Lecture (4)

1.8: Introduction to Proofs:

Theorem: is a statement or result that can be shown to be True.
• We proof the statement is True using Proof techniques.
• We will learn how to prove some conditional statements 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 which is “if 𝑝 then 𝑞”.

Note:
• The integer number 𝑛 is odd if it can be expressed as 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1.
• The integer number 𝑛 is even if it can be expressed as 𝑛 = 2𝑘.
• All the integer numbers are odd or even not both.
𝑎
• The real number 𝑟 is rational if there exist integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 with 𝑏 ≠ 0 such that 𝑟 = 𝑏.
• The real number that is not rational is called irrational.

Proof Techniques:
All examples here, we try to prove conditional statement 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

1. Direct Proof
𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 means “if 𝑝 then 𝑞” when we start from hypothesis 𝑝 and try to prove the
conclusion 𝑞 is True that means 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True. We use the following steps to prove
𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True using the direct proof:

• Step 1:
We assume that 𝑝 is True.
• Step 2:
We try to prove that 𝑞 is True using step 1 and axioms of Mathematics.
• Step 3:
Then 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

𝑞 is True ‫الزم نوضح بالخطوات ان‬

Example (4.1):
Give a direct proof of the theorem “If 𝑛 is an odd integer, then 𝑛2 is odd”
Solution:
We want to prove the statement “If 𝑛 is an odd integer, then 𝑛2 is odd” is True.
𝑝: 𝑛 is an odd integer.
𝑞: 𝑛2 is odd
• Step 1:
Let 𝑝 is True means 𝑛 is an odd integer so, we can express 𝑛 as following:
𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1
 • Step 2:
We try to prove that 𝑞 is True using step 1 and axioms of Mathematics.
𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 = 2(2𝑘 2 + 𝑘) + 1 ∴ 𝑛2 is odd ≡ 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒
• Step 3:
Then 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

Example (4.2):
Show that the statement “if 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 are rational number, then the sum 𝑟 + 𝑠 is rational” is
True.

Solution:
𝑝: 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 are rational number.
𝑞: 𝑟 + 𝑠 is rational.
• Step 1:
Let 𝑝 is True means 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 are rational number so, we can express 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 as following
𝑎 𝑐
𝑟=𝑏 , 𝑠=𝑑 where 𝑏, 𝑑 ≠ 0.
• Step 2:
We try to prove that 𝑞 is True using step 1 and axioms of Mathematics.
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑+𝑐𝑏
𝑟+𝑆 =𝑏+𝑑 = ∴ 𝑟 + 𝑆 is also rational
𝑏𝑑

• Step 3:
Then 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

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2. Contraposition (Indirect proof)
We will prove the statement 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True by proving its equivalent is True where 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 ≡
¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 by the following steps:
• Step 1:
We assume that ¬𝑞 is True.
• Step 2:
We try to prove that ¬𝑝 is True using step 1 and axioms of Mathematics.
• Step 3:
Then ¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 is True which means 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

Example (4.3):
Show that the statement “if 𝑛 is an integer number and 3𝑛 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑, then 𝑛 is an odd
number” is True.
 Solution:
𝑝: 3𝑛 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑. ¬𝑝: 3𝑛 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ≡ 3𝑛 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
𝑞: 𝑛 is odd number. ¬𝑞: 𝑛 is not odd number ≡ 𝑛 is even.

The new equivalent statement Then ¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 is “if 𝑛 is even integer number, then
3𝑛 + 2 is even number”

• Step 1:
Let ¬𝑞 is True means 𝑛 is even integer so, we can express 𝑛 as following:
𝑛 = 2𝑘
• Step 2:
We try to prove that ¬𝑝 is True using step 1 and axioms of Mathematics.
3𝑛 + 2 = 3(2𝑘) + 2 = 2(3𝑘 + 1) ∴ 3𝑛 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
• Step 3:
Then ¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 is True which means 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

Example (4.4):
Show that the statement “if 𝑛 is an integer number and 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑, then 𝑛 is an odd
number” is True.

Solution:
𝑝: 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑. ¬𝑝: 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
𝑞: 𝑛 is odd number. ¬𝑞: 𝑛 is not odd number ≡ 𝑛 is even.

The new equivalent statement Then ¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 is “if 𝑛 is even integer number, then
𝑛2 is even number”

• Step 1:
Let ¬𝑞 is True means 𝑛 is even integer so, we can express 𝑛 as following:
𝑛 = 2𝑘
• Step 2:
We try to prove that ¬𝑝 is True using step 1 and axioms of Mathematics.
𝑛2 = (2𝑘)2 = 4𝑘 2 = 2(2𝑘 2 ) ∴ 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
• Step 3:
Then ¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 is True which means 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

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3. Contradiction (Indirect proof)
• If 𝑝 is True means ¬𝑝 is False.
• If ¬𝑝 is False, therefore 𝑝 is True.
Example (4.5):
Prove that √2 is irrational number.
Solution:
𝑝: √2 is irrational number.
¬𝑝: √2 is not irrational number. ∴ ¬𝑝: √2 is rational number

We need to prove that ¬𝑝: √2 is rational number is False.

We start the proof by assumption √2 is rational number so, we can express it by

following:

𝑎
√2 = 𝑏 (In the simplest form means no common factor between 𝑎 and 𝑏)
∴ 𝑎 = √2 𝑏 square both sides
2 2
∴𝑎 = 2𝑏 ∴ 𝑎2 is even number ∴ 𝑎 is even. So, we can express 𝑎 = 2𝑘
∴ (2𝑘)2 = 2 𝑏 2
∴ 4𝑘 2 = 2 𝑏 2
∴ 2𝑘 2 = 𝑏 2 ∴ 𝑏 2 is even number ∴ 𝑏 is even. So, we can express 𝑏 = 2𝑘
∵ 𝑎, 𝑏 are even numbers
𝑎
∴ 𝑎, 𝑏 have common factor and that contradict the first step (√2 = 𝑏 form means no
common factor between 𝑎 and 𝑏)

That means the first step is false ≡ √2 is rational number is false ≡ √2 is irrational
number is True.