EGERTON UNIVERSITY

[EAPE 421]

[ECONOMICS AND PLANNING OF EDUCATION]

[DAVID KURIA WAMUKURU]

[[email protected]]
[0722681240]

AND

[DR FEDHA FLORA]

[[email protected]]
[0726932198]

MAIN INFORMATION PAGE

There are ten topics in this course, namely:

Topic One: Introduction to Planning and Educational Planning?

Topic Two: Development of Educational planning in Developing Countries.
Topic Three: Basic Principles and Models of Planning
Topic Four: Methodologies of educational planning
Topic Five: Challenges of educational planning
Topic Six: Introduction to Economics of education and Human Capital Theory
Topic Seven: Contribution of Education to Economic Development
Topic eight: Demand and Supply of Education
Topic nine: Equity and Efficiency in education
Topic Ten: Indicators of Internal Efficiency
Topic Eleven: Financing of education
COURSE PRELIMINARIES [to be included in each topic]
Course :EAPE 421: Planning and Economics of Education
Is this course for you?
Welcome to this course EAPE 421 on Planning and Economics of Education. If you
are involved in the field of education, as school administrators, policy makers’
students, lecturers among others, then this course is for you. This course will equip
you with knowledge, skills and information regarding the types, processes,
approaches and problems in Educational Planning and the general concerns of
economics and their application to education.

Therefore it discusses all the basic aspects of educational planning right from
conceptualization to monitoring and evaluation of it. The focus of this course is to
enable you to understand the concept of educational planning; acquire the necessary
knowledge and skills required for the practice of educational planning at both macro
and micro levels. It is organized in ten interactive chapters. Topics include the nature of
educational planning, principles of planning, what is educational Planning, Approaches
to Educational Planning, Problems of Educational Planning, Resource Allocations, and
Process of educational planning.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this Course you should be able to:
• The Nature, Types, and Significance of Educational Planning
• Development of Educational planning in developing countries
• Explain the Traditional/classical methodologies to educational planning
• Analyze the issues, policies and problems to planning in education.
• Discuss resource allocation in educational planning
• Explain the steps in educational planning
• Discuss decision making in educational planning
• Describe features of educational planning
• Define economics and economics of education and explain its relevance in
education
• Differentiate between education conception and education investment
• Describe the human capital theory and analyze its relevance to education
• Describe the factors influencing demand and supply of education
 • Analyze demand and supply of education in developing countries
• Discuss factors influencing education efficiency
• Analyze the factors influencing education equity
• Discuss the various options of financing education and analyze their equity
implications

Course Study Skills

As a learner your approach to learning will be different to that from your school days:
you will choose what you want to study, you will have professional and/or personal
motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities around
other professional or domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a consequence,
you will need to consider performance issues related to time management, goal setting,
stress management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself in areas
such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time you dedicate to
your learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now--before starting your self-study--to familiarize
yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the web. A few
suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The "How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources. You will find links to
study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes,
strategies for reading text books, using reference sources, test anxiety.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You will find links to
time scheduling (including a "where does time go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic
concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to read
essays for analysis, memory skills ("remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another "How to study” web site with useful links to time management, efficient reading,
questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of doing ("hands-on”
learning), memory /building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
Need Help?
This course will be taught under our instruction, we are Dr. kuriaWamukuru and Dr.
Fedha Flora. Our offices are in the Department of Curriculum Instruction and
Educational Management, Faculty of Education and Community Development. We can
be consulted during the normal working hours or contacted through: Phone
0722681240 or 0726932198 Email: [email protected] or
rd
[email protected]. Office: e.g. Njoro Campus, Education Building, 3 Floor Room
or 2nd Floor Room 219.
For technical support e.g. lost passwords, broken links etc. please contact tech-support
via e-mail [email protected]
Assignments/Activities Assignments/Activities are provided at the end of each topic.
Course Learning Requirements
• Timely submission of the assignments
• 2 CATs (40%)
• Final Examination (60% of total score)
Self-assessment Self-assessments are provided in order to aid your understanding
of the topic and course content. While they may not be graded, you are strongly advised
to attempt them whenever they are available in a topic.

TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION TO PLANNING AND EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Introduction
Welcome to this unit on the nature, types and Significance of educational planning.
You will be taken through what planning is, the types and significance of educational
planning and the history of educational planning. This unit is going to provide the
fundamentals of planning for an organization, county or society. The next important
question therefore to ask is what is planning. Why plan? And when do we plan? What
would happen if we had an education system that is not planned for? Lets therefore try
to answer all these questions in this topic
Topic Time
Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments & practice exercises [3 hours]
• Optional further reading [2 hours]
• Topic Learning Requirements
 • Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)
• At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.
• Timely submission of the assignments

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i) Define planning
ii) Explain the major types of planning
iii) Explain the significance of planning
iv) Explain the scope of planning
Topic Content
1.1 What is planning?
We shall start the topic by defining what we mean by the concept of Planning,.Planning
is the systematic process of establishing a need and then working out the best way to
meet the need, within a strategic framework that enables you to identify priorities and
determine your operational principals.
There are as many definitions of planning as there are experts in the field. For instance,
Teklemariam (2009:16) describes planning as a purposeful preparation in advance of
what is to be done in the future. It is getting ready for the future to avoid the frustrations
of doing things at the last minute. Marx (1981:208 cited in Westhuizen, 2004) defines
planning as: “a management task which is concerned with deliberately reflecting on the
objectives of the organisation, the resources, as well as the activities involved, and
drawing up the most suitable plan for effectively achieving these objectives”.
It is therefore a rational process of preparing a set of decisions for future action which
is aimed at achieving goals and objectives by optimum means. Planning in other words
is the action of deciding in advance what to do, when to do, how to do and who is to do
(Coombs, 1967).For instance you had to sit back and decide you wanted to study using
this e-learning mode. implying that you must make sure there is time in your busy
schedule to achieve this and again, there are good reasons why you decided on this
mode of e- learning.
Planning is therefore an indispensable concept in organizational studies. It is a process
by which managers and leaders establish objectives and specify how the objectives are
to be attained. It is the most important managerial task of managers since it is the
bedrock for other managerial functions. It is the first executive function of management.
It involves thought processes by means of which future activities are pre-enacted to
achieve certain objectives.
Planning involves deciding on what is to be done and devising the means for doing it.
According to Adentwi (2000) “planning is the work a manager does to master the
future”. It is thus the first and foremost duty of managers. It is a process of ‘thinking
before doing’ – a process of deciding in advance what is to be done, where, how and by
whom it is to be done.
It is future-oriented – the springboard for future decisions and actions. It is a process,
“concerned not only with where to go but how to get there and by what best route”
(Adentwi, 2000). Its work does not cease when the plan gets on paper or wins approval.
To be effective, planning must be concerned with its own implementation – with
progress made, unforeseen obstacles that arise and with how to overcome them.
Planning is preparing a sequence of steps to achieve some specific goal. A plan is a
map of the activities one intends to carry out or perform. In deed knowing where you are
is essential for making good decisions on where to go or what to do next. Planning is
thus the process of creating and maintaining a plan.
Furthermore, it is a process of thinking through the activities required to create a
desired goal. It usually follows from the identification of objectives. How to achieve the
objective or implement a decision is usually the focal point of planning. Thus planning
involves the determination of priorities or importance attached to matters. It involves
the listing of issues or the matters of concern in order of importance. Planning in this
sense, therefore, becomes a resource for effective allocation and utilisation of time.
With all these varied definitions, you understand what this topic is going to be all about.
Let’s then look at what were are consistently referring to as planning being futuristic
and time bound.
1.2 Time dimension in educational planning
Time is an important element in educational planning. The process of educational
planning from analysis and appraisal of statistical data to implementation takes time,
during which educational services are functioning or evolving (chesswas, 1968). In
education and other social services we plan ahead to prevent problems. This is done
through forecasts and projections. Understanding of the past and the present is
mandatory to present a convincing or futuristic prediction of the nature and the trend of
forthcoming events
There are three types of educational planning based on time frames/dimensions,
namely:
a. Long term e.g. Vision 2030 – set goals (forecasting)
b. Medium– setting specific objectives and developing strategies.
c. Short term – Set targets and allocate resources .-Annual planning (0-1 years) –
Set targets and have plans implemented.
Since resources are scarce i.e. No enough funds and qualified manpower there is need
for proper planning to actualize development. Through planning societies can be able to
maximize benefits from scarce resources by;

