al. 2004; Reddy
and Moores 2006). This is not simply because high calibre students are
more likely to choose to undertake a PTY in the first place (Jones et al.
2017); instead, evidence suggests that undertaking a PTY enhances a stu-
dent’s ‘horizon for learning’ (Clark and Zukas 2016).
The improved academic performance of those students who have
undertaken a PTY suggests that the impact of placement learning on
employability and career outcomes may be mediated by learning envi-

[email protected]
 Enhancing Psychology Students’ Employability… 215

ronments, instructional design, and learning opportunities in the

final year of study. Whilst students can deploy skills learned from
their PTY in final year learning (Auburn 2007), there is scope for
placement learning to enhance students’ capacity to learn new mate-
rial. However, academic staff might not facilitate opportunities for
students to implement placement experiences, and students often
struggle to return to study following a PTY, with some feeling alien-
ated from education (Auburn 2007).
The final year of study is a critical platform for placement work experi-
ence to deliver its impact on employability and work success. Whilst on
placement, students have the opportunity to apply theory to practice, by
observing how course content applies to real-world contexts. However,
once students return to their university studies, they have the opportu-
nity to apply practice to theory; that is, they can interpret new course
content in the light of their own practical experiences. For example,
Schambach and Dirks (2002) suggest that internship experiences enable
students to gain a deeper understanding of coursework requirements
when they return to study (Schambach and Dirks 2002). In addition,
Evans et al. (2010) stress that it is through viewing our knowledge and
understanding of concepts in different environments, such as in both
practice and academic settings, that conceptual change can occur as
knowledge is ‘recontextualised’. Thus, a key challenge for educators wish-
ing to enhance students’ employability is seeking opportunities to embed
both ‘practice to theory’ and ‘theory to practice’ learning within
curriculum-­specific modules.
To achieve this aim, educators can deploy learning and teaching strate-
gies that require learners to engage with activities closely aligned with
real-world experiences. In so doing, learners have the opportunity to
draw upon their placement experiences, but also to engage with curricu-
lum content in ways akin to how they would use that knowledge within
the workplace. Such pedagogic techniques, with the shared characteristic
of involving “fuzzy problems that are set in and/or mimic the real world”
(Gray et al. 2013, p. 39), include action learning (e.g. Lizzio and Wilson
2004), problem-based learning (e.g. Yew and Goh 2016), authentic
learning (e.g. Herrington et al. 2014), and reality-based learning (Smith
and Van Doren 2004).

[email protected]
216 N. Winstone and R. Avery

Reality-based learning (RBL; Smith and Van Doren 2004) offers a use-
ful theoretical framework to inform pedagogic design that draws upon
prior experience, and transfers learning to new contexts. In this sense, it
is a useful framework for capitalising on both the ‘theory to practice’ and
‘practice to theory’ learning that sandwich placements/PTY afford. RBL
draws upon active and experiential learning, and presents a four-point
framework to guide the design of learning activities (Smith and Van
Doren 2004):

Principle 1: Learning activities should focus on the knowledge, skills and

attitudes (KSAs) to be acquired by students;
Principle 2: Students are co-responsible for learning through their par-
ticipation in active learning;
Principle 3: Learning draws upon the prior experiences students bring to
the classroom, through experiential learning;
Principle 4: Learning develops transferable skills and experiences.

We operationalised this model within two Level 6 Psychology Modules

(‘Psychology and Education’ and ‘Work and Organisational Psychology’)
by focusing on three pedagogic elements: authentic activities, authentic
assessment, and reflection, all of which aligned with the four-point RBL
framework of Smith and Van Doren (2004). These elements drew upon
students’ PTY experiences, embedding ‘practice to theory’ learning
within the curriculum. We evaluated the impact of the intervention by
assessing students’ preparedness for work and employability mind-set at
the start and end of the module.

Background to the Intervention

Within class time, we employed authentic activities directed towards
active and experiential learning (Principles 2 and 3). Importantly, these
activities were designed to mimic the kinds of situations students might
be faced with in the workplace (Principle 4), and to require students to
think and act like professional psychologists (Principle 1). For example, a
common activity involved using case studies to ‘diagnose’ an issue in the

[email protected]
 Enhancing Psychology Students’ Employability… 217

workplace or the classroom, and to make recommendations. As a form of

problem-based learning, case studies using real or simulated cases enable
students to gain deep understanding of topic material (Burns and Chopra
2017), and can be used within class teaching, leading to enhanced
problem-­solving skills, enhanced confidence, superior long-term reten-
tion of conceptual knowledge (Hung et al. 2008), and stronger academic
motivation (Hmelo-Silver 2004). Activities that involve experiential ele-
ments seem to result in stronger longer-term retention of knowledge
because they are more memorable and meaningful (Elam and Spotts
2004). Such an approach represents “an exciting approach to facilitate
experiential learning, where life situations can be transported to class-
room contexts for learning, analysis and appraisal, reflection, and appli-
cation” (Rambruth and Daniel 2011, p. 40).
Students also completed guided reflection tasks, which encouraged
them to bring their PTY experience to the fore prior to learning activities
(Principle 3), surface their existing assumptions and perspectives, and
revisit these after the learning activity to examine how these might have
changed, and to consider how their learning might inform their future
practice in the workplace (Principle 4). This is an important dimension
of RBL, as “reflection is widely acknowledged in literature as a means to
enable the learner to extend their learning experiences beyond the class-
room by giving them a meaning and place in the bigger picture” (Ashford-­
Rowe et al. 2014, p. 208). The ability to reflect on practice and experience
is also one of the desired KSAs for a Psychology graduate (Principle 1). In
many work based learning programmes, reflection is used to “create prac-
titioners for whom it is the “norm” to continuously reflect, plan and
develop” (Helyer 2015, p. 18).
Beyond classroom activities, our approach also supported reality-based
learning through the use of authentic assessments, recognising that “stu-
dents should be given tasks that develop and test the skills and practices
that they will need in their future careers - tasks that mirror professional
practice and test more than just rote memorisation” (James and Casidy
2018, p. 1; Principles 1–4). In designing these assessments, we drew
upon the concept of ‘proximity’, where the assessment task undertaken
by students should be a close match with a task that would typically be
undertaken in the relevant professional environment (Oliver 2015).

[email protected]
218 N. Winstone and R. Avery

Methods
Professional Training Year Context

Psychology students at the University of Surrey embark upon their final

year of undergraduate study having just completed a placement year
where the student works within a chosen, Psychology relevant, field. The
placement year is a specific means of providing experiences intended to
enhance employability. More commonly known as the Professional
Training Year (PTY), the aim of this training year is to ensure transfer of
learning back to the final year of study:

The aims of the Transfer of Professional Training Year Learning are: to

enable students to transfer their PTY learning other than placement related
situations such as completion of assessment in the final year, communica-
tion with peers and tutors and effective, informed and well-targeted search
for graduate employment.

Although this is a desirable aim, the true extent to which this is being
integrated into Level 6 (final year undergraduate) module learning objec-
tives, and thus facilitated by teaching activities and assessments, is ques-
tionable. To what extent do current learning activities and assessments in
Level 6 Psychology modules actually require students to verbalise and
reflect on their PTY experience in ways that encourage future transfer of
that learning?
It is currently argued that in the teaching of Psychology, endeavouring
to construct learning, teaching and assessment activities that specifically
require students to reflect upon their applied placement experience will
encourage future transfer of that learning to the workplace. It is proposed
that embedding within curriculum specific Level 6 modules activities
which provoke ‘practice to theory’ and well as a ‘theory to practice’ think-
ing will result in beneficial outcomes including preparedness for work
and real-world transfer of knowledge. The final year of undergraduate
study following a PTY experience is a critical period for the HE educator
to foster employability and transfer of learning.

[email protected]
 Enhancing Psychology Students’ Employability… 219

Participants
Approximately 30 students were enrolled on a Level 6 Psychology mod-
ule entitled ‘Psychology and Education’, and approximately 30 students
were enrolled on a Level 6 Psychology module entitled ‘Work and
Organisational Psychology’. All students were invited to complete our
evaluation measures; a total of 54 students completed the measures at
Time 1 (27 students from each module), and a total of 48 students also
completed the measures again at Time 2 (21 students from ‘Work and
Organisational Psychology’ and 27 students from ‘Psychology and
Education’). The mean student age was 23 years and all students had
undertaken a PTY experience. Institutional ethical approval for the study
was granted, and all students who completed the measures gave informed
consent for their participation.

Interventions Embedded Within Modules

‘Psychology and Education’

Authentic Activity

A group problem-based learning activity, designed to simulate a real-­

world decision-making situation, and to enable students to develop and
apply their learning from engaging with course content, was developed.
Within the module, students learnt about Special Educational Needs
(SEN) in several different domains, such as literacy, numeracy, and
movement/coordination. Students then learnt about the history of pol-
icy regarding the inclusion of children with SEN in mainstream educa-
tion. When translating policy and theory into practice, many
complications and barriers arise and it is difficult to ‘teach’ students
about these complexities. In order for students to experience the deci-
sion-making process for themselves, they undertook an activity in
groups of four or five. Each group was provided with a dossier of infor-
mation of the kind that might be presented to a panel when deciding

[email protected]
220 N. Winstone and R. Avery

whether a child with SEN should be educated within a mainstream or

special setting. Included within the dossier were: (1) a report from an
Educational Psychologist; (2) a Paediatrician’s report; (3) a report from
the child’s class teacher and Head Teacher; (4) a statement from the
child’s parents; (5) a statement from the child; (6) some artefacts from
the child’s assessment with the Educational Psychologist; and (7) class-
room observation notes. In their groups, students were asked to decide
what recommendation they would make for the child’s placement, and
to discuss their justification for the decision, as well as the resources
that may be required for the child in that placement. Students were able
to make any recommendation on the whole spectrum of inclusion,
from full-time residential special setting, through to full-time main-
stream placement, with intervening options including settings like full-
time special unit within mainstream school, or full-time mainstream
with in-class support, for example. Students were then asked to present
their decision and justification to the rest of the class. What followed
was a class discussion about the difficulties in assimilating evidence to
reach a clear decision about a child’s placement.

Guided Reflection

Students were supported in their reflection through a reflective learning

log, posted on the Virtual Learning Environment, which supported them
to surface their perspectives prior to each lecture and revisit them later,
and consider how their learning might be transferred to future learning
and work. For example, for the topic of ‘Learner differences and learning
needs’, students were given the following reflection questions to consider
prior to the lecture, and to revisit following the lecture: ‘How might indi-
vidual learners differ from one another?’; ‘what do we mean by ‘Special
Educational Needs?’’. Students were then encouraged to consider their
response to the following reflection prompts: ‘Do I think differently in
any way?’ and ‘How will what I have learnt be relevant to my future work
and study?’. Finally, students were provided with a space to record any
other thoughts or reflections.

[email protected]
 Enhancing Psychology Students’ Employability… 221

‘Work and Organisational Psychology’

Authentic Activity

A group activity that provided students with a detailed workplace case

study example was developed. This example case study is carefully written
by the module leader to ensure that it provides enough detail so that stu-
dents can really contemplate the ‘practice to theory’ link without having
to be concerned about the quality of the contextual issues being dis-
cussed. Students were randomly allocated into groups of five and read the
example case study in full. This example case-study was relevant to a core
area of the module curriculum (e.g., psychology of leadership; case study
overview of a leader’s behaviour towards employees). The student groups
were then asked to prepare answers to a set of questions designed to
prompt ‘practice to theory’ thinking (e.g., ‘How would you summarise
the respective leader’s style, using theories and terminology from the lit-
erature?’ and ‘Would it be worthwhile investment for each party to run a
leadership development programme, and if so, how might they go about
this?’). The groups then presented their responses to the questions back
to the class.

Authentic Assessment

This intervention method required each student to write up (in an 8

page case study report format) an experience that relates to their
placement organisation. Experiences included observations of vari-
able performance/motivation at work and poor psychological health.
According to the 4 RBL principles (Smith and Van Doren 2004), this
assignment required the student to describe the context very clearly in
terms of what the exact organisational issue observed was. Then, the
student was required to consider which of the psychological theories
and/or research covered in the module might explain and enable diag-
nosis of their observations. The student then had to question what
could be done about the issue according to psychological theory, and

[email protected]
222 N. Winstone and R. Avery

whether one theory could guide thinking or did they need to draw on
different orientations? Finally, they were asked to call upon the litera-
ture to indicate how their proposed solution/intervention could be
evaluated.

Work Psychology—Case Study Assignment

The aim of this assignment is to write up an experience that relates to your
placement experience.
For the purposes of this assignment, we would like you to imagine that
you are a junior occupational psychologist, whose task is to provide advice
on how your placement organisation could benefit from the application of
psychological theories and frameworks to the workplace. In order to write
up this assignment, you need to consider the following:

Describe the context very clearly in terms of what the organisation is/does,
who works within it, what the issue that you observed is?
Once you have described this context, you will then need to diagnose for
this what you think the core issues are, but you can also indicate what
information you have not got but might need access to, and how you
could obtain this.

