1

Geographical
Information
System (GIS)
UNIT III
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Introduction

Definitions

Evolution

Basic components of GIS

Contents Application areas of GIS

Plan and Map, Scale, Classification, Process

Coordinate Systems

Plane and Geographic Coordinate System

Map Projections, Classifications.. Etc.

AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical Informatiaon Systems

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Introduction
 4
Introduction

G stands for geographic

I stands for information
S stands for system
► Consists of two disciplines: Geography,
Information System
► Most people agree that over 80% of the
information related to government operations
have a geographic component
 ► Geography is a systematic
study of the Earth and its
features

Geography ► Geography is a field of science

devoted to the study of the
lands, the features, the
inhabitants, and the
phenomena of Earth.
 6
Information System

► Refers to a system containing electronic

records
► Can be defined as an interactive combination
of people, computer hardware and software,
communications devices, etc. designed to
provide a continuous flow of information to the
people who need information to make
decisions or perform analysis
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
Informatiaon Systems
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Definition
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Defining GIS

Different definitions of a GIS have evolved in

different areas and disciplines

All GIS definitions recognize that spatial data are

unique because they are linked to maps (Space
matters!)

A GIS at least consists of a database, map

information, and a computer-based link
between them
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Definition of GIS (1979)

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► "A geographic information system is a special
case of information systems where the
database consists of observations on spatially
distributed features, activities or events, which
are definable in space as points, lines, or
areas. A geographic information system
manipulates data about these points, lines,
and areas to retrieve data for ad hoc queries
and analyses" (Dueker, 1979, p 106).
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Definitions of GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
GIS is a systematic integration of computer
hardware, software and spatial data, for capturing,
storing, displaying, updating, manipulating and
analyzing, in order to solve complex management
problems

GIS is an organized collection of computer

hardware, software, geographic data, and
personnel designed to efficiently capture, store,
update, manipulate, analyze and display all forms
of geographically referenced information
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Informatiaon Systems
Evolution / history
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A Brief History of GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► As far as the time of Hippocrates (c. 3rd
century BC), physician have observed that
certain diseases seems to occur in some
places and not others.
► In fact, different locations on Earth are usually
associated with different profiles: physical,
biological, environmental, economic, social,
cultural and sometimes even spiritual profiles,
that do affect and are affected by health,
disease and healthcare
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A Brief History of GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Geographical mapping of disease events
date back to the first maps used by Dr. John
Snow in 1854 to trace the origin of cholera
outbreak in London, England
► By plotting each known cholera case on a
street map of Soho district (where the
outbreak took place), Snow could see that the
cases occurred almost entirely among those
who lived near the Broad Street water pump.
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A Brief History of GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Snow recommended that the handle of this
pump be removed, and this simple action
stopped the outbreak and proved his theory
that cholera is transmitted through
contaminated drinking water.
► People could also see on this map that
cholera deaths were not confined to the area
around a cemetery of plague victims and
were thus convinced that the infection was
not due to vapours coming from it as they first
thought.
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A Brief History of GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► GIS’s origins lie in thematic cartography
► Many planners used the method of map
overlay using manual techniques
► Manual map overlay as a method was first
described comprehensively by Jacqueline
Tyrwhitt in a 1950 planning textbook
► HcHarg used blacked out transparent
overlays for site selection in Design with
Nature
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A Brief History of GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► The 1960s saw many new forms of geographic
data and mapping software
► Computer cartography developed the first
basic GIS concepts during the late 1950s and
1960s
► Linked software modules, rather than stand-
alone programs, preceded GISs
► Early influential data sets were the World Data
Bank and the GBF/DIME files
► Early systems were CGIS, MLMIS, GRID and
LUNR
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A Brief History of GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► The Harvard University ODYSSEY system was
influential due to its topological arc-node
(vector) data structure
► GIS was significantly altered by (1) the PC and
(2) the workstation
► During the 1980s, new GIS software could
better exploit more advanced hardware
► User Interface developments led to GIS's
vastly improved ease of use during the 1990s
► During the 1980s, new GIS software could
better exploit more advanced hardware
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
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Informatiaon Systems
Multi-disciplinary
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GIS – Multidisciplinary