1.2.1 Long term planning

What is your organizations long term plan? Are you conversant with it? If not, read on
these characteristics and give your own practical example. Long term planningcovers a
long period of time-5-10 years, and beyond. It varies from country to another. The plan
here focuses on broad problems and possible broader solutions. Long term projections
are necessary in education planning since an education span takes a long time, for
instance, approximately 20 years i.e from grade one to university. Now can you give
examples of such long term plans in different countries?
Projections are done through extrapolation hence the term forecasts. The major
problem of long term planning is that it is not possible to predict the future with
accuracy. During the planned period, changes are bound to take place (economic
changes, social political and technological changes), such that what may look as a
serious problem 20 years ago, may not be due to innovations. Long term plan
establishes direction to medium term plans. Strategic planning is a good example here.
1.2.2 Medium Term Plans.
It originates from the long term plan which analyses issues in a general manner and
covers a period between 4-5years.during that period a given educational project can be
planned and completed. This period usually coincides with the countries development
plan which usually has a chapter on education the plan shows what will be achieved in
education within 5 years. Medium plans focus more closely on the problem. It makes
the general problems and solutions in the long term more specific and it provides
guidance to the short term plans
1.2.3. The short term plans
It is derived from the medium term plans. It breaks the medium term plans into specific
implementable projects. Its time span is between 6months to one year. It guides the
specific quantitative and qualitative details of the plan. It is the most specific and
focused of the three types of planning. Let’s look at a primary schools major objective.
It is to produce an all round pupil after eight years. Can you therefore come up with the
medium and short term plan? Short term plan will definitely be what should be achieved
at each given grade? Am i right?
The three types of plans are mutually dependent or interrelated. The yearly operational
plans are developed to achieve medium range objectives, while medium plans are
developed to achieve the long term plans. The specifity of the plan decreases as the
planning period increases and vice versa. This information now leads us to understand
the major types of plans which are strategic, tactical and action planning.
1.3 Types of planning
There are three main types of plans that a manager will use in his or her pursuit of
company goals and they correspond the time dimension just discussed, they include
operational, tactical and strategic.
1.3.1 Strategic Planning
Few of us would get in the car to take a trip without a road map, unless we know how to
get where we’re going. Strategic planning serves as a road map to help an organization
or business figure out how to get where it wants to go.This is sometimes called long-
term planning. It is usually executed by top level managers. It often stretches over a
long time period. It is planning that usually extends over 5 years. Strategic plans are
designed with the entire organization in mind and begin with an organization's mission.
Top-level managers, such as CEOs or presidents, will design and execute strategic plans
to paint a picture of the desired future and long-term goals of the organization.
Essentially, strategic plans look ahead to where the organization wants to be in three,
five, even ten years. Strategic plans, provided by top-level managers, serve as the
framework for lower-level planning that helps organization to determine priorities that
are likely to help it achieve the vision of the future. It establishes organization’s overall
goals, seek to position the organization in terms of its environment
Strategic planning, or developing a strategic framework, is about the bigger picture.
Organizations often get so caught up in everyday problems that they do not think about
the big picture. They are too busy planning “to do things”, something that falls under
action/operational planning. It is through strategic planning that an organisation
develops a strategic framework. This framework helps the organisation determine its
priorities and the strategies that are likely to help it achieve its vision of the future.
Strategic planners and managers ask the following important questions among others:
i. What are the most important issues to respond to?
ii. How should we respond?
iii. What are our strengths?
iv. What are our weaknesses?
v. What resources do we have in order to address the challenge?
vi. What time frame must we operate within?
vii. Who within the organization is most qualified to be assigned which tasks?
According to Shapiro(2006), Strategic planning enables a development organisation to:
_ analyse the situation or context in which it is operating (social, political and economic)
so that it understands the context and is able to formulate a vision (see also Elements
of a strategic framework);
_ identify the problem or problems within the situation that the organisation believes it
is well-placed to address (see also Elements of a strategic framework);
_ reflect on its value system in order to create parameters (a frame) for its activities
(see also Elements of a strategic framework);
_ set goals for itself (see Review strategy);
_ formulate a vision and mission statement based on its problem analysis and
identification (see Elements of a strategic framework);
_ analyse its strengths and weaknesses in addressing the identified problem (see the
section on doing a SWOT analysis for a method to use here);
_ identify opportunities and threats in the environment that may affect its work (both a
SWOT Analysis and a PEST Analysis will help you do this – see appropriate sections);
_ prioritise what it needs to do and review strategic options for achieving its goals and
select the most appropriate
1.3.2 Characteristics of Strategic Planning:
1. It is futuristic:
Strategic planning looks at how the world could be different 5 – 10+ years from now. It
is aimed at creating the future of the organization based on what this future is likely to
be or look like.
2. It is based on analysis of unforeseen or predicted trends and scenarios of the
possible alternative future as well as the analysis of internal and external data.
3. It is flexible and oriented towards the big picture: it aligns an organization with its
environment establishing a complex for accomplishing goals and providing a
framework and direction to achieve organization’s desired future.
4. Creates a framework for achieving competitive advantage by analyzing the
organization, its internal and external environment and its potential in order to respond
to the emerging trends, events, challenges and opportunities within the framework of its
vision and mission developed through the strategic planning process.
5. It is a qualitatively idea driven process. It integrates ‘soft’ data that are not always
supported quantitatively, such as experiences, institutions and ideas. It involves the
organization in the on-going dialogue and aims to provide a clear organizational vision
and focus.
6. Is an on-going, continuous learning process, an organizational dialogue which
extends beyond attaining a set of pre-determined goals. It aims at changing the way an
organization thinks and operates and creates a learning organization.
1.3.3 Limitations of strategic planning
• Its results are seriously wanting because drifting into the future without setting
proper outcomes of the action is reactive and hopeful relying on the luck to turn things
round
• It does not scan the current and future opportunities and realities
• Assumes as though things will continue to transform dramatically in future
1.4 Tactical Planning
This is also referred to as medium-term planning. It stretches over a shorter period than
other types of planning. Such planning usually ranges between one year to three years
and it is usually done once. it refers to ways and specified strategies and tactics to
achieve the objectives and make the strategic planning come trueaccording to Kaufman,
Herman (1996),as cited by Teklamariam, (2009), defines tactical planning as the
identification and selection of methods to meet previously specified objectives and
focuses on the macro level concerns to achieve.
Experienced planners may begin with tactical planning just after they have identified the
vision. This is also referred to as medium-term planning. It stretches over a shorter
period than other types of planning. Such planning usually ranges between one year to
three years and it is usually done once.
1.5 Action/Operational plans
These are the plans that are made by frontline, or low-level, managers. All operational
plans are focused on the specific procedures and processes that occur within the
lowest levels of the organization. It is the process of developing detailed strategies
about what needs to be done, who should do it and how it should be done. Managers
must plan the routine tasks of the department using a high level of detail. Operational
plans can be either single-use or ongoing plans. This planning completes the process of
long term planning as it is meant to identify the implementation of the strategic plans
and specify the details of how the overall goals are to be achieved. It tends to cover
short time periods
Once you have a strategic plan, the action plan answers the following questions:
_ What needs to be done?
_ How will it be done?
_ Who will do it?
_ By when must it be done?
_ What resources are needed to do it?
According to Shapiro (2006), answering these questions will give you the basis on which
to plan a budget and raise money or generate income.
This type of planning deals with the day-to-day activities of the organization. It is
sometimes known as short-term planning and accomplishes its objectives in the
shortest possible time – usually within one year or from one day to one year.
Operational planning is undertaken with reference to strategic and tactical planning. It is
associated with lower level management and deals with the actual execution of
operations.
The relationship between strategic, Tactical and action plan, Strategic Planning,
TacticalPlanning, ActionPlanning
Let’s look at an example here, assuming you are county’s education secretary, for
example, your vision may be that every child in the country has access to affordable
early childhood education. Your goal becomes ensuring that there are enough trained
teachers to make this possible. Your objective is to train a certain number of home-
based educate teachers in every region of the county, through running a certain number
of workshops in each region. Your action plan will answer the key questions by detailing