You will also need to consider:

1. Which of the areas of work psychology does the issue link to? You can
call upon any of the topics covered so far in this module but you can also
think outside of the content of the core lectures. Indeed, evidence of
independent reading and research will be one of the criteria that your
assignment is marked on.
2. What could be done, and which psychological theories/arguments might
offer a framework? Can any one theory guide your thinking or do you
need to draw from different orientations?

Preliminary conclusions: what would you recommend as a solution/inter-

vention to address the diagnosed issue? You could offer some insight about
what might be particularly important for a successful solution (e.g. making
everyone motivated to do their bit, or offering some ideas for how success
could be evaluated in research and/or practice). Strong pieces for work will
also indicate how an intervention could be evaluated. What is critical is to
say how many suggestions are rooted in evidence.

[email protected]
 Enhancing Psychology Students’ Employability… 223

Measures
Preparedness for Work

The extent to which students felt prepared for the workplace was mea-
sured using Borden and Rajecki’s (2000) preparedness scale. This scale
includes items such as ‘How prepared do you currently feel to apply psy-
chological theory to diagnose work issues?’. This consisted of a 12-item
scale with all questions being measured on a scale from 1 (very unpre-
pared) to 4 (very prepared). Scores were summed to create a total
‘Preparedness for Work’ (Time 1 and Time 2) variable (maximum possi-
ble score = 48).

Employability Mind-Set

The extent to which students evidenced an employability mind-set was

measured using Rothwell et al.’s (2008) Employability Scale.
Six items (e.g., ‘People in the career I am aiming for are in high demand
in the external work market’) were used and all were measured on a scale
from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). Scores were summed to
create a total ‘Employability Mind-Set’ variable (maximum possible
score = 30).

Intervention Utility

Four direct items were also included (at time 2 only) which asked the
students about their reception and perceived utility of the intervention
methods specific to each module. For example, students were asked ‘The
skills I have developed from doing the case study assignment for this
module will/have contributed to my employability prospects’. The four
items were all measured on a scale from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5
(Strongly Agree) and responses to these 4 items were summed to create a
total ‘Intervention Utility’ variable (maximum possible score = 20).

[email protected]
224 N. Winstone and R. Avery

Procedure

The level 6 modules in question were run over the course of 11 weeks.
Importantly, the key variables of ‘Preparedness for Work’ and
‘Employability Mind-Set’ were measured during the very first session in
week 1 (Time 1) and the very last session in week 11 (Time 2). The
authentic activity for Work and Organisational Psychology took place
during week 5 of the course, a point at which the students were well
introduced (in terms of their knowledge base) to the relevant psychologi-
cal literature/theories (Bloom 1984). The authentic assignment was due
in week 8. For Psychology and Education, students participated in the
authentic activity in Week 10, in order that they could apply course
material from weeks 1 to 9 to the activity. Guided reflection using the
learning log spanned weeks 1–10 of the module. Students had time to
reflect on the impact of these intervention methods before then complet-
ing the ‘Preparedness for Work’ and ‘Employability Mind-Set’ measures
again in week 11.

Evaluation
Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients for all study variables by

module are reported in Tables 12.1 and 12.2. Reliability coefficients sug-
gest that all measures used were internally consistent. For both Psychology
modules, ‘Employability Mind-Set’ at time 1 and time 2 is significantly
correlated with ‘Preparedness for Work’ at time 2. This highlights that
Psychology students who had heightened awareness of employability
were also more likely following the interventions to be ready to join the
Psychology job market and act professionally as a psychologist. For ‘Work
and Organisational Psychology’, Intervention Utility significantly
correlated with Employability Mind-Set at time 1, suggesting that those
who had higher employability awareness at the start of this module were
more likely to also report perceiving high utility of the authentic activity
and assignment. Descriptive statistics for ‘Intervention Utility’ (possible

[email protected]
 Enhancing Psychology Students’ Employability… 225

Table 12.1 Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients for all study variables:
‘Work and Organisational Psychology’
M SD α 1 2 3 4
1. Preparedness for Work (Time 1) 29.0 4.4 0.77
2. Preparedness for Work (Time 2) 35.9 3.5 0.74 0.49*
3. Employability Mind-set (Time 1) 20.9 2.9 0.62 0.39 0.70**
4. Employability Mind-set (Time 2) 20.8 3.2 0.83 0.03 0.46* 0.41
5. Intervention Utility 15.9 2.7 0.78 0.32 0.21 0.54* 0.39
**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05

Table 12.2 Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients for all study variables:
‘Psychology and Education’
M SD α 1 2 3 4
1. Preparedness for Work (Time 1) 29.3 4.6 0.83
2. Preparedness for Work (Time 2) 34.2 4.9 0.70 0.66**
3. Employability Mind-set (Time 1) 21.1 2.4 0.88 0.36 0.56*
4. Employability Mind-set (Time 2) 22.1 3.1 0.77 0.20 0.47* 0.68**
5. Intervention Utility 16.3 2.4 0.70 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.13
**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05

range from 4 to 20) demonstrate with mean responses of 15.9 (Work and
Organisational Psychology) and 16.3 (Psychology and Education) that
students perceived the interventions to be very valuable. Interestingly,
76.2% of the student sample reported a response in the range of 15–20,
which demonstrates that a strong majority of the students agreed to
strongly agree that the intervention methods contributed to their poten-
tial employability.

Analyses

In order to assess the effect of the intervention methods on Preparedness

for Work and Employability Mind-Set, the questionnaire responses were
subject to pretest-posttest analysis; within-subjects t-tests of the pre and
post scores on the Preparedness for Work, and the Employability Mind-­
Set measures were run. This allowed for detection of whether there was
any change in these variables as an effect of the intervention methods.

[email protected]
226 N. Winstone and R. Avery

‘Psychology and Education’

For Preparedness for Work, it was found that there was a significant dif-
ference between students’ reported preparedness pre-intervention
(M = 29.3, SD = 4.6) and post-intervention (M = 34.2, SD = 4.9)
[t(17) = 5.37, p < 0.001, d = 1.25]. Given the items included in this scale,
these results illustrate that following the authentic interventions, students
felt more prepared, for example, to demonstrate professionalism in the
workplace, evaluate whether application of psychology to workplace
issues was successful, engage in self-directed learning to increase their
employability, and work ethically as a psychologist. For Employability
Mind-Set, no significant difference between students’ reported employ-
ability mind-set pre-intervention (M = 21.1, SD = 2.4) and post-­
intervention (M = 22.1, SD = 3.1) was found [t(18) = 1.89, p = 0.07,
d = 0.45]. This indicates that the experience of the intervention methods
had no significant impact on whether students were aware of the employ-
ability links/status to engaging with the module in question (e.g., ‘I see
this module as leading to a specific career that is highly desirable’).

‘Work and Organisational Psychology’

Interestingly, consistent patterns of results were evident for this module.

There was a significant difference between students’ reported ‘Preparedness
for Work’ pre-intervention (M = 29.0, SD = 4.4) and post-intervention
(M = 35.9, SD = 3.5) [t(14) = 7.68, p < 0.001, d = 1.73]. This again sug-
gests that the experience of the authentic activity and assignment encour-
aged a stronger sense of preparedness to communicate effectively with
possible colleagues and clients about psychology, and, to apply psycho-
logical theory to diagnose real world issues. There was no significant dif-
ference between students’ ‘Employability Mind-Set’ pre-intervention
(M = 20.9, SD = 2.9) and post-intervention (M = 20.8, SD = 3.2)
[t(14) = 0.51, p = 0.61, d = 0.03]. Similar to ‘Psychology and Education’,
the authentic intervention methods here were not observed to bring
about change in students’ awareness of the demands in achieving, and
desirability of, specific Psychology-orientated careers.

[email protected]
 Enhancing Psychology Students’ Employability… 227

Overall, for both modules, students’ reported scores for ‘Preparedness

for Work’ at time 2 (post intervention) were significantly higher than
scores for ‘Preparedness for Work’ at time 1 (pre intervention). This out-
lines that the authentic RBL model-based intervention methods had a
positive impact on students’ readiness for the workplace.

Implications
The aim of this intervention was to embed within the Level 6 psychology
curriculum opportunities for students to apply practice to theory, by
using their experiences of PTY/Sandwich placement learning to contrib-
ute to their engagement with disciplinary content in Level 6 modules.
Whilst opportunities to apply theory to practice abound during periods
of work based learning, it is also important to consider how best to capi-
talise on opportunities to use experience of practice to contextualise and
engage with theoretical and conceptual material upon the return to aca-
demic study for Level 6 of the degree programme. Our approach to sup-
porting practice to theory learning involved authentic activities, authentic
assessment, and structured reflection in two Level 6 Psychology
modules.
These elements of instructional design were guided by the reality-based
learning model (Smith and Van Doren 2004), in order to align with the
principles of co-responsibility through active learning, drawing upon
prior experience, developing transferable skills and experiences, and a
focus on the skills and attitudes to be developed through learning. Our
data demonstrate that application of the RBL model (Smith and Van
Doren 2004) and authentic assessment (e.g. Ashford-Rowe et al. 2014)
had a positive impact on students’ readiness for the workplace. Students
in both modules reported significantly higher scores on a ‘Preparedness
for Work’ measure at the end of the modules than they had at the begin-
ning, indicating that the RBL-based intervention methods had a positive
impact on students’ anticipation for using ‘theory to practice’ thinking
and action. We can speculate that this gain in preparedness was facilitated
through reflection, active learning, and opportunities to engage with
authentic activities that enabled them to play the role of a professional

[email protected]
228 N. Winstone and R. Avery

psychologist. These findings align with other accounts that PTY/

Sandwich placements facilitate the development of maturity, work-­
readiness, and willingness to learn (Morley et al. 2017).
In contrast, we observed no significant increase in students’ reported
‘Employability Mind-set’ over the course of the modules. Closer inspec-
tion of the descriptive statistics for both modules indicates that stu-
dents’ scores on this measure were already reasonably high at the
beginning of the modules. This may have limited the potential impact
of the intervention methods on facilitating further developments in
students’ employability awareness. Arguably, today’s students are keenly
aware of factors such as the competitive nature of the psychology job
market, and thus the current intervention methods had stronger and
more meaningful utility in increasing student confidence that they have
skills which could be applied to the workplace (e.g., use psychological
theory to diagnose a real-life issue), as measured by the ‘Preparedness
for Work’ measure, than in increasing what is already a strong employ-
ability mind-set.
In their ratings of ‘Intervention Utility’, we can surmise that students
believed the intervention methods to serve a useful purpose in terms of
advancing their knowledge and skills to give them confidence to transfer
their learning to a broader working context. These findings certainly sup-
port the propositions of Auburn (2007) that the use of work-reflective
activities in the academic year of study following a PTY experience does
indeed encourage better anticipated ‘induction’ and awareness of the
transition to a world beyond academic study.
Our work demonstrates that there is potentially much to be gained
from directly utilising work based learning experiences to facilitate aca-
demic learning; in short, the transfer of learning from ‘practice to theory’
seems equally important to the transfer from ‘theory to practice’. The
opportunities afforded by PTY/Sandwich placements for this transfer are
important to capitalise upon. It is however imperative to consider that
our data are limited to students from two Level 6 psychology modules at
a single university, and thus generalisation to the wider final year
­undergraduate body is limited in scope. Furthermore, all current students
received the intervention methods; no comparison/control group was
used. We therefore need to be cautious with over interpreting the effect
of the intervention methods before effects are replicated, and before we

[email protected]
 Enhancing Psychology Students’ Employability… 229

have evidence of the longitudinal impact of RBL-based interventions on

graduate employability and the transition to work.
It is also important to note that the two modules in question, ‘Work
and Organisational Psychology’ and ‘Psychology and Education’ possess
particular advantages that support the embedding of reality-based learn-
ing. First, regardless of what experiences students gained on their PTY, all
students have prior experience of education, and the vast majority of
students have experience of the world of work. This may have made it
particularly easy for students’ learning to draw upon prior experiences
(Principle 3 in the RBL model). Second, the applied nature of the subject
matter in both modules facilitates the design of active and authentic
learning (Principle 2 in the RBL model). Thus, we close this chapter by
offering some tentative recommendations as to how the RBL model can
inform ‘practice to theory’ learning in other disciplines.
First, we would argue that any area of the curriculum in any discipline
can focus on not only the knowledge, but also the skills and attitudes to
be acquired through learning experiences (Principle 1 in the RBL model).
For example, the graduate attributes of a discipline (see, for example,
Quinlan 2016) specify the characteristics that can be expected of a gradu-
ate in a particular discipline, and are becoming more prominent in the
minds of educators as they pay greater attention to supporting the
employability of their students. Even in an assessment that is not ‘authen-
tic’ in nature, an assignment can be made relevant to the workplace by
showing students which graduate attributes are being developed and
assessed through that piece of work. This positions assessment as a driver,
not merely a measure, of learning.
Second, learning activities in general, and work-related learning activi-
ties in particular, are likely to benefit from being interactive and group-­
based, thus making the student aware of their co-responsibility for
learning (Principle 2 in the RBL model). Framing learning activities
involving groups of students in terms of their similarity to work based
activities involving teams of co-workers can focus students’ minds on
how they can use that learning experience to prepare them for employ-
ment. When drawing upon students’ experiences of PTY/Sandwich
placements, group activities are also particularly beneficial, as students
are able to apply not only their own practice, but also that of their peers,
to the theory they experience in academic learning contexts.