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► GIS in an integrated multidisciplinary science
consisting of the following traditional
disciplines.
Geography Statistics
Cartography Operations Research
Remote Sensing Computer Science
Photogrammetry Mathematics
Surveying Architecture / Urban
Planning
Global Navigational Civil Engineering
Satellite Systems
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GIS – Multidisciplinary

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► GIS in an integrated multidisciplinary science
consisting of the following traditional
disciplines.
Geography Statistics
Cartography Operations Research
Remote Sensing Computer Science
Photogrammetry Mathematics
Surveying Architecture / Urban
Planning
Global Navigational Civil Engineering
Satellite Systems
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GIS – Multidisciplinary

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Geography
► Study of earth and its features
► Cartography
► Study and practice of making maps or globes
► Remote Sensing
► Is the measurement or acquisition of
information of an object or phenomenon, by a
recording device that is not in physical contact
with the object
► it is utilization of any device (as from aircraft or
satellite) at a distance, for gathering
information about the environment
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GIS – Multidisciplinary

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Photogrammetry
► Is a measurement technology in which the 3D
coordinates of points on an object are
determined by measurements made in two or
more photographic images taken from different
positions
► Photogrammetric techniques are used for
making accurate measurements from images
► Surveying
► Is the technique and science of accurately
determining the positions of points (angles /
distances)
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GIS – Multidisciplinary

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Global Navigational Satellite Systems
► GNSS allow small electronic devices to
determine their location (Latitude, Longitude,
Elevation) using time signals transmitted along
line of sight by radio waves from satellites
► Statistics
► Is a mathematical science pertaining to
collection, analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of data
► Operations Research
► Is an interdisciplinary science which deploys
scientific methods for decision making
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GIS – Multidisciplinary

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Computer Science
► Study of theoretical foundations of information
and computation and their implementation
► Mathematics
► Deals with concepts such as quantity, structure,
space and change
► Urban Planning
► used to analyze the urban growth, its direction
of expansion, and to find suitable sites for
further urban development
► Civil Engineering
► Deals with planning, const. and maint.
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
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Informatiaon Systems
Components
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
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Informatiaon Systems
Key Components of GIS
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Hardware

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Hardware is the computer on which a GIS
operates.
► Today, GIS software runs on a wide range of
hardware types, from centralized computer
servers to desktop computers used in stand-
alone or networked configurations.
► Input devices 🡪 digitizers, scanners, GPS
receivers etc.
► Storage Devices 🡪 drives, CD ROMS, tapes
► Output devices 🡪 display, printers, plotters
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Software

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Refers to programs that run on computers to
manage the computer and to perform
specific functions
► GIS Software provides the functions and tools
that are necessary to store, analyze and
display GIS data
► Common software: ArcGIS, qGIS, Diva etc.
► Web-based GIS is another concept 🡪
popular now a days
► Usage of DBMS software 🡪 Oracle, MS
Access
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Data

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Data named as geospatial and attribute data
in GIS
► GIS facilitates integration of spatial and
attribute data
► Different formats of data ranging from paper
maps, scanned images, electronic data, CAD
data etc.
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Procedures / Methods

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Any organization has documented their
process plan for GIS operation.
► These document address number question
about the GIS methods: number of GIS expert
required, GIS software and hardware, Process
to store the data, what type of DBMS
(database management system) and more.
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People / Users

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► There must be people always to plan,
implement, and operate the system as well as
to make decisions based on output
► Decision making.
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
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Informatiaon Systems
Software
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
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Informatiaon Systems
GIS Software

Open Source
Commercial
►

►
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GIS Software Commercial

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Autodesk – Map 3D, Topobase,
and MapGuide
► Bentley Systems – Bentley Map and Bentley
Map View
► Esri – Products
include ArcMap, ArcGIS, ArcSDE, ArcIMS,
ArcWeb services and ArcGIS Server
► Intergraph – Products include
G/Technology, GeoMedia, GeoMedia
Professional, GeoMedia WebMap
► MapInfo by Pitney Bowes Software
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GIS Software Commercial

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► GRASS GIS – Developed by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers
► gvSIG - Written in Java. Runs on Linux, Unix, Mac
OS X and Windows.
► ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information
System) – Integrates image, vector and thematic
data.
► JUMP GIS / OpenJUMP ((Open) Java Unified
Mapping Platform)
► MapWindow GIS - Free desktop application and
programming component.
► QGIS (previously known as Quantum GIS) – Runs
on Linux, Unix, Mac OS X and Windows
► DIVA GIS
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
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Informatiaon Systems
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
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Informatiaon Systems
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
38