the “what” as follows:
_ The exact number of workshops and the targets for attendance at each (including a
profile of the kind of participants you want).
_ How participants will be recruited, who will be involved and by when this will take place.
_ What curriculum will be used, who will develop it and by when.
_ When the workshops will be held, where they will be held and who will be in charge of
organising this.
_ How, when and by whom the workshop strategy will be monitored and evaluated.
_ What resources will be needed to implement each step.
_ A detailed budget.
Once you have done your strategic planning and your action planning, you are well on
the way to implementation.
1.6 Other types of plans include:
These types of plans fall in any of the three categories discussed.
1.6.1 Formal and informal planning: A planning in black and white or written down in
pen and paper (blue print) is known as formal planning. Informal planning is only
thinking about it and nothing more.
1.6.2 Centralised planning – it is sometimes referred to as bureaucratic or top-down
planning. In this kind of planning, guidelines for planning are usually provided or passed
down from top management for grassroots implementation. Such planning usually
takes place at the top level and planning is concerned with the fixing of objectives.
Central authority or hierarchy is responsible for planning and coordinating policies and
procedures. This method allows for creating a specialized group to develop procedures
and principles for onward transmission to those at the bottom of the ladder. It provides
guidelines for operational planning.
1.6.3 Decentralised planning – this is also called bottom-up planning: In this type of
planning local level employees or subordinates are made responsible for developing
and implementing their own plans. Lower level members or employees in organisations
are made responsible for the planning and execution of its plans with or without the
assistance of top-level management.
1.6.4 Hybrid Planning or a mixture of top-down and bottom-up planning - With this
approach the planning and execution is done in collaboration with one and the other.
The policy frames or guidelines may be developed by top management but how
implementation goes through is the responsibility of lower level managers. Thus
general policy guidelines may be promulgated by top decision makers and then each
department develops its own policy in-line with these guidelines. Hence, each
department is responsible for developing and implementing its own plans and
procedures. This method offers a consistent approach and ensures that lower level
managers know the key facts for a successful operation. This is the philosophy
underpinning school based management.
1.6.5 Standing and ad hoc planning: Standing plans are somewhat permanent in nature
and are meant to be used over and over again. In contrast, Ad hoc plans are generally
for specific matters and are prepared only when some need arises – to solve a specific
problem or attend to a specific kind of need.
1.7 Significance of Planning
Planning is the bedrock of successful actions in most organisations. An organization
can achieve its aims only through systematic planning in view of the increasing
complexities of modern organisations. The importance and usefulness of planning can
then be understood with reference to the following benefits:
i) Minimizes uncertainty: The future is usually uncertain and things are likely to
change with the passage of time. Planning helps in minimizing the uncertainties of the
future as it anticipates future events.
ii) Emphasis on objectives: The first step in planning is to fix objectives. When this
is done, the execution of plans will be facilitated towards these objectives. It keeps us in
focus. It gives us sense of direction.
iii) Promotes coordination: Planning helps to promote the coordinated effort on
account of pre-determined goals.
iv) Facilitates control: Planning helps us to keep the system in check, focus.
Unplanned actions usually cannot be controlled. Control is nothing but making sure that
activities conform to the plans.
v) Economical: planning helps in proper utilization of resources and elimination of
unnecessary activities. This, in turn, leads to economical use of resources.
vi) Encourages innovation: Planning is basically the deciding function of
management. New ideas usually come up during planning. Thus planning brings about
creativity which creates innovativeness and foresightedness among the planners.
vii) Helps management to clarify, focus and research their business prospects. it
plays a vital role in helping avoiding mistakes or recognize hidden opportunities
viii) Provides a considered and logical framework within which a business can
develop and pursue business strategies over the next years. It offers benchmarks
against which actual performance can be measured and reviewed
ix) Planning helps in forecasting the future, makes it visible to some extent. It
bridges where we are and where we want to go. It reduces uncertainty and any risk
associated with the future and it is through planning that the manager influences what
happens in future
x) Effective performance of other functions of management process such as
directing, organizing etc. depends on good planning.
1.8 What is educational planning
Educational planning can be defined as the application of a rational system analysis to
the process of educational development so that education is made more effective and
efficient in responding to the needs and goals of students and society. Proper
educational planning entails determining the overall objectives of the relevant education
and formulating general guidelines to direct educational officials at the national,
provincial, district and school levels.
The decisions set are for future action, so its future oriented. Since development takes
place over a period of time, planning designed to achieve development has to be
continuous. Continuity refers to the state of being continuous, uninterrupted connection.
It is important to briefly look back at the history of educational planning, how issues
faced during this period necessitated the need to have ways of guiding better
implementation of educational plans. In order for you to understand the methodologies
of educational planning and how they became necessary
1.2 STEPS IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Read at least three of the given links below. you will agree with me that that various
sources, indicate that the education planning process can be categorised into main
stages or steps: Base Situation Analysis or identification of the national goals; draft plan
or determining the best of the alternative; approval and experimentation;
implementation and evaluation or feedback. that educational planning depends on
scientific data that is systematically collected and analyzed for you to plan reasonably.
https://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/5-main-stages-of-educational-
planning/100978
http://moses-seth.blogspot.com/2012/02/normal-0-false-false-false-en-us-x-
none_14.html
Read this two current links on steps in planning, and share on whether they agree with
the steps as discussed by Guruge and Dieter, (1977) who on their part delineate six
stages in the planning process: Pre-planning; planning; formulation; implementation;
evaluation, revision and re-planning. Prior to the educational planning process, national
educational objectives must be defined and it is at this pre-planning stage that this
activity takes place, i.e. It is at the pre-planning stage that educational objectives are
determined. Hence, planning for education starts with the formulation of goals. This
requires the creation of procedures and mechanisms to facilitate the planning process
including personnel, data and machinery.
Thus we therefore note that planning is a logical process where one step leads to the
next and any step is related to socio economic and other aspects in the environment
and that planning would not be complete without administrative implementation and
monitoring
1.2.1 Base analysis stage
This stage is very crucial because every other stage in the process of educational
planning hangs on it. If you poorly analyze the base situation, the foundation of the
educational system may be wobbly. The objectives here hang on the medium and short
time ranges. This step is important for developing countries because of scarce
resources. In developed countries, they attach special attention on the relationship
between research problems and national developmental needs. This leads us to a very
crucial question in developing countries. "How directed are research problems to
solving immediate national problems and national developmental needs?" Most
developed countries contract people in high educational institutions to solve particular
problems. Results can be translated into production of better goods and services. The
purpose of Base Analysis is to not only seek direction, but it also finds out the causes of
successes and failures in an education system. Both the problems and successes will
assist in the draft stage (Banghart& Macmillan, 1973;Namaswa,1992).
1.2.3 Categorization of base analysis/needs assessment/situational analysis
Educational planners have different approaches toward educational development plan-
setting. The stages are chronologically dependent, which calls for careful dealing with
the base analysis stage to achieve a successful planning process. The base/
situational/evaluation stage is the first and core step in the planning process. It looks at
the current educational situation in terms of its production in quality and quantity,
present needs formulation of educational goals and objectives
It seeks to establish to what extent the educational system has met its objectives both
internally and externally for every education system has goal and objectives. For
example in Kenya one of our main key educational goals is attaining national unity
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY: (COOMBS 1970).
i.Internal objectives: These test the ability of the system to impart knowledge to
students and to produce graduates at the end with minimal hindrances.
ii.External objectives: These test how the educational system has met the need of the
external wider society, for example the socio-economic, political development etc. The
planner will depend on those set national educational goals and use the following
questions to guide him in assessing the needs.
The planner must look, for instance, at; The state of the society: Where does it want to
go? What will it require educationally to get there? Students: What are their needs and
aspirations and practical prospects? Look at the state of itself and the state of
educational art and technology and at the innate ability of the educational system to
examine itself critically and to take intelligent action to improve its own performance.

