Orbitals

Quantum theory assigns the electrons surrounding the nucleus to orbitals, which
should not be confused with the orbits of the solar system. Each orbital has a
characteristic energy and a three‐dimensional shape. An atom in the lowest energy
configuration is said to be in its ground state. For this most stable state, the electrons
fill the various orbitals from the one of lowest energy to the one of highest energy. Each
orbital may be assigned a maximum of two electrons.

The orbitals are described completely by specifying three quantum numbers, but only
two are used in this book. The principal quantum number (symbolized n) is a whole
number, 1 or greater, that identifies the main energy shell of the orbital, with 1 being
closest to the nucleus and each subsequent level farther from the nucleus. The second
quantum number, known as the azimuthal quantum number (symbolized ℓ) is a whole
number from 0 up to n – 1 that defines the type of orbital within a shell (n). For historical
reasons, the different shapes of orbitals are represented by letters. (See Table 1.)

Because each orbital holds at most two electrons, the maximum number of electrons is
twice the number of orbitals for a particular second quantum number. In Table 1, you
must know the letters in the second column and the electron capacity in the last column.

A set of orbitals with the same values n and ℓ is called a subshell and is represented by
notation like 2 p 5. (See Figure 1.)
Only a few subshells are needed to describe the chemical elements in their ground
states. Table 2 lists all the subshells of chemical importance.

What are Quantum Numbers?

The set of numbers used to describe the position and energy of the electron in an atom
are called quantum numbers. There are four quantum numbers, namely, principal,
azimuthal, magnetic and spin quantum numbers.
The values of the conserved quantities of a quantum system are given by quantum
numbers. Electronic quantum numbers (the quantum numbers describing electrons) can
be defined as a group of numerical values which provide solutions that are
acceptable by the Schrodinger wave equation for hydrogen atoms.

Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals

Four quantum numbers can be used to completely describe all the attributes of a given
electron belonging to an atom, these are:

 Principal quantum number, denoted by n.

 Orbital angular momentum quantum number (or azimuthal quantum number),
denoted by l.
 Magnetic quantum number, denoted by ml.
 The electron spin quantum number, denoted by ms.

The Four Quantum Numbers that Describe an Electron

When the characteristics of an electron must be described in compliance with the

Schrodinger wave equation, a total of four quantum numbers are used. A brief
description of each of these numbers in the set of four quantum numbers that describe
the unique quantum state of an electron in atomic physics can be found below.

Principal Quantum Number

 Principal quantum numbers are denoted by the symbol ‘n’. They designate
the principal electron shell of the atom. Since the most probable distance
between the nucleus and the electrons is described by it, a larger value of the
principal quantum number implies a greater distance between the electron and
the nucleus (which, in turn, implies a greater atomic size).
 The value of the principal quantum number can be any integer with a positive
value that is equal to or greater than one. The value n=1 denotes the innermost
electron shell of an atom, which corresponds to the lowest energy state (or the
ground state) of an electron.
  Thus, it can be understood that the principal quantum number, n, cannot have a
negative value or be equal to zero because it is not possible for an atom to have
a negative value or no value for a principal shell.
 When a given electron is infused with energy (excited state), it can be observed
that the electron jumps from one principle shell to a higher shell, causing an
increase in the value of n. Similarly, when electrons lose energy, they jump back
into lower shells and the value of n also decreases.
 The increase in the value of n for an electron is called absorption, emphasizing
the photons or energy being absorbed by the electron. Similarly, the decrease in
the value of n for an electron is called emission, where the electrons emit their
energy.

Azimuthal Quantum Number (Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number)

 The azimuthal (or orbital angular momentum) quantum number describes the
shape of a given orbital. It is denoted by the symbol ‘l’ and its value is equal to
the total number of angular nodes in the orbital.
 A value of the azimuthal quantum number can indicate either an s, p, d, or f
subshell which vary in shape. This value depends on (and is capped by) the
value of the principal quantum number, i.e. the value of the azimuthal quantum
number ranges between 0 and (n-1).
 For example, if n =3, the azimuthal quantum number can take on the following
values – 0, 1, and 2. When l=0, the resulting subshell is an ‘s’ subshell. Similarly,
when l=1 and l=2, the resulting subshells are ‘p’ and ‘d’ subshells (respectively).
Therefore, when n=3, the three possible subshells are 3s, 3p, and 3d.
 In another example where the value of n is 5, the possible values of l are 0, 1, 2,
3, and 4. If l = 3, then there are a total of three angular nodes in the atom.
 Combinations of the Principal and Azimuthal Quantum Numbers
The allowed subshells under different combinations of ‘n’ and ‘l’ are listed above. It can
be understood that the ‘2d’ orbital cannot exist since the value of ‘l’ is always less than
that of ‘n’.

Magnetic Quantum Number

The total number of orbitals in a subshell and the orientation of these orbitals are
determined by the magnetic quantum number. It is denoted by the symbol ‘ml’. This
number yields the projection of the angular momentum corresponding to the orbital
along a given axis.

Shapes of Orbitals (as per the corresponding Quantum Numbers)

The value of the magnetic quantum number is dependent on the value of the azimuthal
(or orbital angular momentum) quantum number. For a given value of l, the value of
ml ranges between the interval -l to +l. Therefore, it indirectly depends on the value of n.
For example, if n = 4 and l = 3 in an atom, the possible values of the magnetic quantum
number are -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, and +3.