Informatiaon Systems
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
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Informatiaon Systems
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
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Informatiaon Systems
Functions
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Required Functions for GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Data input / acquisition and preprocessing
► Data storage, management and retrieval
► Data manipulation and analysis
► Data output and display
 42
Functions for GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Data input / acquisition and preprocessing
► Allows the user to capture, collect, and
transform spatial and thematic data into digital
form.
► The data inputs are usually derived from a
combination of hard copy maps, aerial
photographs, remotely sensed images, reports,
survey documents, etc.
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Functions for GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Data storage, management and retrieval
► Organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a
form which permits it to be quickly retrieved by
the user for analysis and permits rapid and
accurate updates to be made to the database.
► This component usually involves use of a DBMS
for maintaining attribute data.
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Functions for GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Data manipulation and analysis
► Allows the user to define and execute spatial
and attribute procedures to generate derived
information.
► This subsystem is commonly thought of as
the heart of a GIS, and usually distinguishes it
from other database information systems and
computer-aided drafting (CAD) systems.
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Functions for GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Data output and display
► Allows the user to generate graphic displays,
normally maps, and tabular reports
representing derived information products
 AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
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Informatiaon Systems
Advantages
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Advantages of GIS

Informatiaon Systems
AAR905 Remote Sensing and Geographical
► Advantage over a traditional map
► Advantage over mapping software
► Advantage over CAD
► Advantage over AM/FM
► Advantage over conventional DBMS
 REQUIRED FUNCTIONS FOR GIS
► Data input / acquisition and preprocessing
► Data storage, management and retrieval
► Data manipulation and analysis
► Data output and display

41
 FUNCTIONS FOR GIS
► Data input / acquisition and preprocessing
► Allows the user to capture, collect, and transform
spatial and thematic data into digital form.
► The data inputs are usually derived from a combination
of hard copy maps, aerial photographs, remotely
sensed images, reports, survey documents, etc.

42
 FUNCTIONS FOR GIS
► Data storage, management and retrieval
► Organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a form
which permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for
analysis and permits rapid and accurate updates to be
made to the database.
► This component usually involves use of a DBMS for
maintaining attribute data.

43
 FUNCTIONS FOR GIS
► Data manipulation and analysis
► Allows the user to define and execute spatial and
attribute procedures to generate derived information.
► This subsystem is commonly thought of as the heart of
a GIS, and usually distinguishes it from other database
information systems and computer-aided drafting
(CAD) systems.

44
 FUNCTIONS FOR GIS
► Data output and display
► Allows the user to generate graphic displays, normally
maps, and tabular reports representing derived
information products

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ADVANTAGES

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 ADVANTAGES OF GIS
► Advantage over a traditional map
► Advantage over mapping software
► Advantage over CAD
► Advantage over AM/FM
► Advantage over conventional DBMS

47
 ADVANTAGES OF GIS
► Advantage over a traditional map
► Large areas can be covered
► Multiple layers display
► No fear of loss of paper / material
► Very easy for revision
► Reproducing is easier

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 ADVANTAGES OF GIS
► Advantage over mapping software
► Only maps are generated
► GIS has added benefits
► Linkage to the database
► Maps drawn from database
► Database from maps
► Automatic updation of maps (database)

49
 ADVANTAGES OF GIS
► Advantage over CAD
► For a long period, CAD were used to produce maps
► Usage of coordinate system (for representing map in a
grid)
► Spatial analysis cannot be performed
► No linkage to database

50
 ADVANTAGES OF GIS
► Advantage over AM/FM
► Automated Mapping and Facility Management
► AM/FM can be considered as a lower level GIS
► Cannot analyze ‘what if’ scenario
► Does not use a database structure

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 ADVANTAGES OF GIS
► Advantage over conventional DBMS
► Database operations → query and statistical analysis
► GIS does database operations with visualization and
geographic analysis
► Can perform both spatial and attribute data at the same
time

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APPLICATION AREAS

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MAJOR AREAS OF GIS APPLICATIONS

► Facilities Management
► Environment and Natural Resources Management
► Street Network
► Planning and Engineering
► Land Information System

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MAJOR AREAS OF GIS APPLICATIONS

► Facilities Management
► Large scale and precise maps and network analysis are
used mainly for utility management. AM/FM is
frequently used in this area.
► Environment and Natural Resources Management
► Medium or small scale maps and overlay techniques in
combination with aerial photographs and satellite
images are used for management of natural resources
and environmental impact analysis.