One of the central tasks of educational planners is to determine how best to keep these
intricate internal and external relationships of the educational system in reasonable
balance, under dynamically changing circumstances, and to bend them constantly in the
required direction. Alternatively, the planner may use the S. W.O. T approach, to analyze
the educational base situation where he will look at the strengths of the system,
weaknesses, identify various opportunities and establish threats that may hinder the
actualization of objectives set to meet the needs identified.
Planning stage. It compromises six principles stages once national educational
objective are defined, planner needs to ascertain whether the current educational effort
of country is adequate, relevant and conducive to their achievements by matching
output of educational effort with objectives. This diagnosis stage leads to identification
of weakness and short falls. A criterion of diagnosis is dictated by national educational
activities which are to be corrected so as to enhance relevance, efficiency and
effectiveness. As of policies framed to remedy each defects and deficiencies revealed
in diagnosis will form the national educational policy. Policy formulation is an
instrument of educational reform. Next steer in planning stage is to cost the future
needs. At the end of this costing exercise, the planner knows the total financial outlay
that needs to be availed if all the needs have to satisfied
Next is the establishment of targets and priorities; With data from various sources the
educational planner reviews the future needs, establishment’s priorities and set targets
which can realistically be achieved with anticipated investment of resources. Here
during this stage alternative means of achieving objectives are determined i.e. the most
relevant effective ones within allowable cost. Targets are set according to needs
identified and priorities assigned. It is important to ensure targets are consistent and
feasible.
Plan formulation stage; Purpose is: - set of decisions are presented to appropriate
national authorities for approval. Provide a blue print for action by the various agencies.
The authorities or agencies require a clear statement of what is proposed, why and how
proposals are going to be implemented. A preparation of this education plan is plan
formation. It calls for certain skills as statement has to be brief and adequate.
Plan elaboration stage; For education plan to be implemented it has to be elaborated
through programming that is divide plan into broad action areas of which aims at
accomplishing specific objectives. Project identification and formulation, a project aims
at achieving a specific sub-objective or target within the main objective of the
programme and Regionalization in elaborate of a plan is optional.
Plan implementation stage
It begins when individual projects are taken up for execution. An organizational
framework is developed for various projects annual budget on annual plan .Resources
are taken allocated time for it’s completion is indicated, other operational details such
as delegation of authority , lines of communication and consultation assignment of
responsibility and installation of feed book and control. Mechanisms are also developed.
The entire education administrative organization of the nation participates in plan
implementation stage.
It is at this stage that each individual knows their tasks. Responsibilities are assigned. It
is here that the intent of the strategic plans needs to be translated into an action plan.
Activities required at the implementation stage according to Ammanuel 2011 include:
i)Assuming a workable plan, identifying strategic responsibilities
ii)The strategic plan be made applicable to each locality
iii)While translating the strategic plan into action plan, the expectations of the involved
team should be considered
iv)The action plan should identify all job components , results or rationale, performance
expectations in each result area and the system support required to accomplish the
specific expectations
1.2.3 Evaluation, Revision, and replanting stage
As the education plan is being implemented, the machinery to evaluate rate of progress
and detect deviations is set in motion. Evaluation and feedback are not necessarily the
last stage but a way of checking out how the planning process is proceeding. The
planning team reviews through internal analysis, external analysis and review of critical
issues and strategies among others.
Evaluation is continuous but preparation of reports may be annually, mid-term or end of
term. Evaluation serves the following purposes:-It highlights weakness in the plan and
sets matters for revision of plan and it takes the place of diagnosis of planning stages
in providing the basis for re-planning hence becomes beginning next cycle of planning.
Within revision of the current plan and the commencement of re-planning for the next
cycle, the educational planning process should continue without break.