[email protected]
230 N. Winstone and R. Avery

Third, any form of learning, can, we would argue, draw upon students’
prior experiences (Principle 3 in the RBL model). When using placement
experiences as a basis for learning, students can share problems or assign-
ments they tackled on their placement, and educators can take these real-­
world, authentic problems and use them as a basis for authentic activities
and assignments. This enables students to build upon a broader range of
experience than just their own, having the opportunity to work on new
problems. Even on programmes where students have not undertaken a
PTY, educators can still ensure that learning draws upon prior experi-
ence. It might require strategies to surface the wide range of experiences
that students bring, but drawing upon their lived realities can be a power-
ful tool for learning.
Fourth, learning can develop transferable skills and experiences
(Principle 4 in the RBL model) through the use of structured reflective
activities. Regardless of whether students have strong ideas of where their
career will take them upon graduation, the skills they are acquiring
through their studies will support their continued learning in the work-
place. However, students may find it difficult to recognise the skills being
developed, so reflection can be used to bring these skills to the surface,
and to encourage students to see, for example, how they can learn from
experiencing challenge, disappointment, lack of motivation, or satisfac-
tion, to support their experience of these and similar emotions when they
arise in the workplace.

Conclusion
Our data demonstrate much encouragement that (a) the RBL model has
potential for the design of work-related activities and assessments, (b)
that work-related activities and assessment embedded within Level 6 cur-
ricula have potential to contribute to the enhancement of psychology
student employability, and (c) that specifically basing these work-related
activities and assessments on a PTY experience is a valuable tool in bridg-
ing the transition from supervised work experiences, to the return to aca-
demic work, to workplace awareness and induction (Auburn 2007). We
cannot expect all students to easily and independently recognise and

[email protected]
 Enhancing Psychology Students’ Employability… 231

anticipate the demands of being responsible for their learning and real-­
world practice. Thus higher education educators really do have much
scope to intervene here by keeping teaching activities and assessments
relevant and effective, drawing upon students’ lived realities to inform
instructional design.

References
Ashford-Rowe, K., Herrington, J., & Brown, C. (2014). Establishing the critical
elements that determine authentic assessment. Assessment & Evaluation in
Higher Education, 39(2), 205–222.
Auburn, T. (2007). Identity and placement learning: Student accounts of the
transition back to university following a placement year. Studies in Higher
Education, 32(1), 117–133.
Bloom, B. (1984). Taxonomy of educational objectives Book 1: Cognitive domain.
New York: Addison Wesley.
Borden, V. M., & Rajecki, D. W. (2000). First-year employment outcomes of
psychology baccalaureates: Relatedness, preparedness, and prospects. Teaching
of Psychology, 27(3), 164–168.
Brooks, R., & Youngson, P. L. (2016). Undergraduate work placements: An
analysis of the effects on career progression. Studies in Higher Education, 41,
1563–1578.
Burns, C., & Chopra, S. (2017). A meta-analysis of the effect of industry
engagement on student learning in undergraduate programs. Journal of
Technology, Management and Applied Engineering, 33(1), 2–20.
Clark, M., & Zukas, M. (2016). Understanding successful sandwich place-
ments: A Bourdieusian approach. Studies in Higher Education, 41(7),
1281–1295.
Crawford, I., & Wang, Z. (2016). The impact of placements on the academic
performance of UK and international students in higher education. Studies in
Higher Education, 41(4), 712–733.
Department for Education. (2016). Teaching Excellence Framework: Year two
specification. London: DfE.
Drysdale, M. T., McBeath, M. L., Johansson, K., Dressler, S., & Zaitseva, E.
(2016). Psychological attributes and work-integrated learning: An inter-
national study. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 6(1),
20–34.

[email protected]
232 N. Winstone and R. Avery

Elam, E. L., & Spotts, H. E. (2004). Achieving marketing curriculum integra-

tion: A live case study approach. Journal of Marketing Education, 26(1),
50–65.
Evans, K., Guile, D., Harris, J., & Allan, H. (2010). Putting knowledge to
work: A new approach. Nurse Education Today, 30(3), 245–251.
Gomez, S., Lush, D., & Clements, M. (2004). Work placements enhance the
academic performance of bioscience undergraduates. Journal of Vocational
Education and Training, 56(3), 373–385.
Gray, B., Stein, S. J., Osborne, P., & Aitken, R. (2013). Collaborative learning
in a marketing strategy education context. Practice and Evidence of Scholarship
of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 8(1), 35–55.
Helyer, R. (2015). Learning through reflection: The critical role of reflection in
work-based learning (WBL). Journal of Work-Applied Management, 7(1),
15–27.
Herrington, J., Parker, J., & Boase-Jelinek, D. (2014). Connected authentic
learning: Reflection and intentional learning. Australian Journal of Education,
58(1), 23–35.
Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do stu-
dents learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235–266.
Hung, W., Jonassen, D. H., & Liu, R. (2008). Problem-based learning.
Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology, 3,
485–506.
James, L. T., & Casidy, R. (2018). Authentic assessment in business education:
Its effects on student satisfaction and promoting behaviour. Studies in Higher
Education, 43(3), 401–415.
Jones, C. M., Green, J. P., & Higson, H. E. (2017). Do work placements
improve final year academic performance or do high-calibre students choose
to do work placements? Studies in Higher Education 42(6), 976–992.
Lizzio, A., & Wilson, K. (2004). Action learning in higher education: An inves-
tigation of its potential to develop professional capability. Studies in Higher
Education, 29(4), 469–488.
Morley, D. A., Archer, L., Burgess, M., Curran, D., Milligan, V. & Williams, D.
(2017). A panel discussion—The impact of students’ placements. In ExcITeS
Teaching and Learning Conference. Guildford, UK: University of Surrey.
Norton, S. (2016). Embedding employability in higher education for student suc-
cess. York, UK: Higher Education Academy.
Oliver, B. (2015). Redefining graduate employability and work-integrated
learning: Proposals for effective higher education in disrupted economies.
Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 6(1), 56–65.

[email protected]
 Enhancing Psychology Students’ Employability… 233

Quinlan, K. M. (2016). Developing student character through disciplinary cur-

ricula: An analysis of UK QAA subject benchmark statements. Studies in
Higher Education, 41(6), 1041–1054.
Rambruth, P., & Daniel, S. (2011). Integrating experiential learning and cases
in international business. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 22(1),
38–50.
Reddy, P., & Moores, E. (2006). Measuring the benefits of a psychology place-
ment year. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 31(5), 551–567.
Rothwell, A., Herbert, I., & Rothwell, F. (2008). Self-perceived employability:
Construction and initial validation of a scale for university students. Journal
of Vocational Behavior, 73(1), 1–12.
Schambach, T. P., & Dirks, J. (2002). Student perceptions of internship experi-
ences. In Proceedings of the 17th Annual Conference of the International
Academy for Information Management. Retrieved July 9, 2017, from http://
files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED481733.pdf
Smith, L. W., & Van Doren, D. C. (2004). The reality-based learning method:
A simple method for keeping teaching activities relevant and effective. Journal
of Marketing Education, 26, 66–74.
Wilton, N. (2012). The impact of work placements on skills development and
career outcomes for business and management graduates. Studies in Higher
Education, 37(5), 603–620.
Yew, E. H., & Goh, K. (2016). Problem-based learning: An overview of its pro-
cess and impact on learning. Health Professions Education, 2(2), 75–79.

[email protected]
 Part VI
Promoting Students’ Work Based
Learning for International
Collaboration and Employment

[email protected]
 13
Exploring the Power of High-Level
Postgraduate International Partnership
Work Based Learning Programmes
P. Weston, D. Perrin, and D. Meakin

Introduction and Context

The academic partnership between the University of Chester and the
Mountbatten Institute was the product of two separate developments
coming together within UK Higher Education (HE). The first was the
expansion of work based learning (WBL). This involved not just the cre-
ation of WBL opportunities for full-time undergraduate students on
placements but also the development of negotiated WBL frameworks
aimed at capturing the learning of adults in the workplace (Talbot 2017).
These frameworks were characterised by two key features—the ability to
customise learning around workplace opportunities so students could set
their curriculum in negotiation with tutors (Perrin et al. 2010). Also, in
the prioritisation given to capability and competence alongside more ‘tra-
ditional’ academic preoccupations such as critical engagement with the-
ory (Stephenson and Weil 1992; Stephenson 1998; Lester and Costley
2010).

P. Weston (*) • D. Perrin • D. Meakin

University of Chester, Chester, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2018 237

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_13

[email protected]
238 P. Weston et al.

By the turn of the millennium, well over a dozen UK universities had

established WBL frameworks with three—Middlesex University, the
University of Derby and the University of Chester—developing highly
successful programmes attracting large numbers of students (Nixon
2008; Perrin et al. 2010). Furthermore, these universities used their WBL
frameworks not only to foster learning of adults in the workplace directly,
but also to create partnership arrangements with external parties where
high-level vocationally based learning could be assessed and recognised
for the purposes of academic credit (see Meakin and Wall 2013; Talbot
et al. 2014; Garnett 2016). This usage of WBL frameworks to ‘accredit’
learning outside of the traditional academy became a significant growth
area and market for learning achieved through work.
The second significant development was the internationalisation of
HE (Standley 2015) as universities looked beyond their national bound-
aries not just to attract international students to them but also, through
overseas partner organisations, to offer their programmes abroad (Altbach
and Knight 2007; Ayoubi and Massoud 2007). The UK has been very
much at the forefront of this with 140,000 students in 2002 enrolled on
university programmes domiciled outside the UK (Altbach 2002). Since
then, students studying UK programmes abroad have grown exponen-
tially with figures for 2015/16 standing at 701,010 (UKCISA 2017).
This has resulted in various developments of programme delivery includ-
ing franchise arrangements with approximately 246,110 students now
studying through university-partnership arrangements including collab-
orative provisions (UKCISA 2017).
The University of Chester’s place as a leader in WBL and accreditation
for adults in the workplace is well documented (see Nixon 2008; Perrin
et al. 2010; Talbot et al. 2014). However, the role of the Mountbatten
Institute as a HE level partner and provider of international vocational
learning opportunities is less well known.
It was originally created in 1984 at the Anglo American International
School in New York as a UK/US GAP year student exchange scheme. In
1986, it was named ‘The Mountbatten Internship Programme’ in mem-
ory of the late Earl Mountbatten of Burma (a noted proponent of inter-
national education) and in 1990 it became an all graduate exchange
programme organising and administering one-year work experience

[email protected]
 Exploring the Power of High-Level Postgraduate International… 239

opportunities in New York for UK graduates. By 1998 a reciprocal pro-

gramme was developed in London for US students, and in 2000 the
Mountbatten Institute was formed in New York to coordinate and direct
three regional offices based in London, New York and Bangkok offering
international internships with a focus on postgraduate education. Whilst
still committed to its US/UK origins the Mountbatten Institute, each
year, enrolls students from over 30 nationalities.
Originally, the Mountbatten Institute accredited its programmes
through Oxford University Delegacy of Local Examinations and then St
Mary’s University College, Twickenham. However, the work based nature
of their internships led to the Mountbatten Institute incrementally mov-
ing its provision from 2014 to the University of Chester’s Centre for
Work Related Studies (CWRS). Hence a partnership of WBL expertise
and high-level international vocational learning provision was formed.

WBL and International Internships

A key strength of WBL is its flexibility to meet the needs of the work-
place, evidenced by the many guises in which it appears within HE (Boud
and Solomon 2001; Major 2002; Garnett 2007). The necessity that WBL
be “grounded in the context, nature and imperatives of work” (Garnett
and Workman 2009, p. 3) placing the workplace at the centre of the
learning experience (Lester and Costley 2010) emphasises the impor-
tance of ensuring this form of experiential learning is both practitioner
and academically driven. WBL therefore encourages students to become
active learners, drawing on and applying learning gained from both the
classroom and workplace in order to adapt and grow (Billett and Choy
2014).
According to Drysdale et al. (2016), this results in WBL students
developing greater levels of self-confidence, self-esteem and self-efficacy
than if they studied on more conventional HE programmes. In addition,
they are likely to be more highly motivated towards their academic stud-
ies and show greater concern regarding how they are viewed profession-
ally. WBL can therefore be a key contributory factor in helping an
individual consolidate and affirm their professional identify and self-­
worth (Billett and Choy 2014).

[email protected]
240 P. Weston et al.