55
MAJOR AREAS OF GIS APPLICATIONS

► Street Network
► Large or medium scale maps and spatial analysis are
used for vehicle routing, locating house and streets etc.

► Planning and Engineering

► Large or medium scale maps and engineering models
are used mainly in civil engineering.
► Land Information System
► Large scale cadastral maps or land parcel maps and
spatial analysis are used for cadastral administration,
taxation etc. 56
GEOGRAPHICAL CONCEPTS AND
TERMINOLOGY

57
 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
► Theme
► Information corresponding to a particular domain that
we want to model.
► A theme is a set of Geographic features

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 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
► Geographic feature
► Domain entity that can have various attributes that
describe spatial and non-spatial characteristics.
► For example:
► Population
► Capital
► Geographical area
► Coastline
► Bordering states
59
 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
► Attribute
► Is a characteristic used to describe each feature in a
geographic data set
► usually viewed as columns in a table

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 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
► Spatial Data
► Data that define/linked to a location
► These are in the form of graphic primitives that are
either in points, lines, polygons of pixels
► Non-Spatial Data (Attribute Data)
► Data independent of all geometric considerations
► Data often statistical
► May be text, images or multimedia

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 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
► Coordinate System
► set of mathematical rules for specifying how
coordinates are to be assigned to points.
► Example: the Cartesian coordinate system

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 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
► Coordinate Reference System
► coordinate system that is related to an object (e.g., the
Earth) through a datum which species its origin, scale,
and orientation.
► Two types
► Geographic Coordinate Reference System
► Projected Coordinate Reference System

63
 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
► Geographic Coordinate Reference System

► a 3-dimensional coordinate system that utilizes latitude

(φ), longitude (λ), and optionally geodetic
height (i.e., elevation), to capture geographic locations
on Earth

► Eg: WGS84
► World Geodetic System

► the most well-known geographic coordinate reference

system and its latest revision is WGS84 64
 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
► Projected Coordinate Reference System

► a flat, two-dimensional representation of the Earth

► Eg: UTM
► Universal Transverse Mercator

► system divides the earth by meridian into 60 6-degree

grid zones.

► Coordinates are expressed in meters

65
 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
► Universal Transverse Mercator

66
 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
► Projections
► A method by which the curved surface of the earth is
portrayed on a flat surface

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 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
► Projections
► A method by which the curved surface of the earth is
portrayed on a flat surface

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MAPS

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 MAPS
► A map is a two dimensional representation of earth
surface which uses graphics to convey geographical
information.
► It describes the geographical location of features and
the relationship between them.
► Maps are fundamental to society.
► Cartography refers to the art and science of map
preparation.

70
 MAPS
► The digital technology has altered the way of
creating, presenting and distributing the geographic
information.
► The conventional cartography is now getting replaced
by computer aided designs and graphics, and the
analog maps (paper maps) by digital maps.

71
 MAPS
► Map showing Landuse of Himachal Pradesh

72
MAPS

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 MAPS
► A map is a two dimensional representation of earth
surface which uses graphics to convey geographical
information.
► It describes the geographical location of features and
the relationship between them.
► Maps are fundamental to society.
► Cartography refers to the art and science of map
preparation.

70
 MAPS
► The digital technology has altered the way of
creating, presenting and distributing the geographic
information.
► The conventional cartography is now getting replaced
by computer aided designs and graphics, and the
analog maps (paper maps) by digital maps.