1.3 Features of Educational Planning

i)First, educational planning should take a longer range view. It should in fact have a
short-range (one or two years), a middle-range (four to five years) and a long-range
perspective (ten to fifteen years).
ii)Second, educational planning should be comprehensive. It should embrace the whole
educational system in a single vision to ensure the harmonious evolution of its various
parts. This will ensure even the disadvantaged get education
iii)Third, educational planning should be integrated with the plans or broader economic
and social development. This is because it influences and is influenced by social
economic developments within a society
iv)Fourth, educational planning should be an integral part of educational management.
To be effective, the planning process must be closely tied to the processes of decision-
making and operations and not be isolated in a backroom otherwise it would just be an
academic exercise whose chief aspect is to frustrate those involved
v)Fifth, (and this proposition was slower to become evident) educational planning must
be concerned with the qualitative aspects of educational development, not merely with
quantitative expansion.
vi)Thus it should take into considerations external forces that work against the intended
goals
• It should have room for evaluation and be flexible in the light of changing
 circumstances
This sounds like the Ten Commandments, these propositions soon enjoyed universal
endorsement in principle, but the problem was to get them obeyed. This required three
sorts of action: (I) the development of specific concepts and methodologies, (2) the
training of people to apply them, and (3) the adaptation of organizational and
administrative arrangements to enable planning to work. The next section will therefore
deal with the first of these three.

1.4 Key planning questions that need to be considered

i)What should be the priority objectives and functions of the educational system and of
each of its sub-systems?
ii)What are the best of the alternative possible ways of pursuing these various
objectives and functions?
iii)How much of the nation’s (or community’s) resources should be devoted to
education at the expense of other things?
iv)Who should pay? How should the burden of educational costs and sacrifices be
distributed as between the direct recipients of education and society at large, and
among different groups in society?
i)How should the total resources available to education (whatever the amount may be)
be allocated among different levels, types and components of the system?
Topic Summary
Planning process is therefore a service of complexioned interlocking activities that
constitute the process of education planning. It undergoes major steps. The first steps
is analysis of internal and external environment in terms of in-put, and then identify the
setting of targets that should be in both quantitative and qualitative terms if targets
have to be achieved. The next steps involve setting the targets and then looking for
resources to reach final decisions in the implementation stages.
In all these respects, the educational planner has to be forward looking, innovative and
pioneering as has been, if work changes, the structure of the organization may be used
to change too.
Glossary
Planning: Planning is the systematic process of establishing a need and then working
out the best way to meet the need, within a strategic framework that enables you to
identify priorities and determine your operational principals.
Further Reading•
Coombs P. (1970).what is Educational Planning? UNESCO. IIEP; PARIS
Guruge, W. P., & Dieter, B. G. (1977). An Introduction to the Educational Planning
Process. Bangkok: UnescoRegioinal Office for Education in Asia.
Mutua R.W. &Namaswa G. (1992).Educational Planning. General Printers Ltd;Homabay
Rd. Nairobi.
Teklemariam, A. A. (2011). Managing Education: A Handbook for Student-Teachers,
Trainers and School Principals. Nairobi: CUEA Publications.
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000766/076671eo.pdf

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0006/000630/063085eo.pdf
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0006/000630/063087eo.pdf

TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
Taking any project in a secondary school setting in your county as an example, discuss
the planning process
Feedback/Hint
First identify the project then following steps discussed here, analyze whether the steps
were followed and where not followed, what were the repercussions?
Assignment
• Read the educational planning steps from more than three links given and
explain the steps followed in educational planning having seen the link.
• Covid 19 has led to the need for managers to be conversant of the importance of
Ad hoc Planning. Identify areas where the government has resoughted to this in
the fight against this pandemic?.
• Discuss reasons why such planning is significant to educational managers

TOPIC TWO: DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES
Introduction
This topic cover history of educational planning to assist you understand the concept of
educational planning and how it was necessary to plan our education systems then and
therefore now. To understand this we will first look at the historical background of
educational planning both in developed and in developing countries and the
characteristics in each case that necessitated need to planning. The topic ends after
assisting us understand characteristics needed for any educational planning to be
effective.

Topic Time
Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments & practice exercises [2 hours]
Optional further reading [3 hours]
Topic Learning Requirements
Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)
•At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also start your
own discussion thread.
•Timely submission of the assignments
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.Discuss the features of educational planning in developing countries
ii.Demonstrate understanding of the problems necessitating need for new methods of
planning education
iii.Explain the link between the history of education planning and the methodologies of
planning
iv.Discuss the features of educational planning today
Topic Content

2.1 Development of Educational Planning

Educational planning has always responded to the prevailing socio economic and
political objectives. This educational development view has its roots in traditional;
societies. According to Coombs ( , me ) educational planning can claim its unbroken
ancestry that runs back to ancient times. Xenophone tells of how the Spartans planned
some 2500 years ago, education to fit their well defined military and economic
objectives.In Athens Plato offered an education to serve leadership needs and political
purposes. Here education was meant to suit the lives, aspirations and goals of society.
In the city of Sparta aim was to produce citizens who would be honest and
courageous.( now read the follow this link and lets understand how planning was done
in traditionalsocieties
ttps://www.google.com/#q=PHILIP+COOMBS+on+educational+planning
These examples discussed by Coombs (2006) emphasize the important function of
educational planning in linking a societies educational system to its goals