The form of WBL discussed here is a postgraduate international busi-

ness internship. According to Olsen (2015) an internship is where a stu-
dent is placed in an organisation for a set time period to gain work
experience with no commitment from either party regarding permanent
employment once the internship comes to an end. Billett and Choy
(2014) assert longer (6–12 month) internships are far more valuable than
shorter placements because there is greater opportunity for learning and
development.
The Mountbatten Internship programme fits this criteria as it incorpo-
rates a 12-month international full-time placement alongside a full-time
post-graduate programme of study (Mountbatten Institute 2016).
Successful Mountbatten Institute applicants are typically in their mid-­
twenties who have recently graduated either from an undergraduate or
post-graduate degree and who may have some limited work experience.
As such, they are at the start of their professional careers.
Internships are a valuable form of experiential learning (Gault et al.
2000; Lang and McNaught 2013; Olsen 2015) as they facilitate the tran-
sition from education into the workplace (Mello 2006). In addition,
Gault et al. (2000) claim students who take part in internships are more
likely to gain job satisfaction and have higher earning potential than
those who do not. The value of internships for students is therefore obvi-
ous as they provide an opportunity to improve employability prospects in
a way that could not be achieved through studying alone (Feldmann
2016). This means internships are a common feature of many business
programmes (Moghaddam 2011) with estimates that up to 75% of
undergraduate business students take part in some form of work place-
ment as part of their studies (Olsen 2015).
Employers also value internships for similar reasons as they enable stu-
dents to gain the necessary business knowledge and skills to ‘hit the
ground running’ prior to employment (Mello 2006). The contextualised
nature of WBL also means the resultant learning occurs not only at an
individual but also at a corporate level (Garnett 2016), therefore organ-
isations also adapt and grow as a result of internships. Finally, they ­provide
a relatively risk free mechanism for employers to observe potential future
employees over an extended period of time (Gault et al. 2000).

[email protected]
 Exploring the Power of High-Level Postgraduate International… 241

When internships occur within an international context, they become

even more valuable as, in addition to work experience, students develop
valuable language, inter-personal and inter-cultural knowledge and skills
which are increasingly sought after by global businesses (Dawson 2013).
According to Mello (2006), this is further enhanced when students are
placed in international operations alongside highly experienced profes-
sionals as this exposes them to the intricacies of international business
practice which are impossible to replicate either in the class-room or
through domestic internships (Mello 2006). In addition, students are
more likely to work with senior personnel so raising their profile and
strengthening their professional network (Mello 2006). Dawson (2013)
asserts this exposure provides a major boost to a student’s self-confidence
and self-efficacy making them more likely to put themselves forward for
challenging roles and projects which place them outside their comfort
zone. This makes them highly sought after by global companies (Eaton
and Kleshinski 2014).
Offering internships to international students is also highly beneficial
for host organisations as it enables them to access a variety of cultural
perspectives (ICEF Monitor 2013). They also provide a means of attract-
ing high calibre professionals whilst at the same time reducing the
increased risks associated with international recruitment which stem
from differences in culture and language (ICEF Monitor 2013).
Regardless of whether or not an internship leads to a job offer, Rigsby
et al. (2013) claim the value placed on them by business means intern-
ship students are far more likely to gain employment quickly and prog-
ress further in their careers. However, when the work placement is
international in context, this radically enhances a student’s desirability as
a potential employee (Dawson 2013) with many global firms paying par-
ticular interest to graduate applicants’ CVs listing international work
experience (Cromm and Kadow 2014).
The value of international work experience for career progression is not
lost on students, with increasing numbers targeting programmes with
international placements (Dawson 2013). As a result, HE is finding itself
under increasing pressure to offer a variety of international work
­experience opportunities (Lapina et al. 2016) that prepare students for an
increasingly competitive and volatile global environment (Shooshtari and
Manuel 2014).

[email protected]
242 P. Weston et al.

Despite clear benefits, Dawson (2013) cautions that international

internships present specific challenges. Fox (2017) agrees, claiming they
can be very isolating for students who are distanced from people and
places they are familiar with. Along with geography, she claims distance
is experienced in emotional, cultural, pedagogical and technological
forms which intersect in a way that can lead to feelings of loneliness and
depression. As such, Dawson (2013) highlights that whilst immersion in
a new culture and mixing with new people is important, there needs to
be some form of structure and support in place.
The importance of a solid support network means academic providers
and host organisations need to work together closely (Billett and Choy
2014) in order to prevent long-term emotional or physical distress to
internship students (Richardson and Blakeney 1998). To achieve this,
Mello (2006) emphasises that both the academic provider and workplace
must oversee the internship and ensure some form of mentoring is pro-
vided if students are to take full advantage of their learning experience
(Fox 2017).
Alongside this is the need to develop a well-designed academic pro-
gramme, with highly qualified tutors, to ensure the academic component
enhances the experiential learning of the placement (Lapina et al. 2016).
To achieve this, care needs to be taken to ensure learning outcomes are
specific with deliverables that facilitate and enhance students’ knowledge
and skills of their workplace context (Fowler and Tietze 1996).
Programmes also need to maintain academic integrity and quality stan-
dards (Talbot et al. 2014, Olsen 2015) with all associated assessment
exhibiting the same degree of academic rigour as conventional HE pro-
grammes (Billett and Choy 2014).
A common tool for assessing the more personal and subjective aspects
of WBL, including personal growth and development, is the use of reflec-
tive essays and reports which are difficult to quantify through other
mechanisms (Fowler and Tietze 1996). The use of reified reflection in the
assessment process is particularly important when the learning is situated
within an international context, as this is a major contributory factor to
the enhancement of learning (Webber 2005).
In summary, while international internship programmes can be
extremely valuable for both students and employers they also present

[email protected]
 Exploring the Power of High-Level Postgraduate International… 243

challenges which need addressing if the full benefits are to be realised.

Key to this is the importance of academic providers and host organisa-
tions working closely together in order to create internships that are fit
for purpose, are academically rigorous and have the necessary support
networks in place (Webber 2005; Meakin and Wall 2013; Billett and
Choy 2014). Only then will the full benefits of this form of experiential
learning be realised.

 he Mountbatten Institute Internship

T
Programmes
The University of Chester and the Mountbatten Institute have jointly
developed three postgraduate level programmes using the University of
Chester’s Work Based and Integrative Studies (WBIS) framework from
WBL. Currently, two programmes are running; the Postgraduate
Certificate in International Business (WBIS), and the MA Entrepreneurial
Leadership in Global Business (WBIS); the MBA is in the final stages of
academic approval. The partnership agreement means all programmes are
managed and delivered by the Mountbatten Institute including student
recruitment, module design, delivery and assessment. The University of
Chester acts as an advisor and, in addition, co-assesses and quality assures
all assessment (Meakin and Wall 2013).
The original and longest-running of the programmes, the MA
Entrepreneurial Leadership in Global Business (WBIS), comprises seven
modules. Three of these are compulsory for all WBIS masters programmes
and consist of an introductory module in the concepts and tools of expe-
riential and reflective learning; a practitioner researcher methods module
and a final triple (60 credit) negotiated experiential learning module
(Triple NELM). The other four taught modules cover topics including
leadership, global business and entrepreneurship.
The ‘Triple NELM’ is a negotiated work based research project with an
output consisting of a report designed to have significant business
impact(s), plus a critical reflective learning log where students evaluate
and reflect on their internship experience. The Triple NELM is a crucial
element of the MA, as the concept of working on a project exploring a

[email protected]
244 P. Weston et al.

real-life workplace issue with outcomes of potential benefit to both the

student and their host company is a central feature of WBL (Garnett
2016).
All module assessments include some critical reflection of students’
workplace learning in light of theoretical concepts and modules they have
been introduced to. The academic component and the work placement
are therefore fully integrated with one another (Billett and Choy 2014).
The Mountbatten Institute has agreements with a number of leading
international and global companies to offer 12-month full-time work
placements in London and New York. Most, although not all, operate
within banking and finance with students from Europe and India typi-
cally going to New York and students from the US coming to London.
Unlike many other internships, applicants must secure their work place-
ment prior to being offered a place. Acceptance of a place also requires
students to agree to enroll onto one of the Mountbatten Institute aca-
demic programmes which run concurrently with the placement. Module
workshops take place in the evenings and/or weekends, and attendance is
mandatory. As part of the internship, the Mountbatten Institute provides
students with accommodation and a small stipend.
The recruitment process and the inter-connectedness between the
work placement and the academic programme create a rare form of WBL
that uniquely prepares students for employability (Feldmann 2016).
Because it is the longest running example of the University of Chester-­
Mountbatten Institute partnership in operation, we have chosen to use
the MA as the basis for the evaluation of workplace impacts and graduate
employability.

Findings and Analysis

The findings below are taken from data obtained from module evaluation
forms and critical reflective learning logs from the final Triple NELM
assessment. Unfortunately, due to confidentiality reasons, it was not pos-
sible to obtain data direct from companies offering internships through
the Mountbatten Institute.

[email protected]
 Exploring the Power of High-Level Postgraduate International… 245

Statistics from the module evaluations give an aggregated overview of

student responses to questions focusing mainly on the academic compo-
nent of the internship. These provide the basis for an analysis of students’
critical reflective learning logs. Together they help us develop a unique
insight into students’ perceptions of what they have learnt from their
internship experience.
All data used is either anonymous in origin or has since been ano-
nymised to protect the identity of students and their host organisations.

Module Evaluation Forms

The module evaluations were completed between January 2015 and
January 2017. Among a broader set of questions, the following five state-
ments (presented on a Likert scale) measured the impact of students’
study on their workplace practice:

1. I feel more confident in managing my own learning

2. I found a balance between my work and my study
3. I felt feedback was helpful to my learning and development
4. I learnt new skills as a result of the module
5. I gained new knowledge as a result of the module

A total of 134 respondents returned an approval rating (satisfactory or

better) of 86%. Of 1608 statement responses, only 65 (4%) expressed
strong disagreement with any of the statements, whereas over 66% gave
a positive evaluation (‘Strongly agree’/’Agree’).
Over 80% of students reported they gained “new knowledge as a result
of the module”, with additional free-text comments added of which these
were typical:

I gained a much better understanding of how global markets fit together and
interact.
Learning (how to) apply new frameworks (such as the Belbin team roles)
offered a fresh perspective on workplace dynamics and an idea of how improve-
ments to efficiency can be facilitated.
I have gained a better understanding of management behaviour.

[email protected]
246 P. Weston et al.

As well as knowledge, 65% of respondents reported acquisition of new

skills and acknowledged the positive impact of tutor feedback upon
learning and development. In addition, several students commented
favourably on the enthusiasm and energy of certain tutors, and a wish for
more opportunity to work together within the classroom setting: “More
class time”, “More time for simulation”, “More time for discussion”.
These responses indicate students’ view the MA as an important mech-
anism for gaining academic underpinning to underpin their experiential
learning within their work placement. It also shows the value students
place on social and professional support from their tutors and peers. This
concurs with Webber (2005) and Lapina et al. (2016) regarding the
importance of designing academic programmes that are relevant to the
workplace context, and Fox (2017) who emphasises the need for support
networks.
It was pleasing to see 64% of students reported a noticeable gain in
confidence to manage their own learning, typically:

I have gained confidence in (my) capabilities to study alone outside of class,

judge the right supporting reading materials, etc.

with several making reference to the realisation of the power of reflec-

tive practice:

I am more conscious of my reflective practice and I have started using self-­

assessment tools and journals to enhance my practice at work.

This aligns with the general ethos of WBL to develop students as active
learners (Billett and Choy 2014), as well as highlighting the importance
of critical reflection to facilitate experiential learning (Fowler and Tietze
1996).
The findings from the module evaluations show students are generally
positive about the academic component of the internship programme.
The evaluations also highlight some important themes which can be
explored in greater depth within the critical reflective learning logs. These
include the relationship between active learning and self-confidence
(Billett and Choy 2014), the interrelatedness of the academic programme

[email protected]
 Exploring the Power of High-Level Postgraduate International… 247

and the workplace (Richardson and Blakeney 1998; Fox 2017), the role
of support networks (Wall et al. 2016; Fox 2017) and finally the role of
critical reflection to support experiential learning (Fowler and Tietze
1996).

Critical Reflective Learning Logs

Building on these themes (Silverman 2006) nine students’ critical reflec-
tive learning logs were analysed to draw out their perceptions of their
internship experience.
All students stated they found their internship challenging and often,
at least initially, highly stressful: “when my line manager dropped this task
… my immediate instinct was to feel overwhelmed” (student 1); “when I
first [started] my placement, the behaviours I demonstrated were inconsistent
and fell into two extremes such as being self-assured and apprehensive or being
relaxed and tensed” (student 2); “since joining Mountbatten, I stepped out of
my comfort zone” (student 4). Part of this can be attributed to being placed
in a new and unfamiliar working context, however it is also clear students
struggled with balancing work commitments alongside studying full-­
time: “the Mountbatten year was a stressful one and having to combine aca-
demic studies with a full time employment could be very demanding” (student
2); “I was mentally exhausted from the stress of working full time in addition
to being a full time student” (student 9).
It is also clear the international context presented students with spe-
cific challenges including: “language barriers and varying time zones”
­(student 1); “I began to miss home, the food I loved, people I enjoyed and
culture I was used to” (student 2). Whilst these mirror concerns raised by
Fox (2017) regarding the potentially isolating nature of international
placements, it was also apparent many students thrived on meeting new
people and submerging themselves in new cultures: “I moved across an
ocean and started a new job in an unfamiliar professional industry, pursued
higher education … and travelled to a dozen cities in half a dozen countries”
(student 7); “living with people from various cultures, working with bril-
liant professionals has been eye-opening” (student 9).