71
 MAPS
► Map showing Landuse of Himachal Pradesh

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 HISTORY OF MAPS
► The oldest known maps are from Middle East in the
form of Babylonian Clay Tablet dating as early as
1000 B.C and depicted earth as a flat circular disk.
► The clay tablet shows a flat, round world with
Babylonia in the centre. The other regions of the
world are beyond the ocean encircling Babylonia
► Babylonian clay tablet

73
 HISTORY OF MAPS
► Babylonian clay tablet

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 HISTORY OF MAPS
► Around 150 AD, Ptolemy depicted the old world from
60º N to 30º S latitude on a map.
► The first use of longitudinal and latitudinal lines on a
map along with the specification of terrestrial sites
through observations

75
 HISTORY OF MAPS
► Muhammad al-Idrisi is one of the cartographers of
the medieval period who created the world map by
combining the information on Africa, Indian Ocean
and the Far East provided by merchants and
geographers.
► His map was considered the most accurate world
map for the next three centuries.

76
 HISTORY OF MAPS
► Muhammad al-Idrisi World Map
► is oriented with the south toward the top.

77
 HISTORY OF MAPS
► Muhammad al-Idrisi World Map

78
 HISTORY OF MAPS
► After the voyages by Columbus and others to the new
world, the full world map started to appear in the
early 16 th Century.
► Martin Waldseemüller in 1507 is credited with the
creation of the first true world map.
► The map used Ptolemaic projection and was the first
one to use the name America for the New World.

79
 HISTORY OF MAPS
► Waldseemuller Map (1504)

80
 HISTORY OF MAPS
► Gerardus Mercator, a cartographer of the mid-16th
century developed a cylindrical projection that is still
widely used for navigation charts and global maps.
► He then published a map of the world in 1569 based
on this projection.

81
 HISTORY OF MAPS
► Gerardus Mercator

82
 HISTORY OF MAPS
► Maps during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries became
increasingly accurate and factual with the application
of scientific methods.
► With the advent of GIS during mid 1960s,
understanding and representation of geographical
phenomenon improved significantly.
► Maps now have improved graphics, and spatial
relation visualization.

83
MAP SCALES

84
 MAP SCALE
► There are three ways in which a scale can be depicted
on a map
1. Statement
2. Representative Fraction
3. Graphic

85
 MAP SCALE - REPRESENTATION
► The size of earth is too big to be represented as it is
on a map.
► To represent the whole earth or part thereof on a
small map, the concept of scale is used.
► The proportion chosen for a map is its scale.
► It is the relationship between distance on map and
distance on ground that tells what distance on map
corresponds to what distance on ground.

86
 MAP SCALE - REPRESENTATION
1. Statement
► Expressed in words such as ‘2 centimeters to the
kilometer’ which means two centimeters on the map
represents one kilometer on the ground.
► Though it is the simplest way of expressing a scale but
it has the following drawbacks associated with it
► The fractional distances involve mathematical
calculations
► Different countries have different units of length,
expressing a statement scale on a map may not be
understood by the foreigners. 87
 MAP SCALE - REPRESENTATION
1. Statement

88
 MAP SCALE - REPRESENTATION
2. Representative Fraction (R.F)
► It is expressed in fraction.
► If the scale is 1:50000, it means that 1 unit of
measurement on map represents 50,000 units on
ground.
► It is also known as numerical scale.
► The distance on map and the distance on the ground
must be in the same units of length.
► The advantage of this scale is that - it can be read into
different units of length.
89
 MAP SCALE - REPRESENTATION
2. Representative Fraction (R.F)

90
 MAP SCALE - REPRESENTATION
3. Graphic
► The scale is shown in form of a strip, where the strip is
divided into a number of equal parts and is marked to
show what these divisions represent on actual ground.
► It is also known as plain scale or linear scale.

91
MAPS - TYPES

92
 TYPES OF MAP
► The maps can be classified on the following criteria:
► Scale
► Purpose

93
 TYPES OF MAP – SCALE
► Classification based on Scale
► Cadastral

► Topographical

► Chorographical/Atlas

94
 TYPES OF MAP – SCALE
► Classification based on Scale
► Cadastral

► These maps register the ownership of land property.

► They are prepared by government to realize tax and
revenue.
►A village map is an example of cadastral map which is
drawn on a scale of 16 inches to the mile or 32 inches to
the mile.

95
 TYPES OF MAP – SCALE
► Classification based on Scale
► Topographical

► Topographical maps are prepared on fairly large scale

and are based on precise survey.
► They don’t reveal land parcels but show topographic
forms such as relief, drainage, forest, village, towns etc.
► The scale of these maps varied conventionally from 1/4
inch to the mile to one inch to the mile.
► topographical maps of different countries have varying
scales
96
 TYPES OF MAP – SCALE
► Classification based on Scale
► Chorographical/Atlas

► Drawn on a very small scale, atlas maps give a

generalized view of physical, climatic and economic
conditions of different regions of the world.
► The scale of atlas map is generally greater than 1:1000,
000.