2.2 Educational Planning in Developed Counties

The modern concept of educational planning can be traced to the young soviet union
after the 1917 revolution.(read in details the history from the link above pgs
25…https://www.google.com/#q=PHILIP+COOMBS+on+educational+planning) you will
agree with me that characteristics of educational planning prioir to the second worlds
war had the following key characteristics:
(1) it was short-range in outlook,extending only to the next budget year (except when
facilities had to be built or a major new programme added, in which case the planning
horizon moved forward a bit further)
(2) it was fragmentary in its coverage of the educational system; the parts of the system
were planned independently of one another
(3) it was non-integrated in the sense that educational institutions were planned
autonomously without explicit ties to the evolving needs and trends of the society and
economy at large; and
(4) it was a non-dynamic kind of planning which
assumed an essentially static educational model that would retain its main features
intact year in and year out.
All said and done the institutions ran on the regiment of simple planning. But the
situation changed after the second world war.
2.3 Planning after the Second World War
From 1945, Educational Planning took a more purposeful and dynamic trend. This the
time from 1945-1970 that educational systems were subjected to: scientific and
technical, economic and demographic, political and cultural changes that brought key
changes. This dynamic trend followed the following planning model and can be seen in
four phases. The four phases are:
i)Reconstruction
ii)Manpower
iii)Rapid expansion
iv)Innovation
(read further using links given and make notes on characteristics of each phase)
2.4 Development of Educational Planning in Developing Countries
Much of what was said about developed countries; can you recall the phases the
developing countries went through after the 1945 second world war? The same applies
with even greater force to developing nations during the 1950s and 1960s. Among
some of what you know is that the educational needs were even larger and more urgent,
and their educational systems despite heroic efforts to enlarge them were even less
relevant and less adequate (read Coombs pg 17-43) to their needs.
You also learnt from your reading, that starting in the 1950s the developing nations
responded similarly to their new circumstances, with an educational strategy of linear
expansion. At a series of Unesco conferences early in the 1960s education ministers of
Asia, Africa and Latin America set ambitious regional targets for educational expansion
in their respective regions to be achieved by 1980 (1975 in the case of Latin America).
Can you recall some of the targets set, yes, for example achieving Universal Primary
Education? These targets were widely adopted by individual nations and sharply
increased participation rates in secondary and higher education. Rough estimates of
costs and revenues were made, which, even though tending on the optimistic side,
showed that the attainment of these targets would require a large increase in the
proportion of the GNP devoted to education plus a large expansion of aid from the
outside. The case for a ‘manpower approach’ was particularly strong in developing
nations, why was this the case? you are actually right, there was shortages of all kinds
of specialized manpower after expatriates left after independence.
The trouble was, however, that these nations were not equipped to do the kind of
educational and manpower planning that the situation required. Nor was the rest of the
world equipped to help them much, because the global supply of basic knowledge and
experts for this kind of planning was acutely scarce.
To their credit, Unesco, the ILO and various bilateral aid agencies and foundations did
their best to recruit the most qualified advisers they could find to fill the mounting
requests of developing nations for help on planning. However, several critical problems
began to appear, again try to remember which ones! remember by the end of the 1960s ,
this problems that am going to bring out in summary had multiplied into a full-blown
educational crisis that gripped virtually every developing nation in the world. Though
they varied in form and intensity from place to place, they are:
• Wasteful imbalances within the educational system
Campaigns for expanding primary and secondary education were not coordinated even
at higher levels. Between regions as well as between rural and urban areas resulting in a
lot of disparities.
• Demand far in excess of capacity
Demand of education was far in excess at capacity. The widening gap was
compounded by a population explosion, which turned the original targets to moving
targets
• Costs rising faster than revenues
In some countries we are told that the economic feasibility of targets had never been
tested and where they were, then they were either under or overestimated. This led to
targets proving unrealistic economically. Most developing countries tried to solve this
by spreading available resources thinner over more students at the expense of quality
resulting in high repeater rates
• Non-financial bottlenecks
Money was not the only bottleneck. There were administrative, human and physical
bottlenecks. Some systems found themselves in the position of having large
construction credits they could not spend, fine new facilities they could not staff,
equipment they could not use, attractive and urgently needed schemes they could not
implement
• Lack of enough jobs for the educated
After independence, job prospects were good but later the supply curve shot up. What
had been the seller’s market for education manpower turned to buyers market
(ibid).Now there was a shift in developing countries from manpower shortages to
manpower surpluses a problem still being faced currently in most developing counties

• The wrong kind of education

Let me explain here that while all these troubles were boiling up nothing was being done
to create and apply more effective kinds of educational planning. A great deal was being
done, as a quick glance at the facts will show. Discussions among educational leaders
and economists in the early 1960s produced easy agreement on five propositions which
formed a general framework for later explorations. Remember this are again the same
framework followed by the developed countries. This are the principles in educational
planning to help avoid historical errors
Topic Summary
Educational planning can be defined as the application of a rational system analysis to
the process of educational development so that education is made more effective and
efficient in responding to the needs and goals of students and society. We have seen
that this concept had its roots in the ancient world. From the developed countries we
have leant that before second world war, whereas educational planning was done, it
was short ranged, fragmented, non integrated, non dynamic and done at macro levels.
After the second World war the improved type of planning focused on solving problems
emanating from the war and focused on expanding it resulting in its own problems also
witnessed in developing countries, including wasteful imbalances, inadequate jobs for
educated and provision of wrong kind of education among others. Educational planning
as it evolved in the 1950s and 1960s kept its focus on the broad outer parameters of
the educational system and studiously ignored what was going on inside.
Educational planning is still evolving based on features learned from the history of
educational planning and the key questions that still needs to be answered as the
society evolves.
Glossary
Educational planning- It is the rational system analysis to the process of educational
development so that education is made more effective and efficient in responding to
the needs and goals of students and society
Further Reading
Coombs (1970). What educational planning, UNESCO, IIEP, Paris
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000766/076671eo.pdf
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0006/000630/063085eo.pdf
http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Beirut/images/Training_M
odule_1_on_Educational_Planning_Eng.pdf
http://unilorin.edu.ng/courseware/edu/edu%20mgt/EMA%20202.pdf
TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
Discuss the historical development of educational planning in your country of origin?
Feedback/Hint
Read suggested pgs on Philip Coombs pgs 17-43 and your countries educational
historical development especially the setting up of commissions etc
Assignment
i)Looking at your county’s current educational status, what do you think is the focus of
educational planning, and what should it be?
How could proper planning have minimized the problems we face today in our
educational system?
 TOPIC THREE: BASIC PRINCIPLES AND MODELS OF PLANNING
Introduction
Welcome to this unit on basic Principles of Educational Planning. In the previous course
EAPE 421 you were taken through what planning is, the types and significance of
educational planning and steps in educational planning. The next important question to
therefore ask is how we start planning can i employ methodologies of planning without
any prerequisite knowledge on principles of planning?.It is quite necessary, and
therefore this section provides the basic considerations that you as a planner needs to
keep in mind if you have to be efficient and effective and the success of planning will
depend upon your planners skills and knowledge concerning this planning requirements.
There are several models applied to the planning exercise. This includes: Rational
planning model, incremental planning model, Gender planning model and strategic
planning model. Lets now look at each one of them in detail.

Topic Time
Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments & practice exercises [2 hours]
Optional further reading [2 hours]

Topic Learning Requirements

• Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)
• At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also start your
own discussion thread.
• Timely submission of the assignments
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
• Discuss the basic principles of planning
• Explain the four most important considerations at the initial planning stages
Discuss why needs assessment and data collection are important considerations in
planning

Topic Content
3.1Overview to the basic Principles of planning
We shall start the unit by defining what we mean by the concept of principles of Planning,
but first, let us define the term Planning. Planning is the systematic process of
establishing a need and then working out the best way to meet the need, within a
strategic framework that enables you to identify priorities and determine your operational
principals.

You realize that a good plan whether strategic or action provides a clear understanding
of what you need to do in order to achieve your development goals. Whether planning for
an organization or for a project, the Principles will be the same, with some minor
differences. What then are principles? These are considerations any planner needs to
keep in mind.