Azimuthal Quantum Number Corresponding Number of

Possible Values of ml
Value Orbitals (2l + 1)

0 (‘s’ subshell) 2*0 + 1 = 1 0

 1 (‘p’ subshell) 2*1 + 1 = 3 -1, 0, and 1

2 (‘d’ subshell) 2*2 + 1 = 5 -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2

3 (‘f’ subshell) 2*3 + 1 = 7 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3

The total number of orbitals in a given subshell is a function of the ‘l’ value of that
orbital. It is given by the formula (2l + 1). For example, the ‘3d’ subshell (n=3, l=2)
contains 5 orbitals (2*2 + 1). Each orbital can accommodate 2 electrons. Therefore, the
3d subshell can hold a total of 10 electrons.

Electron Spin Quantum Number

 The electron spin quantum number is independent of the values of n, l, and ml.
The value of this number gives insight into the direction in which the electron is
spinning, and is denoted by the symbol ms.
 The value of ms offers insight into the direction in which the electron is spinning.
The possible values of the electron spin quantum number are +½ and -½.
 The positive value of ms implies an upward spin on the electron which is also
called ‘spin up’ and is denoted by the symbol ↑. If ms has a negative value, the
electron in question is said to have a downward spin, or a ‘spin down’, which is
given by the symbol ↓.
 The value of the electron spin quantum number determines whether the atom in
question has the ability to produce a magnetic field. The value of ms can be
generalized to ±½.

Summary
In order to simplify the details of the four different quantum numbers that are related to
atomic physics, a tabular column detailing their names, symbols, meanings, and
possible values is provided below.

Name and Symbol Meaning and Possible Values

Principal quantum number, n Electron shell, n ≥ 1

Azimuthal quantum number, l Subshells (s=0, p=1, etc.) , (n-1) ≥ l ≥ 0

Total number and orientation of orbitals,

Magnetic quantum number, ml
l≥ml≥-l

Electron spin quantum number, ms The direction of electron spin, ms = ±½

It is important to note that it is impossible for two electrons of the same atom to have
exactly the same quantum state or exactly the same values of the set of quantum
numbers, as per Hund’s rules.

Solved Examples

What are the Possible Subshells when n = 4? How Many Orbitals are contained by
each of these Subshells?
When n = 4, the possible l values are 0, 1, 2, and 3. This implies that the 4 possible
subshells are the 4s, 4p, 4d, and 4f subshells.

 The 4s subshell contains 1 orbital and can hold up to 2 electrons.

 The 4p subshell contains 3 orbitals and can hold up to 6 electrons.
 The 4d subshell contains 5 orbitals and can hold up to 10 electrons.
 The 4f subshell has 7 orbitals and can hold up to 14 electrons.
Thus, a total of 4 subshells are possible for n = 4.

What are the Possible ml values for l = 4?

Since the value of the magnetic quantum number ranges from -l to l, the possible values
of ml when l = 4 are: -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Who proposed the principal quantum number?

The notion of energy levels and notation has been taken from the atom‘s earlier Bohr
model. Schrodinger‘s equation evolved the concept from a two-dimensional flat Bohr
atom to a three-dimensional model for wave motion. Where n = 1, 2, 3 is called the main
quantity, and h is the constant of Planck.

Why are there only 8 electrons in the outer shell?

The stability of an atom ‘s eight-electrons derives from the stability of the noble gases or
the elder term of inert gases, also known as unreactive or noble gases. This law,
however, is justified in the periodic table for second row elements whose outermost-
shell capacity is 8 electrons.
How do you find the principal quantum number?
The principal quantum number n value is the level of the central electronic shell (central
level). All orbitals with the same n value are at the same key stage. All orbitals on the
second main stage, for example, have a principal quantity of n=2.

What are the principal energy levels?

In chemistry, an electron’s primary energy level refers to the shell or orbital in which the
electron resides relative to the nucleus of the atom. The principal quantum number n
denotes this level. Within a time of the periodic table the first element introduces a new
key energy level.

Which energy level has the least energy?

There is a single 1s orbital that can accommodate 2 electrons at the lowest energy
level, the one nearest to the atomic core. There are four orbitals at the next energy
level; a 2s, 2p1, 2p2 and a 2p3. Each of these orbitals can carry 2 electrons, so we can
find a total of 8 electrons at this energy level.

What is Quantum Energy?

Quantum, in mechanics, of energy, charge, angular momentum, or other physical
property, discrete natural unit, or bundle. Photons, a concept often applied to quanta
with other sources of electromagnetic radiation such as X rays and gamma rays, are
certain particle-like packets of light.

What is magnetic Polarisation?

The vector field that represents the density of permanent or induced magnetic dipole
moments in a magnetic medium is magnetization or magnetic polarisation in classical
electromagnetism. A pseudo vector M is represented.

What is the spin of an electron?

A quantum property of electrons is electron spin. It is an angular momentum shape.
Instructors also equate electron spin to the planet rotating on its own axis every 24
hours as a teaching technique. If the electron spins on its axis clockwise, it is known as
spin-up; spin-down is counterclockwise.