97
 TYPES OF MAP – PURPOSE
► Natural Maps ► Cultural Maps
► Political map
► Astronomical map
► Military map
► Geological map ► Historical map
► Climate map ► Land-utilization map

► Vegetation map ► Communication map

► Population map
► Soil map

98
 MAP AND GLOBE
Globe Map
3-D in the form of 2-D in the form of a flat
sphere surface
Impossible to see all the All countries of the
countries of the world world can be seen on a
at a glance as only half world map at a glance
of the globe can be
seen at a time
The shape and size of Due to projection there
geographical features are distortions in shape
is correctly represented. and size of
geographical features.99
Inconvenient to carry Easy to carry
GEOREFERENCING AND PROJECTION

100
 UNDERSTANDING EARTH
► The earth is generally viewed as a sphere; however
its shape is not as perfect as a sphere in reality.
► The following models that have attempted to describe
the shape of the earth:
► Spherical model
► Ellipsoid/ Oblate spheroid model
► Geoid model

101
 UNDERSTANDING EARTH
► Spherical Model
► Based on a circle, it treats earth as a sphere to make
mathematical calculations easier.

102
 UNDERSTANDING EARTH
► Ellipsoid/ Oblate spheroid Model
► Based on an ellipse, rotating an ellipse around the
semi-minor axis creates an ellipsoid.
► Latitude, longitude and planar coordinate systems are
determined with respect to the ellipsoid.
► Earth is flattened at poles with a bulge at equator

103
UNDERSTANDING EARTH

104
 UNDERSTANDING EARTH
► Geoid Model
► Describes unique and irregular shape of the earth.
► Geoid can be perceived as a sea level surface, whose
irregular shape is attributed to the earth’s gravity
► No simple surface such as sphere or spheroid/ellipsoid
can model the sea level surface completely
► The geoid differs from the shape of ellipsoid by upto ±
100 m and this difference is known as geoid
separation or geoid undulation

105
UNDERSTANDING EARTH

106
 DATUM
► A datum is a reference point or surface against which
measurements are made using models of the shape
of the earth
► Vertical Datum: A vertical datum is a reference
surface used to measure elevations of the point on
earth’s surface.

107
 DATUM
► The datum presently used for GPS is called WGS 84
(World Geodetic System 1984).
► It consists of a three-dimensional Cartesian
coordinate system and an associated ellipsoid.
► The positions can either be described as XYZ
Cartesian coordinates or latitude, longitude and
ellipsoid height coordinates.
► The origin of the datum is the centre of mass of the
Earth and it is designed for positioning anywhere on
Earth 108
COORDINATE SYSTEMS

109
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
► The datum presently used for GPS is called WGS 84
(World Geodetic System 1984).
► It consists of a three-dimensional Cartesian
coordinate system and an associated ellipsoid.
► The positions can either be described as XYZ
Cartesian coordinates or latitude, longitude and
ellipsoid height coordinates.
► The origin of the datum is the centre of mass of the
Earth and it is designed for positioning anywhere on
Earth 110
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
► A coordinate system is a reference system used for
locating objects in a two or three dimensional space
► Two types
► Geographic Coordinate System
► Projected Coordinate System

111
GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEMS
► GCS, also known as global or spherical coordinate
system is a reference system that uses a three-
dimensional spherical surface to determine locations
on the earth.
► Any location on earth can be referenced by a point
with longitude and latitude.
► Measured in Angles
► Terms associated:
► Pole, Latitude, Equator, Longitude, Prime Meridian
112
 GCS TERMS
► Pole:
► The geographic pole of earth is defined as either of the
two points where the axis of rotation of the earth
meets its surface. The North Pole lies 90º north of the
equator and the South Pole lies 90º south of the
equator
► Latitude:
► Imaginary lines that run horizontally around the globe
and are measured from 90º north to 90º south. Also
known as parallels, latitudes are equidistant from each
other. 113
 GCS TERMS
► Equator:
► An imaginary line on the earth with zero degree
latitude, divides the earth into two halves–Northern
and Southern Hemisphere. This parallel has the widest
circumference.
► Longitude:
► Imaginary lines that run vertically around the globe. Also
known as meridians, longitudes are measured from 180º
east to 180º west. Longitudes meet at the poles and are
widest apart at the equator