[email protected]
248 P. Weston et al.

Almost without exception, students described how many of their ini-

tial feelings of stress and discomfort were replaced with more positive
emotions which resulted in them having a more open, ‘can do’ attitude to
their work and academic studies: “The more I got involved … the more
energised I felt and the more my capacity grew” (student 1); “The initial
culture shock I experienced preceded my adaptation to a new environment”
(student 2). As a result, students have developed more confidence and
also more curiosity to step outside their comfort zone and embrace new
challenges (Dawson 2013).
Whilst the workplace may provide the context, students clearly view
their learning in a holistic way with emphasis on both the workplace and
the academic programme: “the work exposure, academic courses and pro-
gramme as a whole has provided me with the tools needed to solve real life
problems” (student 2); “a key learning brought about through the combina-
tion of my Mountbatten traineeship and the deep learning facilitated through
the MA coursework has been harnessing a much stronger sense of my own
strengths and weaknesses” (student 5); “I have been exposed to new concepts,
new information and new ways of conducting business … Not only has this
come from the workplace, but also in the classroom” (student 9). The impor-
tance students place on the classroom as well as the workplace to support
their experiential learning highlights why care is required when designing
internship programmes (Fowler and Tietze 1996; Meakin and Wall
2013).
Students’ proactivity and their openness to new challenges appears to
have been recognised by their host companies as several describe how and
why they were given increased responsibility during their placement: “My
managers always delegate that task to me as they know I am good at
­approaching and solving problems” (student 4); “I am now the one having to
schedule, plan for and lead” (student 5). These comments indicate both
students and host companies can benefit immensely from international
internships (ICEF Monitor 2013) and there is real potential that they can
lead to permanent employment (Eaton and Kleshinski 2014): “I was
approached by the MD … and offered a new role with larger responsibilities
and management opportunities. If done well, the job would be mine on a
full-time basis” (student 9).

[email protected]
 Exploring the Power of High-Level Postgraduate International… 249

Students’ self-confidence and their willingness to take on new respon-

sibilities and challenges appear to be highly influenced by how they are
viewed by their managers and work colleagues (Drysdale et al. 2016): “I
began to see value in the fact that my manager left the autonomy of the task
to me” (student 1). “Achievements … [were] brought to my attention at my
end of year review by my manager” (student 3). “I even received an e-mail
from my department head and the chief [professional] appreciating my work.
It was the most fulfilling feeling!” (student 8). This creates a virtuous circle
where both the student and their host company benefits (Dawson 2013):
“my managers were very pleased … my innovation was adopted” (student 7).
As such, international internships as a means for developing an individu-
al’s self-efficacy and self-worth comes through as an extraordinarily pow-
erful theme (Drysdale et al. 2016).
Another crucial theme is the importance students place on having a
strong professional and social support network around them: “My inter-
actions with [individuals] infused me with the energy I needed to perform my
other roles” (student 1); “friendship and connections made … is valuable for
my personal development” (student 4), “it was not just about the job it was
also about the people I have met” (student 9). For many, their interactions
with others, and the support they gained from this, has been a key factor
in helping them develop their resilience in order to thrive in a challenging
and potentially stressful environment (Richardson and Blakeney 1998):
“The effectiveness and support of the team at work is largely what made this
year so rewarding for me” (student 6); “embracing new tasks, building
dynamic relationships and being open to new cultural experiences are some of
the vital learning curves I have encountered” (student 1). The emphasis
students place on their support network in enabling them to take full
advantage of their internship highlights why academic providers and
placement providers need to collaborate with one another to ensure this
is in place (Mello 2006; Fox 2017).
Finally, all the critical reflective learning logs emphasised the role and
importance of reflection in helping students assess and evaluate their
learning experience whilst on the internship, and in developing them as
active learners (Billett and Choy 2014): “[the] more I critically reflect on
these skills/attributes, the more they become embedded in me, helping me
thrive” (student 1); “My reflections and application of theory … have helped

[email protected]
250 P. Weston et al.

me better understand my values and motivations” (student 7). Whilst the

emphasis on the value of critical reflection of the internship experience is
not surprising given the focus of the assessment, what is interesting is
students’ assertions they intend to use critical reflection as part of their
ongoing self-development: “The ability to reflect my feelings and experience
… [has] contributed to the move to another stage of my career change jour-
ney” (student 4). This perhaps more than anything else highlights the true
power of WBL as part of lifelong learning, particularly when undertaken
as part of an international internship.

Conclusion
The findings from this limited study support the contention that interna-
tional internships can be a very powerful mechanism for experiential
learning, personal growth and of enabling WBL for the purposes of HE
credit.
Overall, the Mountbatten Institute internship experience—whilst
clearly challenging—appears to be extremely rewarding, helping students
develop their self-worth and self-esteem both professionally and person-
ally. Whilst some of this comes from within, much of it is derived from
external loci with several references to the impact of positive feedback
from managers, achievements gained from the academic programme and
good interactions with tutors and peers.
Although no data could be obtained directly, it is clear from students’
learning logs that their host companies also benefited from the internship
programme; with several accounts of students taking on increased respon-
sibility such as running projects and introducing new processes and
­procedures. This illustrates how potentially valuable international intern-
ship programmes are for both students and host companies, not just in
terms of future recruitment but also in terms of adapting and growing.
Further study on the destination of graduates would highlight the longi-
tudinal impact of this experience on future employability in the interna-
tional context.
The importance of emotional, social support networks is crucial with
many students focusing on friendships with fellow internees and work

[email protected]
 Exploring the Power of High-Level Postgraduate International… 251

colleagues, the need for support and approval from their line managers
and tutors as well as the general thrill of meeting and making new friends.
Through taught workshops and shared accommodation, in addition to
the work placement, the Mountbatten Institute facilitates students in
developing these vital support networks. As such it is extremely effective
in enabling students to develop resilience strategies to not only cope, but
excel, with respect to challenges they face working whilst studying full
time.
The value students attribute to the process of critical reflection to sup-
port their learning throughout their internship appears to be immense.
This is fundamental as it underpins the ethos of all forms of WBL and is
an integral part of almost all WBL assessments. The process of reflection
enables students to recognise not only how to apply and embed academic
learning to inform working practice and vice versa, but also to develop a
greater self-awareness of their strengths and self-worth. This in turn helps
embolden their relationships with others, particularly those which occur
in a professional context. As such, the process of reflection is pivotal in
helping students develop their self-confidence, team-working abilities
and social networks which are so crucial to a positive learning experience.
The effect of students’ cultural differences on this type of learning would
be worthy of further investigation.
Finally, and perhaps most interestingly, students perceive the value of
critical reflection not only in terms of the internship experience itself, but
also in the way it will influence their future career strategies and longer-­
term professional development. As such, developing the ability to criti-
cally reflect appears, for these internship students at least, to be a capability
that has the potential to be genuinely life changing.

References
Altbach, P. G. (2002). Perspectives on internationalizing higher education.
International Higher Education, 27(Spring), 6–8.
Altbach, P. G., & Knight, J. (2007). The internationalization of higher educa-
tion: Motivations and realities. Journal of Studies in International Education,
11(3–4), 290–305.

[email protected]
252 P. Weston et al.

Ayoubi, R. M., & Massoud, H. K. (2007). The strategy of internationalization

in universities: A quantitative evaluation of the intent and implementation in
UK universities. International Journal of Educational Management, 21(4),
329–349.
Billett, S., & Choy, S. (2014). Integrating professional learning experiences
across university and practice settings. In S. Billett, C. Harteis, & H. Gruber
(Eds.), International handbook of research in professional and practice-based
learning (1st ed., Vol. 18, pp. 485–512). Dordrecht: Springer.
Boud, D., & Solomon, N. (Eds.). (2001). Work-based learning: A new higher
education? Open University Press.
Cromm, P., & Kadow, K. (2014). Internships abroad: A career booster for
German students. A I B Insights, 14(4), 10.
Dawson, J. (2013). International exposure’. CMA Magazine, 87(5), 33–36.
Drysdale, M. T. B., McBeath, M. L., Johansson, K., Dressler, S., & Zaitseva, E.
(2016). Psychological attributes and work-integrated learning: An interna-
tional study. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 6(1), 20–34.
Eaton, T. V., & Kleshinski, A. S. (2014). Improving undergraduate learning for
employability through international exposure. American Journal of Business
Education, 7(1), 49.
Feldmann, L. (2016). Considerations in the design of WBL settings to enhance
students’ employability. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning,
6(2), 131–145.
Fowler, G., & Tietze, S. (1996). A competence approach to the assessment of
student placements. Education + Training, 38(1), 30–36.
Fox, M. (2017). Student isolation: The experience of distance on an interna-
tional field placement. Social Work Education, 36(5), 508–513.
Garnett, J. (2007). Challenging the structural capital of the university to sup-
port work-based learning. In Work-based learning futures (pp. 21–27). Bolton:
University Vocational Awards Council.
Garnett, J. (2016). Work-based learning: A critical challenge to the subject dis-
cipline structures and practices of higher education. Higher Education, Skills
and Work-Based Learning, 6(3), 305–314.
Garnett, J., & Workman, B. (2009). The development and implementation of
work based learning at Middlesex University. In J. Garnett, C. Costley, &
B. Workman (Eds.), Work based learning: Journeys to the core of higher educa-
tion (Vol. 1, pp. 2–14). Middlesex: Middlesex University Press.
Gault, J., Redington, J., & Schlager, T. (2000). Undergraduate business intern-
ships and career success: Are they related? Journal of Marketing Education,
22(1), 45–53.

[email protected]
 Exploring the Power of High-Level Postgraduate International… 253

ICEF Monitor. (2013). International internships are increasingly valued by employ-

ers. Retrieved August 3, 2018, from http://monitor.icef.com/2013/04/­
international-internships-are-increasingly-valued-by-employers/
Lang, R., & McNaught, K. (2013). Reflective practice in a capstone business
internship subject. Journal of International Education in Business, 6(1), 7.
Lapina, I., Roga, R., & Müürsepp, P. (2016). Quality of higher education:
International students’ satisfaction and learning experience. International
Journal of Quality and Service Sciences, 8(3), 263.
Lester, S., & Costley, C. (2010). Work-based learning at higher education level:
Value, practice and critique. Studies in Higher Education, 35(5), 561–575.
Major, D. (2002). A more holistic form of higher education: The real potential
of work based learning. The Journal of Widening Participation and Lifelong
Learning, 4(3), 12.
Meakin, D., & Wall, T. (2013). Co-delivered work based learning: Contested
ownership and responsibility. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based
Learning, 3(1), 73–81.
Mello, J. A. (2006). Enhancing the international business curriculum through
Partnership with the United States Department of Commerce: The “E”
award internship program’. Journal of Management Education, 30(5),
690–699.
Moghaddam, J. M. (2011). Perceived effectiveness of business internships:
Student expectations, experiences, and personality traits. International Journal
of Management, 28(4), 287.
Mountbatten Institute. (2016). Information about Mountbatten Institute.
Mountbatten Institute—Our Organisation [web page]. Retrieved April 10,
2016, from http://www.mountbatten.org/about-us
Nixon, I. (2008). Work-based learning: Impact study. York: Academy, H. E.
Olsen, P. E. (2015). Use of positive psychology to enhance the undergraduate
business internship experience. Journal of the Academy of Business Education,
16, 156.
Perrin, D., Weston, P., Thompson, P. A., & Brodie, P. (2010). Facilitating
employer engagement through negotiated work based learning: A case study from
the University of Chester. University of Chester.
Richardson, S., & Blakeney, C. (1998). The undergraduate placement system:
An empirical study. Accounting Education, 7(2), 101–121.
Rigsby, J. T., Addy, N., Herring, C., & Polledo, D. (2013). An examination of
internships and job opportunities. Journal of Applied Business Research, 29(4),
1131–1143.

[email protected]
254 P. Weston et al.

Shooshtari, N. H., & Manuel, T. A. (2014). Curriculum internationalization at

AACSB schools: Immersive experiences, student placement, and assessment.
Journal of Teaching in International Business, 25(2), 134–156.
Silverman, D. (2006). Interpreting qualitative data (3rd ed.). London: Sage
Publications Ltd.
Standley, H. J. (2015). International mobility placements enable students and
staff in higher education to enhance transversal and employability-related
skills. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 362(19), 1–5.
Stephenson, J. (1998). The concept of capability and its importance in Higher
Education. In J. Stephenson & M. Yorke (Eds.), Capability and quality in
higher education. London: Stylus Publishing, Inc.
Stephenson, J., & Weil, S. W. (Eds.). (1992). Quality in learning: A capability
approach in higher education. London: Kogan Page.
Talbot, J. (2017). Curriculum design for the post-industrial society: The facilita-
tion of individually negotiated higher education in work based learning shell
frameworks in the United Kingdom. In R. V. Nata (Ed.), Progress in educa-
tion (Vol. 5, pp. 127–160). New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Talbot, J., Perrin, D., & Meakin, D. (2014). Risk management and cultural
virtue in HE co-delivery arrangements. Quality Assurance in Education,
22(2), 109–124.
UKCISA. (2017). International student statistics: UK higher education. Retrieved
August 8, 2017, from https://institutions.ukcisa.org.uk/Info-for-universities-
colleges--schools/Policy-research--statistics/Research--statistics/
International-students-in-UK-HE/#Students-studying-wholly-overseas-for-
a-UK-qualification
Wall, T., Tran, L. T., & Soejatminah, S. (2016). Inequalities and agencies in
workplace learning experiences: International student perspectives. Vocations
and Learning, 10(2), 141–156.
Webber, R. (2005). Integrating work-based and academic learning in interna-
tional and cross-cultural settings. Journal of Education and Work, 18(4),
473–487.