When your Organization or project you are undertaking has been in existence for
some time, part of ground work for any planning process involves:-
Reviewing work, the done that you have been doing since last major planning
process against set targets and doing an Organizational diagnosis to determine
ongoing internal health of Organization. Review of work done, is done best in
projects, departments or units where the work was actually located. SWOT analysis
can be carried out here. This review should be done also by directorate,
administration and finance sides of an organization.
Organizational diagnosis is something that the leadership of an organization should
be doing on an ongoing basis. It involves:-Consistently scanning of the organization
internally to explore issues and trends that are coming up, identifying key problem
issues, analyze apparent causes of problems and diagnosing underlying causes and
limiting those sorts of questions. Lets then systematically look at each principle at a
time
3.1.1NEED ASSESSMENT AND PROBLEM ANALYSIS
Just as the terms suggest, the ground work involved in setting up a new
organization and to develop a strategic and action plan for it is challenging. It
requires:-A focus on what the problems are which your organizations wants to
address, preliminary assessment of what you will need to address the problems.
(Shapiro, 2001)
Before planning, you need to have a thorough understanding of the apparent
problem, based on a baseline investigation. Baseline investigation helps to
understand relationship between different problems and then make assumptions
about cause and effect.
3.1.2 INVOLMENT OF COMMUNITIES
In problem analysis, it is important to involve the communities you are hoping to
help in problem analysis. Problem analysis helps the primary stakeholders or the
community to identify the causes and effects of the problems they face.

It shows what the main problems are and establishes a cause and effect
relationship between these problems. Its main purpose is to ensure that root causes
are identified and addressed in a project design. You do this by finding out the facts
and investigating the actual situation.
On this understanding, you then look at what is needed in an Organization that could
be useful to community. Effectiveness of development work should be measured by
its ability to address the underlying problems experienced by beneficiary
communities. In doing a problem analysis it’s a good idea to use a problem tree as
it will help you understand problems that face people in particular context,
understanding relationship between problems and cause and effect in relation to
problem. (Davies, 2007)
3.1.3 PRIORITIZING
It is an important skill needed to make the very best use of your own effort and
team. When you prioritize, you decide on what is most important. Once you have
understood development problems facing the community, you need to prioritize
what the most significant impacts are likely to be, often, asking questions can get
can get an organization that has diverged from its mission back on track.
3.1.4PARTNERSHIPS
It involves the joint activity of more than one party, in some sort of collaborative, co-
operative or joint effort. In developing partnerships; partners are linked by a common
desire to make a difference in areas that ultimately improve the quality of life of ordinary
people. In Ideal partnerships, partners learn from one another and influence each other
as part of learning process. A development partnership should be characterized by:
mutual respect, learning, shared purpose, values and collective responsibility for final
outcomes. Some of the reasons for forming development partner are;- Avoiding
duplication and unhealthy competition, Client or donor may insist on it. The impact of
partnerships on planning process depends on the kind of partner relationship. When you
work in partnership of any sort, you will need to invest time and energy in building a co-
operative and constructive partnership.
3.1.5 Environmental scan
It is away of assessing the context in which an organization or project is functioning and
will function. It recognizes that no organization is an island and the PESTEL context in
which a project or organizations functions have profound effects on the ability of the
organization or project to do their work. It is very useful to do your planning in the
context of a background that raises questions about relevance, challenges and threats,
and which enables you to question assumptions
3.1.6 Set new objectives
Set new objectives, based on the revised strategy, or adjusting objectives where
necessary. All objectives need to be smart.
3.1.7 Determine available resources
What people, equipment and money will you have available to you to achieve the
project objectives. As a project manager, you usually do not have direct control of
these resources, but will manage them through matrix management, therefore find out
how easy or difficult that will be to do.
3.1.8 Plan / check on time line
It looks at how you need to organize yourselves, or reorganize for objectives to be met. It
Identifies tasks needed to be done in order to achieve objectives. Without action plan,
implementation is very difficult. The action plan records what must be done, date, which
will be responsible and what resources will be needed to do it. It is important to
understand when the project will be completed. As you develop your project plan you
may have some flexibility in how you use your time during the project, but deadlines
usually are fixed. If you decide to use overtime hours to meet the schedule, you must
weigh that against the limitations of the budget.
3.1.9 Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitoring is the systematic, ongoing collection of data in order to assess
progress and make changes and adjustments where necessary. Information
collected during monitoring makes an important contribution to evaluation.
Evaluation is the systematic and objective assessment of a development
organization with aim of determining efficiency, effectiveness and impact of the
work. Through Monitoring and Evaluation development decision makers are given
information they need to improve, maintain, change or develop their work, and to
learn from then experiences. Logical Framework is an important planning tool
against which development work can be monitored and evaluated.
3.1.10 Keep everyone informed
It is important to keep all the project stakeholders informed of progress all along.
Let them know of your success as you complete each milestone, but also inform
them of problems as soon as they come. The team should be kept informed and if
changes are considered let them know as far ahead as you can. Make sure
everyone on the team is aware of what everyone else is doing.

3.2 MODELS OF PLANNING

3.2.1Rational Comprehensive Model (RCPM)
Definition of Rational Comprehensive Model (RCPM)
The rational planning process can be described as a system where individual issues
cannot be resolved in isolation from others but rather issues are dealt with in a
comprehensive manner considering all the alternatives available.
This model is based on the fact that societal problems cannot be solved easily, rational
thought should be applied in the planning practice. For Escobar (1992) rational
comprehensive planning as applied in developing countries usually implies the adoption
of western principles at the expense of local people’s existing ideas.
The model is based on the assumption that society can respond and adapt to economic
and planning mechanisms that have helped alleviate social, economic and urban
concerns in western economies. Turner (1972)also refers to rational planning as to
planning techniques based often on a well intentioned assumption that the public “does
not know what it wants ” or simply that highly qualified people understand the needs for
society better.
 In this approach therefore, all available alternatives are put into consideration against
the empirical analysis of the costs and benefits associated with each alternative. The
option that is adopted should be that one with the ability to address/ meet the
objective(s) efficiently and sufficiently in terms of time and funds.
In rational model the goals and objectives are set, policy alternative are defined and
policy alternatives are evaluated at last policy alternatives are implemented.The model
advocates for order and balance in the planning process and is particularly relevant
during large scale planning since it covers every aspect of the problem. In
comprehensive-rational planning the ‘public interest’ as the goal of planning is defined
within the contest of planning expertis
3.2.2Distinctive (Characteristics)of RCPM:/assumptions
• The method covers all essential steps applied in a planning process which include: -
problem identification, data collection, formulation of goals and objectives, choosing
among alternative strategies, designing a plan of action, publishing the plan and
finally evaluating it.
• A broad range of items/ subjects are considered, hence it is more comprehensive.
• Options are evaluated based on the available data.
• There is a long term commitment to achieve the objectives of the plan/ task.
• Choices/ alternatives to be evaluated are selected through thorough research.
NB: Objectives in RCPM are specific, measurable, articulate, realistic and timely (SMART)
• The model is grounded on the assumption that a few people at the top of decision
making hierarchy who have complete information on the needs of the society are in
direct control of the planning process.
• It also assumes that complete data is available and hence planners can make
accurate predictions.
• The model moreover assumes that planners are in complete control of the action
space. This means that either the implementing agency has the power to carry out
the plan or that there is an assurance of a lasting agreement being reached among
implementers.
• Finally, the model assumes that planners have adequate time and resources (e.g.
funds and staff) to carry out the planning exercise.