114
 GCS TERMS
► Prime meridian:
► Zero degree longitude which divides the earth into two
halves–Eastern and Western hemisphere. As it runs
through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in
Greenwich, England it is also known as Greenwich
meridian

115
GCS TERMS

116
 GCS TERMS
► Coordinate Measurement
► Geographic coordinates are measured in angles
► Expressed in Degrees, Minutes and Seconds
► 28° 36′ 50″ N, 77° 12′ 32″ E
► Coordinates of Delhi

► Can also be expressed in Decimal Degrees

► 28.6138 N, 77.2088 E

117
 GCS TERMS
► Local Time and Time Zones
► Earth completes one full rotation in 24 hours
► 3600 in 24 hours i.e. 150 in 1 hour
► Every 15º of longitude change a new time zone is
created which is marked by a difference of one hour
from the neighboring longitudes specified at 15º gap
► Earth's time zones are measured from the prime
meridian (0º) and the time at Prime meridian is called
Greenwich Mean Time
► 24 time zones
118
PROJECTED COORDINATE SYSTEMS
► PCS is defined as two dimensional representation of
the Earth
► It is based on a spheroid geographic coordinate
system, but it uses linear units of measure for
coordinates
► It is also known as Cartesian coordinate system
► Expressed as (x,y)

119
MAP PROJECTION

120
 MAP PROJECTION
► Map Projection is a mathematical expression using
which the three-dimensional surface of earth is
represented in a two dimensional plane.
► The process of projection results in distortion of one
or more map properties such as shape, size, area or
direction

121
 MAP PROJECTION
► A single projection system can never account for the
correct representation of all map properties for all the
regions of the world
► Hence, hundreds of projection systems have been
defined for accurate representation of a particular
map element for a particular region of the world

122
 MAP PROJECTION
► Map projections are classified on the following
criteria:
► Method of construction
► Development surface used
► Projection properties
► Position of light source

123
MAP PROJECTION

120
 MAP PROJECTION
► Map Projection is a mathematical expression using
which the three-dimensional surface of earth is
represented in a two dimensional plane.
► The process of projection results in distortion of one
or more map properties such as shape, size, area or
direction

121
 MAP PROJECTION
► A single projection system can never account for the
correct representation of all map properties for all the
regions of the world
► Hence, hundreds of projection systems have been
defined for accurate representation of a particular
map element for a particular region of the world

122
 MAP PROJECTION
► Map projections are classified on the following
criteria:
► Method of construction
► Development surface used
► Projection properties
► Position of light source

123
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Method of construction
► implies projecting the graticule of the earth onto a flat
surface with the help of shadow cast
► Perspective Projections
► These projections are made with the help of shadow cast
from an illuminated globe on to a developable surface

► Non Perspective Projections

► These projections do not use shadow cast from an
illuminated globe on to a developable surface.
► A developable surface is only assumed to be covering
124
the globe and the construction of projections is done
using mathematical calculations.
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Development surface used
► Projection transforms the coordinates of earth on to a
surface that can be flattened to a plane without
distortion (shearing or stretching).
► Such a surface is called a developable surface.
► Three basic projections based on the types of
developable surface
► Cylindrical Projection
► Conic Projection
► Azimuthal/Zenithal Projection
125
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Development surface used - Cylindrical Projection
► It can be visualized as a cylinder wrapped around the
globe.
► Once the graticule is projected onto the cylinder, the
cylinder is opened to get a grid like pattern of latitudes
and longitudes.

126
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Development surface used - Cylindrical Projection
► The longitudes (meridians) and latitudes (parallels)
appear as straight lines
► Length of equator on the cylinder is equal to the length
of the equator therefore is suitable for showing
equatorial regions.