[email protected]
 14
Developing Global Citizenship:
Co-creating Employability Attributes
in an International Community
of Practice
N. Radclyffe-Thomas, A. Peirson-Smith, A. Roncha,
A. Lacouture, and A. Huang

Introduction
According to the UK’s Higher Education Academy (HEA) increasing pres-
sure to meet multiple stakeholder expectations is driving the employability
agenda and has prioritised the integration of employability skills and attri-
butes for all higher education providers (HEA 2016). The notion of
enhancing graduates’ employability is of course not a new one, but in the

N. Radclyffe-Thomas (*) • A. Roncha

University of the Arts, London, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Peirson-Smith
City University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
A. Lacouture
RMIT, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
A. Huang
LASALLE College of the Arts, Singapore, Singapore

© The Author(s) 2018 255

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5_14

[email protected]
256 N. Radclyffe-Thomas et al.

‘Embedding Employability Framework’ the HEA recognise the signifi-

cance of graduate employability extends beyond prospective students and
employers to include the ‘supportive others’: families, communities and
industries. Furthermore, national and international institutional employ-
ability rankings impact both reputation and recruitment. Stakeholders
have become more vocal in their calls that universities evidence how their
curricula, pedagogies and additional activities enable graduates to show-
case specific ‘knowledge, skills, experiences, behaviours, attributes, achieve-
ments and attitudes’ to ‘make successful transitions and contributions
benefitting them, the economy and their communities’ (HEA 2016, p. 2).
Equally, talent is identified as the driver of the Cultural and Creative
Industries (CCIs) and the university sector has been recognised as a seed-
bed of creative talent. In his book, ‘The Rise of the Creative Class’ Florida
(2002) suggested that three ‘Ts’ (technology, talent and tolerance) would
attract and develop creative talent thus driving local and regional eco-
nomic development in creative hubs. Universities have been cited as the
stimulus for the ‘spillover’ of the three ‘Ts’ given that the new urban-­
based, creative class, tend to be young, productive, entrepreneurial and
highly educated (Florida et al. 2006). One critique of contemporary
higher education is that a ‘vocationalist’ agenda focuses on workforce
needs rather than education for global citizenship (Arambewela 2010),
yet regardless of career path, the authors believe graduates need to be
well-connected, culturally intelligent, strong communicators, and capa-
ble of working effectively both autonomously and as part of a team.
This chapter discusses an example of a global classroom project that
provides tangible learning gain through simulating some of the complex-
ities of working in the modern creative industries. It demonstrates a com-
mitment to creating authentic experiential learning activities engendering
both professional and intercultural communication competences. By
designing a Collaborative Online International Learning project, with
multiple touchpoints between remotely situated students, tutors aimed
to create ‘Personalised Learning Environments’ for students reflecting
lived experiences and creating multiple online learner communities
(McLoughlin and Lee 2010, p. 29). Students from University of the Arts
London (UAL) work collaboratively with peers studying in Asia at three
partner institutions: City University Hong Kong, LASALLE College of
the Arts Singapore and RMIT Vietnam. Students support each other’s

[email protected]
 Developing Global Citizenship: Co-creating Employability… 257

development through a private Facebook group adopting multiple roles

as researcher, advisor and expert reviewer and co-create learning out-
comes which facilitates the development of attributes and capabilities
required by the future creative industries.
A detailed case describes and evaluates this flexible informal collabora-
tion which adopts a blended learning approach (delivery combining
classroom and online learning) and has established a ‘community of prac-
tice’, (an informal learning group organised around a common interest)
(Wenger 1998), with over 450 students internationally. The role of higher
education as a boundary spanner between cultures is critical (Byram and
Fleming 1998) and the impact of this project on teaching and learning
was monitored and analysed using evaluative individual and team-based
student feedback and interviews with individual students. To further sup-
port the discussion, the UAL employability initiative the Creative
Attributes Framework will be introduced.

 ackground: International Industry Context

B
and the Complexities of Working
in the Modern Creative Industries
The World Economic Forum reports that although the employment and
environmental implications of the Fourth Industrial Revolution are
unpredictable, cross-sector partnerships are likely to be necessary to meet
the challenges of “global instability and economic transformation”; these
partnerships will require “new ways of working together” (Albrectsen
2017, p. 31). The twenty-first century business environment is in flux
creating ‘new market ecosystems’ (Denning 2014); established divisions
between businesses and their competitors are being replaced by non-­
traditional, collaborative working practices (OECD 2013). Companies
have become increasingly lean due to rapid technological advancements
and globalisation, and the established working practices of creative
­industries have been adopted more widely as innovative businesses move
towards open forms of innovation (Chesbrough 2003; Mathe 2015).
CCIs represent not only ‘soft’ cultural power but also a substantial con-
tribution to national economies (DCMS 2016). Creative industry jobs

[email protected]
258 N. Radclyffe-Thomas et al.

entail economic and cultural creativity and innovation concerning “forms

of cultural production and consumption that have at their core a symbolic
or expressive element” (UNESCO 2013, p. 20). Assuring the future of
the creative sector in any geographic or cultural context is predicated on
an ability to provide the future workforce with the relevant knowledge
and skill-set and in the post-industrial knowledge economy universities
are reframing what a career in the creative industries is or could be.
Concurrently, globalisation and digital technologies have transformed
business practices and require graduates to have the resources and resil-
ience to manage extended supply chains and successfully work remotely
with colleagues who could be situated almost anywhere in the world.
Collaboration has become key to foster innovation facilitating richness of
perspectives, better approaches to problem solving, knowledge and ideas
exchange, and creativity is increasingly integrated into the curriculum at
all levels and across geographic regions (Radclyffe-Thomas 2015).
The World Economic Forum (2015) identified 16 skills for school stu-
dents; skills that should be further enhanced in higher education. Creative
industries undergraduates require foundational literacies and core domain
skills and additionally need to develop competencies and character quali-
ties to thrive in increasingly connected work environments and tackle
complex problems that require multi-disciplinary solutions. Competencies
include: critical thinking and problem-solving, creativity, communica-
tion and collaboration; and character qualities include: curiosity, initia-
tive, persistence/grit, adaptability, leadership and social and cultural
awareness. Creative Industries graduates should adopt a ‘glocal’ mindset
adopting global best practices meaningful to their own region to address
localised issues, values, and preferences as well as being confident in creat-
ing innovative local work for regional and global markets.

 eveloping Collaborative Skills for Future

D
Employability and Sustainable Development
Understanding how CCIs use collaboration to stimulate innovation has
prompted a whole new employability skillset. Equipping students with
capabilities to develop their personal and professional networks and

[email protected]
 Developing Global Citizenship: Co-creating Employability… 259

establish open forms of communication is a key learning gain. Students’

prior experiences of networking and online communities mean they are
often accustomed to building knowledge collaboratively (Ulbrich et al.
2011). Hence teachers can design curricula which demonstrate and
enhance digital literacies; furthermore, social media networking is an
ideal way to foster communities of practice which are shown to improve
student self-efficacy (Junco 2012; Morley 2014; Radclyffe-Thomas
2012). Some of the benefits of building collaborative networks and
enhancing these skills amongst students include: knowledge and experi-
ence acquisition, competitiveness, possibility to differentiate themselves
from other peers and the ability to build long-term relationships that
provide an added value regarding employability. Several features of mod-
ern CCI working practices are also evident in students’ habitus; social
media can empower students to be active co-producers of knowledge and
for learning to become a “participatory and social” process “supportive of
personal life goals and needs” (McLoughlin and Lee 2010, p. 31).

 ase Study: The International Fashion Panel

C
Global Classroom
In this connected and mobile society both learners and teachers are
increasingly involved in complex relationships and networks, through
information exchange and knowledge sharing (Rheingold 2002). The
global classroom project, (the ‘International Fashion Panel’), was initi-
ated between partner colleges to mirror collaborative knowledge building
and exchange evident in the CCIs. Staff in Higher Education institutions
based in the UK and Asia created a community of practice hosted in a
private Facebook group that supports learning and builds community
(Morley 2014) in a blended model. To simulate the culture of work based
learning tutors set separate but aligned assignment briefs which required
students to co-create learning with peers across the globe.
The initiative aimed to create an effective learning environment and
tested out a range of assumptions about the use of virtual platforms and
blended learning in attaining learning and employability outcomes.

[email protected]
260 N. Radclyffe-Thomas et al.

Following previous work on the educational affordances provided by the

application of this type of technology in educational settings, Dickey
(2003) suggests that educational affordances of virtual worlds enhance
collective team based communication skills. Others have suggested that
individual learning is also a key by-product of this process (Scardamalia
2002).
Internationalising the curriculum through collaborative international
learning can expose students to alternative learning and cultural environ-
ments and enhance their intercultural empathy but only if students com-
mit to this outcome (Arambewela 2010; Caruana 2010). Initially run
between London and Hong Kong, and subsequently expanding to
include Singapore and Vietnam, the global classroom grows students’
professional networks and allows personalisation of the learning experi-
ence as students act as experts in their own domain.

The International Fashion Panel Partners

The International Fashion Panel was initially conceived as a partnership

between students at UAL’s London College of Fashion (LCF) and City
University Hong Kong. Meeting at an international popular culture con-
ference the course tutors discovered a shared interest in pedagogic uses of
social media and cross-cultural education (Radclyffe-Thomas et al. 2016).
Working in discipline areas that include international marketing we
wanted a way to bring our students in London and Hong Kong together
to share their experiences of international fashion brand marketing com-
munications, conceiving of a global classroom that could provide a shared
space to analyse, research and co-create knowledge. The students partici-
pating in the global classroom are connected by a shared interest in com-
munications but are not necessarily from the same discipline or year
groups; for example, the first iteration of the global classroom connected
first year LCF BA (Hons) Fashion Design and Marketing students with
higher year-groups at City University Hong Kong taking either a Popular
Culture or Advertising course. The partnership has extended to include
students in Singapore and Vietnam with each iteration of the collabora-
tion adding to the pool of expertise and industry network so now 450

[email protected]
 Developing Global Citizenship: Co-creating Employability… 261

students currently comprising the Panel. The authors were intrigued to

discover how cultural factors might affect the collaboration, and saw such
interdisciplinarity as adding further value in simulating industry work
experiences where creative professionals are required to collaborate both
internationally and across job roles. The local industry context and brief
institutional profile of each partner is introduced below.

L ondon College of Fashion, University of the Arts

London, United Kingdom

The UK’s CCIs have become an integral marker of differentiation for

‘Brand Britain’ competing in the global economy (CIF 2014) estimated
to contribute £10m per hour to the Economy (UK.gov 2016). London is
the UK’s creative hub providing 40% of all creative industry jobs, supple-
mented by nearly 50 ‘creative clusters’ across the UK (Winston 2016a).
Education is key to the UK’s creative economy, with its distinctive art
and design pedagogies fostering creativity, problem-based learning and
innovation (Radclyffe-Thomas 2015) and the significance of the CCIs
has been further highlighted in post-EU-referendum lobbying of the gov-
ernment to support creative education including exchange programmes
(Winston 2016b).
UAL is the largest art and design institution in Europe and its alumni
practice their diverse crafts internationally and across disciplines ranging
from fine arts to management. UAL’s 2015–2022 Strategic Plan entitled
‘Transformative Education for a Creative World’ specifically highlights
its aspiration to be a global university through communication and col-
laboration. In 2016 UAL launched its Creative Attributes Framework
(UAL n.d.) to articulate the centrality of employability and enterprise to
a creative education. Graduates of UAL’s Fashion Business School join an
industry that requires facility with working locally and internationally
and across disciplines with colleagues in design, operations, finance and
promotions. The International Fashion Panel has become an integral part
of the year one experience for the BA (Hons) Fashion Marketing with an
intake of approximately 100 students.

[email protected]
262 N. Radclyffe-Thomas et al.