3.2.3Advantages of RCPM:
• The approach lays out a logical and deliberative framework for planning practice
marking one of its core strengthsThese include identifying a particular problem,
 setting goals, articulating aims and objectives, predicting and projecting outcomes,
testing and implementing plans of action
• Comprehensive rationality holds great appeal as a model of choice over other
models. The model also considers a wide range of alternatives and ensures that only
the best plan of action is chosen and implement
• The model takes into consideration all aspects of a given problem.
• It has an inbuilt monitoring/ evaluation mechanism so that the plan can be altered
before completion if it is not moving towards a desired goal. This reduces any
wastage in terms of time and financial resources.
• It is an adaptable model since it can be applied in various situations in all sections of
the economy. Due to this it has the capability and potential of borrowing from other
models.
3.2.4Disadvantages
• The model assumes an ideal situation, hence it disregards the impact of interfering
factors that might face the society for instance the influx of refugees and
presidential directives (decrees).
• It is difficult to have each person agree on common goals as each and every person
perceives issues differently and have different interests. Incorporating all this
differences would pose a big challenge to the planners. More over not everyone can,
and should, accept and adopt one form of universal values and beliefs.
• It is a static model and hence has limited room for flexibility. No matter how rational
we would hope to be there is no way anyone can gather all the facts and take into
account every consideration
• Critics argue that all decisions are taken in ignorance of the future but rather based
on assumptions. The planners cannot predict abrupt changes and new expectations
which arise between decision making and implementations. Only a short term future
can be predicted with confidence
• It assumes that only trained experts should participate in the planning exercise and
deficient because other stake-holders irrespective of whether they are trained or not
might have something to contribute to the planning process.
• The assumption that there are adequate resources to prepare the plan may not be
realistic in the sense that cost incurred during research in terms of time and money
might turn out to be too high and consequently frustrate planners.
• Quality information (data) may not always lead to sound decisions as the model
might suggest. Although planners may have a reliable data bank, there is no
assurance that they will always be rational during the decision making process.
• The model is also limited in its ability to deal with unforeseen problems in the
society that might require immediate attention. The steps involved in this model
render it inefficient in terms of time and money.
• Critics argue that the lack of political interest and commitment to implement
policies challenges the planner’s agenda of rationality in planning.
• Since the model assures complete control of the planning exercise by a few experts,
it encourages centralization of decision making.

3.2.5INCREMENTAL PLANNING MODEL (IPM)

Definition of INCREMENTAL PLANNING MODEL (IPM)
This planning model is based on the ground that an existing plan/ programme create a
set of expected (anticipated) outcome which have to be addressed so that the plan can
yield the desired results. In this model therefore, planners seize the opportunities or
tackle the problems as they arise. The objective therefore is to make minor changes on
an existing (on-going) programme in order not to destabilize the original purpose of the
plan.
THE FEATURES OF IPM:
• Planning initiatives are based on an existing programme.
• Planners pay attention to those aspects of the plan that differ incrementally from the
original rather than focusing on the whole programme.
• Only a few planning alternatives and consequences are effected and evaluated
respectively.
• In addition, problems confronting planners are continually revisited and redefined.
• Advantage and disadvantages of social, demand approach as a guide to
educational planning.
Advantages of the Incremental Planning:
• Planners focus only on limited aspects of the programme that do not conform to the
original plan and therefore it not only avoids initial costs but is also focused. This
reduces wastage of resources since problems are handled as they arise.
• The model is flexible in that it involves implementers whom planners rely on for
information on the action space.
• It avoids excessive expectations and aims at achieving a consensus among
planners and implementers on the course of action to be taken.
The model lowers levels of uncertainty, decreases time pressure and lowers demand on
resources, increases the likelihood of success in initial goals
Disadvantages:
• The model is not innovative/ revolutionary since it is more oriented towards
maintaining the status quo.
• It is limited in scope as it adopts a piecemeal action hence treating symptoms only
and consequently it tends to have few results.
It is geared more towards alleviating the existing concrete imperfections rather than
promoting future social goals.

Topic Summary
Despite the criticism leveled against rational comprehensive approach to planning, you
agree with me the approach has is being used and has taken root in most countries as
the paradigm of choice and is the most utilized approach in decision –making. Why do
think so? definately because it has the goal of maximizing efficiency by picking the
best alternative based on specific criteria and also provides a structured way to address
a problem and arrive at a solution don’t you agree. However in order to realize total
success it is important to incorporate political interactions and public participation in
the planning and decision-making process as we have seen political will play an
important role as RCPM is grounded on the assumption that a few
persons at the top of decision making hierarchy, who have complete information on the
needs of the society are in direct control of the planning process.

Glossary
Model- Design
Rational comprehensive planning- All possible options or approaches to solving the
problem under study are identified and the costs and benefits of each option are
assessed and compared with each other.

Further Reading

Chiuri.L. and Kiumi.F.(2005).Planning and economics of education.Kenya:Pangolin

publishers
GRANT L, (1985).URBAN INNOVATION, THE TRANSFORMATION OF LONDON’S
DOCKLANDS(1968-1984).GOWER PUBLISHING COMPANY, BROOKFIELD VERMONT
USA.
Chesswas J.D. (1969). Methodologies of Educational Planning. Developing
countries,UNESCO,Paris.
ChiurulKiumi (2005). Planning and Economic Educational . Pangolin publishers
Coombs (1970). What educational planning, UNESCO,
IIEP, Parishttps://prezi.com/vbjmtjknlzdm/comparison-between-rational-model-and-
incrementalism/
http://istqbexamcertification.com/what-is-incremental-model-advantages-
disadvantages-and-when-to-use-it/
http://www.unc.edu/~wfarrell/SOWO%20874/Readings/decisiontheory.pdf

https://www.auburn.edu/.../rational-comprehensive
http://theenviro.blogspot.co.ke/2012/11/rational-comprehensive-theory-of.html
http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/crp/alnaser/downloads/Planning_Theories_%20Siraj_Paper.
pdf

TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
Give examples where the RCPM has been used as a design in your county
Feedback/Hint
Example given should have all features ofRCPM

Assignment
Explain why a developing country like Kenya should use the Comprehensive Planning
Model (RCPM) to plan her Secondary School Education
Discuss the major strength and limitations of using IPM