127
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Development surface used -
► Aspects of Cylindrical Projection
► Normal
► Transverse
► Oblique

128
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Development surface used -
► Aspects of Cylindrical Projection
Normal Transverse Oblique
⮚ Equirectangular ⮚ Cassini Projection ⮚ Oblique Mercator
Projection ⮚ Transverse projection
⮚ Mercator Mercator
projection, ⮚ Transverse
Lambert's cylindrical Equal
Cylindrical Equal Area Projection
Area ⮚ Modified
⮚ Gall's Transverse
Stereographic Mercator
Cylindrical
⮚ Miller cylindrical
projection 129
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Development surface used -
► Aspects of Cylindrical Projection
► Normal
► Transverse
► Oblique

128
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Development surface used -
► Aspects of Cylindrical Projection
Normal Transverse Oblique
⮚ Equirectangular ⮚ Cassini Projection ⮚ Oblique Mercator
Projection ⮚ Transverse projection
⮚ Mercator Mercator
projection, ⮚ Transverse
Lambert's cylindrical Equal
Cylindrical Equal Area Projection
Area ⮚ Modified
⮚ Gall's Transverse
Stereographic Mercator
Cylindrical
⮚ Miller cylindrical
projection 129
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Development surface used - Conical Projection
► It can be visualized as a cone placed on the globe,
tangent to it at some parallel.
► After projecting the graticule on to the cone, the cone is
cut along one of the meridian and unfolded.

130
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Development surface used - Conical Projection
► Parallels appear as arcs with a pole and meridians as
straight lines that converge to the same point
► It can represent only one hemisphere, at a time, northern
or southern.
► Suitable for representing middle latitudes.

131
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Development surface used -
► Azimuthal/Zenithal Projection
► It can be visualized as a flat sheet of paper tangent to any point
on the globe
► The sheet will have the tangent point as the centre of the
circular map, where meridians passing through the centre are
straight line and the parallels are seen as concentric circle.
► Suitable for showing polar areas

132
MAP PROJECTION – CLASSIFICATION
► Development surface used -
► Azimuthal/Zenithal Projection

133
SELECTION OF MAP PROJECTION
► Choosing a correct map projection for an area
depends on the following:
► Map Purpose
► a. Maps that preserve shapes
► b. Maps that preserve area
► c. Maps that preserve scale
► d. Maps that preserve direction

► Study area
► Geographical location
► Shape of the area 134
 COMMON MAP PROJECTION
► Cylindrical

135
 COMMON MAP PROJECTION
► Pseudo-cylindrical Projections
► latitudes are parallel straight lines but meridians are
curved

136
 COMMON MAP PROJECTION
► Conical

137
 COMMON MAP PROJECTION
► UTM - Universal Transverse Mercator

138
 COMMON MAP PROJECTION
► UTM - Universal Transverse Mercator

138
TRANSFORMATION

139
 TRANSFORMATION
► The process of transformation, maps every point from
one coordinate space to another.
► Using transforms, one can rotate, translate and scale
content freely in two-dimensional space.

140
TRANSFORMATION - ROTATION
► A rotation is a transformation that is performed by
spinning the object around a fixed point known as the
center of rotation.
► It can be performed clockwise as well as
counterclockwise.
► The angle by which the object is turned is called the
angle of rotation.

141
 TRANSFORMATION - SCALING
► The process of moving each point of an object by the
same distance in the same direction.
► It involves shifting the origin of the current coordinate
system horizontally and vertically by a specific
amount.

142
TRANSFORMATION - TRANSLATION
► Scaling changes the size of the grid.
► It lets the stretching and shrinking of the grid along
the x and y axes independently.

143
GEOREFERENCING

144
 GEOREFERENCING
► A process of locating an entity in real-world
coordinates
► It aligns geographic data to a known coordinate
system representing the Earth defined through
projection systems so it can be viewed, queried, and
analyzed with other geographic data.

145
 GEOREFERENCING - PROCESS
► To georeference a geographic data, the positions of
known points, called control points, are determined.
► Ground Control Points (GCPs) are defined as the
points with known geographical location, whose
positions on map correspond to their positions on
earth.
► GCPs are collected from fixed objects and are marked
on the data to be georeferenced that define where the
data is on earth.
► The whole data adjusts itself according to these
GCPs. At least three control points are required 146 for

georeferencing a data.
 GEOREFERENCING - PROCESS
► Additional control points help increasing the
accuracy.
► Once the data is georeferenced, each point has a
coordinate associated to it which means the location
of any object in the data (map) can now be
determined

147
GEOREFERENCING

148