City University Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Hong Kong’s recent secondary school curriculum liberalisation intro-

duced more creative subjects to foster more fully-rounded citizens
(Peirson-Smith et al. 2014). In line with global trends the CCIs in Hong
Kong are seen by policymakers, opinion formers and educators (Lau
2015) as an engine of economic growth and future prosperity. Asia Pacific
is the fastest growing CCI market generating US$743bn of revenues
(33% of global CCI sales) and 12.7m jobs (43% of CCI jobs worldwide)
(Santiago 2015). Hong Kong has over 39,200 CCI-related establish-
ments, representing around 5% of Hong Kongs GDP (HKSAR 2016a)
and employing around 200,000 practitioners. Hong Kong has actively
branded itself as a creative city and creative hub in the Asian region in
recognition of the increasing relevance of the ‘knowledge economy’ as a
driver of employment and prosperity (HKSAR 2016b).
City University Hong Kong’s guiding principles and goals highlight
personal career development, innovation, creativity and global outreach.
Its Strategic Plan 2015–2020 includes aspirations for internationalisation
and global partnerships. City University’s Discovery Enriched Curriculum
(DEC) aims to prepare globally aware, self-driven, technically competent
and creative young professionals and enhance global and flexible learning
through digital pedagogies. The International Fashion Panel students
come from a range of disciplines taking optional Media Communication
or Advertising courses in the School of English, class sizes are approxi-
mately 40 students and in different years either one or two classes have
joined the International Fashion Panel.

LASALLE College of the Arts, Singapore

Singapore’s Creative Industries Development Strategy (CIDS) was

launched in 2003 to develop a ‘vibrant and sustainable creative cluster to
propel the growth of Singapore’s Creative Economy’ (WCI 2002, p. v).
The strategy saw significant infrastructure investments and efforts to
embed arts, design and media into mainstream education. Singapore’s
small domestic market requires creative enterprises to “adopt a global

[email protected]
 Developing Global Citizenship: Co-creating Employability… 263

mindset” (p. 7) and “an export-driven approach” (p. iv) to drive sustain-
able growth. A challenge for Singapore’s creative industries, particularly
in fashion, is to move beyond its shopping destination image and increase
international recognition for its domestic fashion industry.
LASALLE College of the Arts Singapore is a practice-led industry
focused art school. LASALLE’s alumni are employed throughout
Singapore’s creative industries and LASALLE’s mission statement, ‘To
nurture enterprising and employable graduates who will become cultural
influencers and leaders’ places employability as a key focus but also alludes
to the hope for graduates to be more than just workers. The BA (Hons)
Fashion Media & Industries programme at LASALLE is a three-year pro-
gramme focusing on the business side of the fashion industry and fashion
business environment that is increasingly global and digital. Approximately
50 students joined the International Fashion Panel in 2015–16.

RMIT Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Since adopting ‘doi moi’ (economic renovation) in the late 1980s

Vietnam’s economic and political reforms have raised income levels and
developed its position as an international trade partner (World Bank
n.d.). Vietnam’s 2011–2020 Socio-Economic Development Strategy
(SEDS) drives investment in innovative business and start-ups e.g. a
$45m start-up fund in the southern economic hub of Ho Chi Minh City
(Heles 2016). Growing consumer spending is ‘spurring the demand for
greater choice in products, brands, and product categories’ (Deloitte
2014); the fashion industry is a significant contributor to the economy
likely to extend from a manufacturing base into retail. CCI employment
has typically been perceived as riskier due to lower wages and job instabil-
ity, however, Vietnamese students and their parents are increasingly see-
ing the CCIs as a viable career.
RMIT is one of the world’s most globalised institutions; its Ho Chi
Minh City campus is the world’s largest off-shore campus with goals to
promote innovation and nurture creativity locally and internationally.
The ability to work globally is a key attribute required of Vietnamese
fashion business graduates who aspire to work in leadership roles in global

[email protected]
264 N. Radclyffe-Thomas et al.

fashion retail as well as promoting the burgeoning local fashion industry.

RMIT Vietnam Fashion Business students are competitive graduates
with high rates of employment in the local fashion industry, notably
because students are bilingual with English being the language of instruc-
tion. A class of 11 students from the BA Fashion (Merchandise
Management) joined the International Fashion Panel in 2016–17.

Learning Activities
This collaborative project was designed to internationalise the curricu-
lum, to increase students’ agency undertaking research, and to showcase
their individual cultural capital. For this type of collaboration to have
authentic value it was aligned to assessment tasks within specific units,
and an integral part of planning was to map curriculum across partner
institutions and find commonality. Having identified marketing com-
munications as a common subject area, tutors deliberately designed
assessments that required students to analyse both their local and interna-
tional creative industry context. Students in each location worked on
their own assignments relating to international fashion business practices
e.g. the London-based students were tasked with analysing a UK fashion
brand and proposing a brand extension to be launched in one of the
partner institution’s locations: Hong Kong, Singapore or Vietnam requir-
ing research into retail practices, consumer behaviour and the marketing
landscape in the UK and in Asia.
The global classroom forms part of a blended learning approach and is
supplementary to regular lectures, seminars and tutorials of each partner.
It was decided to host the global classroom in a private Facebook group
due to the facility of the platform to share text and visual data, to curate
online communications and to avoid institutional firewalls. In planning
the interactions tutors identify touchpoints across the project that take
place during formal teaching time and include:

• Discussion: e.g. tutors posted questions such as ‘what is global fashion?’

for students to respond to
• Market analysis: commenting on fashion branding examples posted
into the group by staff

[email protected]
 Developing Global Citizenship: Co-creating Employability… 265

• Information sharing: photos of local retail design concepts posted by

students
• Peer review: critiquing students’ formative presentations posted by stu-
dents following a real-time formative presentation in their home
institution

Additional planned activities take place outside formal class sessions

and include:

• Introductions: students introduce themselves, their career aspirations

via a Facebook post
• Market research: students post surveys to collect data on the target mar-
ket and consumer behaviour

Initially tutors limited online activity to a few seminar activities that

could be shared via the Facebook group and delivered asynchronously.
Subsequently we have seen the value of delivering more content through
the group as students’ familiarity with the Facebook platform as an ad
hoc communication platform (Selwyn 2007) enables cross-group inter-
action to develop even within one institution. One activity uses a series
of brand-based visual resources with prompts for students to discuss in
groups and post a summary of their discussion; the nature of Facebook
means that comments are collated and visible to all. Additional activities
contribute to each other’s knowledge base by sharing local knowledge on
retail, customer and marketing activities and this was an area which
increased students’ self-efficacy as they identified themselves as subject-­
knowledge experts. In addition, this type of boundary-spanning activity
(Tsui and Law 2007) closely aligns with professional practice e.g. global
client-based consultancy in the creative industries where local knowledge
is increasingly valuable and sourced from cultural informants on the
ground. The value inherent in sharing knowledge and co-creating cre-
ative outputs was clearly demonstrated through students posting ques-
tionnaires into the group space to inform their own projects. Additionally,
students in each location critiqued the other’s formative projects offering
local expertise and in turn experienced diverse approaches to similar cre-
ative industry projects.

[email protected]
266 N. Radclyffe-Thomas et al.

Although for the majority of students’ participation was not manda-

tory, participation rates were very high with almost all students joining
the group and only minor differential engagement from the partners.
Class-based activities were mostly facilitated in small groups with one
student acting as scribe and posting their group-generated responses or
resources. Students in Hong Kong are obliged to comment on their par-
ticipation as part of their assignment which undoubtedly encourages vis-
ible participation. Students in Singapore have been the most reluctant to
engage; nearly half the LASALLE group did not have Facebook accounts
at the outset and this may have been a factor, although our review showed
that students were happy to contribute to tasks that were directly assessed
but less so otherwise. Students in London have generally shown a high
level of participation although feedback shows that they have not always
connected the activities directly to their assessment tasks; this is most
evident with more general sector discussions rather that the targeted
activities. The group from RMIT Vietnam was small but showed a high
level of engagement with peer review tasks and expressed great interest in
the London students’ proposals for bringing UK brands to Ho Chi Minh
City.

Project Evaluation
In terms of the benefits of the course experience, the private Facebook
group was a useful communication platform for all students. While the
use of Facebook as a pedagogic third space (Bhabha 1994) could be
regarded as the misappropriation of social media for formal purposes,
student responses suggested that this was a positive and purposeful expe-
rience for them.

… Interactive and interesting … perfect for meeting students from London,

Singapore and Vietnam. … we were allowed to share and see a lot of informa-
tion about the fashion industry… this Facebook platform and the interna-
tional interaction… allowed such a fruitful engagement with fascinating
insights to the fashion industry. (Hong Kong student)

[email protected]
 Developing Global Citizenship: Co-creating Employability… 267

As an emerging player in the international fashion industry RMIT

Vietnam students were proud to ‘represent’ their country and were glad
to be able to exchange knowledge about their local fashion environ-
ment in an international professional environment. Through the pro-
cess of peer exchange they were able to easily assimilate knowledge,
took the peer review very seriously and exercised international aca-
demic standards, whilst becoming more aware of the challenges of
working across time zones, and cultural differences in terms of com-
munication and exposure. Amongst all the students the common con-
sensus appears to suggest that this application of digital literacy was a
useful way of sharing ideas and knowledge multi-modally and encour-
aged active, transactional communication and useful feedback on work
projects such as the moodboard representing their chosen fashion
brand for analysis:

I was delighted to have an exchange of thoughts… we were really surprised to

have received so many feedback and comments, either telling us how to work
better for the mood board or complimenting on it. It was really encouraging.
(Hong Kong student)

I learned a lot about communicating with other people, it’s great that I can just
open my Facebook page and find someone from the group with the same interest
from a different country. I also learned about Hong Kong in general and I got
to know many new brands. It is nice to see so many different moodboards and
visuals, it is easy to get tips from the group…. (London student)

Many students observed that they acquired new, marketable skills

based on the interaction between the students from different geographic
locations and studying different majors. Students recognised that com-
municating online in the context of a borderless classroom was very use-
ful in preparing them for their future workplace, especially in the
East-West context of Hong Kong where many creative industry work-
places comprise international teams who need to communicate using
English as the lingua franca:

[email protected]
268 N. Radclyffe-Thomas et al.

I enjoyed working as a team in this Facebook group as I could understand more

about people’s views towards certain topics of fashion from their own cultural
perspectives and this certainly broadened my horizons and has equipped me
with a flexible mindset and the confidence to use technology to communicate
with people in a common language from other parts of the world… which is
really helpful for my future creative career. (Hong Kong student)

Participants noted the value to their own lives and future careers—
both within the fashion industry or the wider CCI sectors:

Participating in this very resourceful fashion panel has allowed me to dig deep
into the professional and sophisticated sides of the fashion world-marketing,
brand extension, advertising and promotions, etc. (Hong Kong student)

I think that it is really interesting and different to be able to interact with stu-
dents from other universities with similar interest… I am able to see different
perspective and their view of fashion as well as how they approach their work.
… students also get the opportunity to network… which could be of help… in
the future. (London student)

It was evident that students were acquiring an awareness of cultural

differences that heightened their understanding of how fashion brands
adapt when positioning themselves in global markets. They recognized
that cultural knowledge is specific to its place of origin, but general indus-
try knowledge can also be usefully applied to assist and inform when
managing brands in other markets:

It’s like being a part of this creative learning community and people from different
cultural backgrounds coming together to talk about the same topic. … it helped
understand the perspective of people from the countries we based our project on. I
also learnt so much about what people from other countries thought about my
own culture. It was a very helpful learning experience. (London student)

Some students noted cultural challenges of working internationally, how-

ever they also showed self-reflexivity aligned with industry experiences:

…The students in London were not always very familiar with the fashion
brands in Asia, making it harder for them to give us the critical responses that

[email protected]
 Developing Global Citizenship: Co-creating Employability… 269

we wanted sometimes. However, they were still very passionate to use what they
had learnt to answer our questions… And this is how we can test out and
modify our promotional ideas in other marketplaces when we are launching a
new brand or going onto a new market. (Hong Kong student)

Cultural and linguistic challenges were largely overcome as students

could spend time preparing responses which were typed into posts.
Additionally, when linguistic and semantic meanings failed then the
ubiquitous visual language could be used to convey shared meaning:

… Since we mainly communicated with students on Facebook the distance

between us was rather wide. But thanks to the universally understood emoticons
we could break the ice and understand them better and get to know them using
these useful non-verbal cues to analyse the brands and our respective takes on
these brands that were foreign and new to each side as it would be in the busi-
ness world. (Hong Kong student)

Faced with the need to problem solve by creating a brand for a global
launch, the students had to knowledge-build through community-­
knowledge creation to fulfil the project and core assignment brief. On one
level, individual team members questioned, researched, and worked with
their team members and their overseas student partners. This knowledge
was subsequently shared in the Facebook group and coalesced to build
community-knowledge in the form of their brand project and the brand
artefact itself as created in the multi-user virtual environment platform.
Here, student as ‘knower’ (Maton 2007) experiences a discursive shift
from traditional approaches to one where their subjective view and agency
becomes a legitimate part of knowledge enquiry through critical engage-
ment in an interpretative community (Miller and Peirson-Smith 2014).

 onclusion and Recommendations for Future

C
Practice
Working in emerging and global markets will require new levels of cul-
tural awareness, empathy and agency (Routledge 1996) that can be engen-
dered through more internationalised in-class and online cross-­cultural

[email protected]
270 N. Radclyffe-Thomas et al.

exchanges such as the International Fashion Panel experience. The

International Fashion Panel can be judged as a successful community of
practice allowing its members to meet and participate according to their
shared interests (Wenger et al. 2002). The affordances of Facebook tech-
nology for global pedagogical purposes, as tested out in this longitudinal
study, included enhanced communication competencies, greater intercul-
tural awareness, a sense of immersive reality, increased student engage-
ment and the professional benefits of being actively engaged in a
collaborative effort. The online interaction enabled generic information to
be shared and local knowledge to be imparted simulating creative work in
the increasing borderless real and virtual world.
Our review has resulted in several recommendations such as allowing
planning time to share curriculum, to identify an overall project lead and
key moderators/facilitators in each institution. Although one should
avoid being overly concerned where course disciplines and year-groups or
class-sizes are not identical it is important to establish shared teaching
philosophies, to identify common subjects, activities and key deliverables
and it is likely to increase engagement when student and staff participants
are briefed on the benefits and challenges of such a project. It is effica-
cious to and build in both formal and informal activities and find ways to
surface students’ skills and self-development e.g. through reflective writ-
ing and to debrief staff and students to inform plans.
Employability can be significantly enhanced through curriculum
alignment that develops relevant graduate knowledge, skills and attri-
butes (HEA 2016). Providing ‘real-life’ work practices in collaborating
with fashion business and international peers is offering learners a way to
be initiated into the competitive employment market environment, to
demonstrate their personal skills and attributes building on their self-­
confidence regarding individual creativity and cross-cultural communi-
cation. Studies of international educational collaborations have shown
success can be designed-in with a focus on shared understandings between
partners and about partnerships (Ayoubi and Massoud 2012). Yet, it is
important to recognise that inter-cultural empathy amongst students is
not engendered by merely ‘connecting up’ with culturally different oth-
ers. Rather, the inter-cultural interaction should be based on active
engagement—necessitating reflection, analysis whereby action and

[email protected]
 Developing Global Citizenship: Co-creating Employability… 271

extended and ‘deep’ encounters should be facilitated by educators (Byram

2008). Although the challenges of integrating professional competencies
into formal educational processes should not be underestimated (García-­
Peñalvo et al. 2013) the consequence of successful collaboration is the
ability to implement ideas and push boundaries in a way that would not
be possible for a single party.

Tribute for Anais Lacouture (1987–2017)

We are sad to inform readers that our friend and colleague Anais Lacouture
passed away in August 2017. Anais was a passionate educator and inspir-
ing teacher who relished the opportunity to showcase her students
through our international collaborative project. Although she was at the
early stages of her teaching career she had already gained a strong reputa-
tion as a dedicated, energetic and creative educator who practiced her
belief that education should be informed by life experience and self-­
development. Anais was a young, enthusiastic and fabulous woman and
an inspirational teacher and she will be much missed by all who knew
her.

References
Albrectsen, A. (2017). Why collaboration will be key to achieving the sustain-
able development goals. World Economic Forum. Retrieved June 10, 2017,
from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/01/realising-the-potential-of-
cross-sector-partnerships/
Arambewela, R. (2010). Student experience in the globalized higher education
market: Challenges and research imperatives. In F. Maringe & N. Foskett
(Eds.), Globalisation and internationalisation in higher education
(pp. 155–173). London: Continuum International Publishing Group.
Ayoubi, R. M., & Massoud, H. (2012). Is it because of partners or partnerships?
An investigation into the main obstacles of developing international partner-
ships in four UK universities. Educational Management, 26(4), 338–353.
Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The location of culture. New York: Routledge.

[email protected]
272 N. Radclyffe-Thomas et al.

Byram, M. (2008). From foreign language education to education for intercultural

citizenship: Essays and reflections (Vol. 17). Languages for Intercultural
Communication and Education. Clevendon: Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M., & Fleming, M. (Eds.). (1998). Language learning in intercultural
perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Caruana, V. (2010). Global citizenship for all: putting the ‘higher’ back into UK
higher education? In F. Maringe & N. Foskett (Eds.), Globalisation and inter-
nationalisation in higher education (pp. 51–64). London: Continuum
International Publishing Group.
Chesbrough, H. W. (2003). Open innovation: The new imperative for creating
and profiting from technology. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Creative Industries Federation. (2014). Creative industries federation. Retrieved
March 1, 2015, from http://www.creativeindustriesfederation.com/about/
Deloitte. (2014). Retail in Vietnam: Emerging market emerging growth. Retrieved
June 1, 2017, from https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ie/
Documents/ConsumerBusiness/2014-deloitte-ireland-retail-vietnam.pdf
Denning, S. (2014). Navigating the phase change to the creative economy.
Strategy & Leadership, 42(2), 3–11.
Department for Culture, Media and Sport. (2016). Creative industries economic
estimates. Retrieved April 5, 2017, from https://www.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/523024/Creative_Industries_
Economic_Estimates_January_2016_Updated_201605.pdf
Dickey, M. D. (2003). Teaching in 3D: Pedagogical affordances and constraints
of 3D virtual worlds for synchronous distance learning. Distance Education,
24(1), 105–122.
Florida, R. (2002). The rise of the creative class: And how it’s transforming work,
leisure, community and everyday life. New York: Perseus Book Group.
Florida, R., Gates, G., Knudsen, B., & Stolarick, K. (2006). The university and
the creative economy. Fairfax, VA; Pittsburgh, PA; and Los Angeles, CA: George
Mason University, Carnegie Mellon, UCLA. Retrieved June 10, 2016, from
http://creativeclass.com/rfcgdb/articles/University_andthe_Creative_
Economy.pdf
García-Peñalvo, F. J., Conde, M. Á., Johnson, M., & Alier, M. (2013).
Knowledge co-creation process based on informal learning competences tag-
ging and recognition. International Journal of Human Capital and Information
Technology Professionals, 4(4), 18–30.
HEA. (2016). ‘Embedding employability in higher education’ frameWORKS 02.
Higher Education Academy. Retrieved May 10, 2017, from https://www.
heacademy.ac.uk/individuals/strategic-priorities/employability

[email protected]
 Developing Global Citizenship: Co-creating Employability… 273

Heles, T. (2016). Ho Chi Minh City to establish $45m vehicle. Retrieved June 1,
2017, from http://globalgovernmentventuring.com/news/ho-chi-minh-city-
to-establish-45m-vehicle
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. (2016a). The culture and creative
industries in Hong Kong. Retrieved June 10, 2016, from https://www.­censtatd.
gov.hk/hkstat/sub/sp80.jsp?productCode=FA100120
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. (2016b). Creative industries.
Retrieved June 12, 2016, from https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/­
factsheets/docs/creative_industries.pdf
Junco, R. (2012). Too much face and not enough books: The relationship
between multiple indices of Facebook use and academic performance.
Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 187–198.
Lau, S. (2015, August 17). Push creative industries in Hong Kong to stay a
‘world city’. SCMP.com, Monday. Retrieved June 12, 2016, from http://www.
scmp.com/news/hong-kong/economy/article/1850072/push-creative-­
industries-hong-kong-stay-world-city-says
Mathe, H. (2015). Living innovation: Competing in the 21st century access econ-
omy. Singapore: World Scientific.
Maton, K. (2007). Knowledge-knower structures in intellectual and educational
fields. In F. Christie & J. Martin (Eds.), Language, knowledge and pedagogy:
Functional linguistic and sociological perspectives (pp. 87–108). London:
Continuum.
McLoughlin, C., & Lee, M. (2010). Personalised and self regulated learning in
the Web 2.0 era: International exemplars of innovative pedagogy using social
software. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(1), 28–43.
Miller, L., & Peirson-Smith, A. (2014). Football for all, organic living, and MK
culture: Teaching popular culture by turning theory into practice. In
P. Benson & A. Chik (Eds.), Popular culture, pedagogy and teacher education:
International perspectives (pp. 97–109). London: Routledge.
Morley, D. A. (2014). Supporting student nurses in practice with additional
online communication tools. Nurse Education in Practice, 14(1),1–7.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2013).
Interconnected economies: Benefiting from global value chains. Retrieved June 1,
2017, from https://www.oecd.org/sti/ind/interconnected-economies-GVCs-
synthesis.pdf
Peirson-Smith, A., Chik, A., & Miller, L. (2014). Teaching popular culture in a
second language university context. Pedagogies: An International Journal, 9,
250–267.

[email protected]
274 N. Radclyffe-Thomas et al.

Radclyffe-Thomas, N. (2012). Blogging is addictive! A qualitative case study on

the integration of blogs across a range of college courses. In C. Wankel &
P. Blessinger (Eds.), Increasing students engagement and retention using online
learning activities: Wikis, Blogs and Webquests, cutting-edge technologies in
higher education (pp. 75–107). Emerald.
Radclyffe-Thomas, N. (2015). Fashioning cross-cultural creativity: Investigating
the situated pedagogy of creativity. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the
Arts, 9(2), 152–160.
Radclyffe-Thomas, N., Peirson-Smith, A., Roncha, A., & Huang, A. (2016).
Creative cross-cultural connections: Facebook as a third space for interna-
tional collaborations. In P. Blessinger & B. Cozza (Eds.), University partner-
ships for academic programs and professional development (pp. 243–266).
Emerald.
Rheingold, H. (2002). Rethinking virtual communities. Developing a sense of
place. In Proceeding of the Richard A. Harvill Conference on Higher Education.
Routledge, P. (1996). The third space as critical engagement. Antipode, 8(4),
399–419.
Santiago, J. (2015). What is creativity worth to the world economy? World
Economic Forum. Retrieved May 10, 2016, from ­https://www.weforum.org/
agenda/2015/12/creative-industries-worth-world-economy/
Scardamalia, M. (2002). Collective cognitive responsibility for the advancement
of knowledge. In B. Smith (Ed.), Liberal education in a knowledge society
(pp. 67–98). Chicago: Open Court.
Selwyn, N. (2007). “Screw blackboard… do it on Facebook!”: An investigation of
students’ educational use of Facebook. Paper presented to the Poke 1.0 Facebook
social research symposium, University of London, 15 November 2007.
Tsui, A. B. M., & Law, D. Y. K. (2007). Learning as boundary crossing in
school-university partnership. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23,
1289–1301.
Uk.gov. (2016, January 26). Creative industries worth almost £10 million an
hour to economy. Press Release. Retrieved March 1, 2016, from https://www.
gov.uk/government/news/creative-industries-worth-almost-10-million-an-
hour-to-economy
Ulbrich, F., Jahnke, I., & Mårtensson, P. (2011). Special issue on knowledge
development and the net generation. International Journal of Sociotechnology
and Knowledge Development, 2(4), i–ii.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. (2013).
Creative economy report. Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved May 10, 2015, from
http://www.unesco.org/culture/pdf/creative-economy-report-2013.pdf

[email protected]
 Developing Global Citizenship: Co-creating Employability… 275

University of the Arts, London. (n.d.). Creative Attributes Framework. Retrieved

February 10, 2017, from http://www.arts.ac.uk/about-ual/teaching-and-
learning/careers-and-employability/creative-attributes-framework/
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning meaning and identity.
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating communities
of practice. Boston: Harvard Business Press.
Winston, A. (2016a, July 26). Creative industries booming across the UK,
according to new report. Dezeen. Retrieved June 1, 2017, from https://www.
dezeen.com/2016/07/28/creative-industries-booming-across-uk-creative-
clusters-outside-london-nesta-geography-of-creativity-report/
Winston, A. (2016b, August 16). Creative industries must present a united
front to make best of Brexit says John Sorrell. Dezeen. Retrieved June 1,
2017, from https://www.dezeen.com/2016/08/16/creative-industries-must-
present-united-front-post-brexit-john-sorrell/
Workgroup on Creative Industries. (2002). Creative industries development strat-
egy: Propelling Singapore’s creative economy. Workgroup on Creative Industries.
World Bank. (n.d.). Vietnam overview. Retrieved June 1, 2017, from ­http://
www.worldbank.org/en/country/vietnam/overview
World Economic Forum. (2015). The skills needed in the 21st century. New
vision for education—Unlocking the potential of technology. Retrieved June 14,
2017, from https://widgets.weforum.org/nve-2015/chapter1.html

[email protected]
 Index

A E
Argyris, C., 3, 76, 176 Ellstrom, P.-E., 3, 155, 176

B K
Belbin, R.M., 96, 102, 103 Kolb, D.A., 19, 40, 55, 76, 81,
Benner, P., 97, 105, 106, 183–187 117–119, 122, 126, 131

C L
Communities of practice, 43, 47, Lave, J., 136, 147, 174, 185
134–138, 257, 259, 270 Learning gain, 1, 2, 134, 153

D S
Degree apprenticeship, 2, 5, 51–53, Schön, D., 3, 7, 19, 20, 39, 40, 55,
57, 59–61, 63, 65, 173 76, 95, 176
Dreyfus, S.E., 185

© The Author(s) 2018 277

D. A. Morley (ed.), Enhancing Employability in Higher Education through Work Based
Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75166-5

[email protected]
278 Index

T W
Teaching Excellence Framework, 2, Wenger, E., 43, 134–137, 146–148,
34, 64, 114, 169, 214 174, 184, 185, 257, 270
Theory practice gap, 3, 184

V
Vygotsky, L.S., 41, 136, 174

[email protected]
View publication stats